THE BETTER WAY
The offender who has become reckless--If not killed they must be
kept--The failure of the institution--Boarding out--At present they
are boarded out on liberation, but without supervision--Guardians may
be found when they are sought for--The result of boarding out
children--The insane boarded out--Unconditional liberation has
failed--Conditional liberation with suitable provision has not been
tried--No system of dealing with men, but only a method--No necessity
for the formation of the habitual offender--The one principle in
penology.
If our courts of first instance were places where more exhaustive
enquiries took place and greater consideration were given to the needs of
the cases coming before them; if the aged and destitute were cared for and
prevented from offending; if minor offenders were either liberated on
their own promise of good behaviour or that of their friends; if people
were put on probation under conditions that gave them a favourable chance
of conforming to the laws; there would still be a number to whom such
treatment could not be applied.
There are some people who are not fit to be at liberty. They are so
reckless of their own interests and the interests of others that, when
uncontrolled, they become a danger. Some of them are insane, and the
lunacy authority should attend to them. Others, through indulging their
temper, are in the way of becoming insane; but their mental unsoundness
is not so marked as to cause the lunacy specialists to certify them. That
is no reason why it should not be recognised. At present they annoy those
around them with more or less impunity until they attain to the ideal
standard of insanity, in the process of their graduation paying visits to
the prison. There is no reason why they should not be dealt with from the
beginning. There is only precedent taking the place of reason.
They are unfit to be at liberty without supervision, because they are not
capable of self-control; but many of them could be trained in the habit.
At present they are allowed to run wild for a time and then severely put
down. Their life alternates between periods of riot and periods of
repression, and their natural unsteadiness is intensified. If they knew
that the period of riot had definitely ceased--that they were not again to
be allowed to do what they liked if it implied harm to others--they would
set about to control the temper that is in danger of finally controlling
them.
They boast of being able to stand our punishments, and even invite them;
they might as easily be trained to qualify for our rewards had we any to
offer. They may be brutal and sometimes are, though brutality is no longer
a common characteristic of prisoners in prison; but it does not follow
that, bad as some of them may appear, they are incorrigible. Their conduct
and reputation make it difficult to obtain guardianship for them. What can
be done with them? If they are liberated at any time they are a menace to
the safety and the comfort of the citizens. It is because some writers
have recognised this that they suggest the lethal chamber as a suitable
place for them. It is a bold thing to propose the wholesale killing of
other people except in name of war, and if there were any danger of the
proposal being adopted it is not at all likely that it would be made. It
is designed to shock us, and it fails to do so because we think we know
that it will not bear discussion. As a matter of fact, at present we
destroy the lives of these people in another way. Instead of curing them
of their evil propensities we twist them still further, and kill any sense
of public spirit in them as effectively in the process as we could do if
we suffocated them. If they were put in the lethal chamber that would be
an end to them. As it is, we have to set apart respectable citizens, not
to make them better, but simply to watch them marking time before engaging
in another period of disturbance.
If they are not killed they must be kept. We have got past the killing
stage. It is time we adopted a more rational way of keeping them. Either
they have to get out some day, or they have to be imprisoned till their
death. In the latter case we need not trouble about them beyond seeing
that they are not harshly treated, and that those over them do not develop
in some degree the qualities condemned in the prisoner; but if they have
to come out again it behooves us to see that they are not set free in a
condition that makes them less able to conform to our laws than they were
when we took them in hand. Otherwise all we have gained by their
incarceration is the privilege of keeping them at our expense.
As all institutions have this in common, that the longer a man lives in
them the less he is fitted to live outside, it follows that the shorter
time a prisoner is cut off from the ordinary life in the community the
less chance there is of his developing habits which will be useless to him
on his return. The system of shutting people up for longer or shorter
periods, and then turning them loose without supervision of a helpful kind
and without provision for their living a decent life outside, is quite
indefensible and has utterly failed in practice.
A prison ought merely to be a place of detention, in which offenders are
placed till some proper provision is made for their supervision and means
of livelihood in the community. If this were recognised existing
institutions would be transformed. Those who refuse by their actions to
obey the law of the community, and to live therein without danger to their
neighbours, would as at present be put in prison; but they would not be
let out except on promise to remain on probation under the supervision of
some person or persons until they had satisfied, not an institution
official, but the public opinion of the district in which they were
placed, that the restrictions put on their liberty could safely be
withdrawn. The prison in which they would be placed would not be a
reformatory institution where all sorts of futile experiments might be
made, but simply a place of detention in which they would be required each
to attend on himself until he made up his mind to accept the greater
degree of liberty implied in life outside. The door of his cell would be
opened to let him out when he reached this conclusion; but it would not be
opened to let him out, as at present, to play a game of hare and hounds
with the police. Alike in the case of the young offender and the old, the
only safety for the citizens and the only chance of reformation for the
culprit lie in his being boarded out under proper care and guardianship in
the community. The proper guardian for one person would not be proper for
another. At present the same set of guardians--the prison officials--look
after all kinds of people who have offended.
The first objection which proposals such as these meet is that it cannot
be done. There are a great many people who use this expression when their
meaning really is that they cannot do it. There is a difference. Not only
can offenders be boarded out, but they are and always have been boarded
out. Whenever a man leaves prison he has to board himself out. I do not
propose to let loose on the community any more offenders than are let
loose at present. Indeed, I do not propose to let any of them loose at
all, but simply to do for them, in their own interest and that of their
neighbours, what they are doing for themselves to the great loss of us
all. When any one of them does reform at present it is only by one way;
either he has the necessary supervision from the friends religion has
brought him, or an employer has taken an interest in him, or a
fellow-workman has given him help, or some friendly hand has guided him.
In no case do we give the guardian any control over him; in no case do we
pay the guardian for time and work spent. I propose that we should give
the power and the pay which are at present given to official persons in
prison to unofficial persons outside prisons; in the reasonable hope that
the money would be better expended, and in the full assurance that the
results would not be worse.
Where are the guardians to be found? They are to be found in all parts of
the country when search is made for them. The thing cannot be done
wholesale. I do not suggest that the prisons should be emptied in a day. I
merely indicate a mark to be aimed at and plead for an effective
interference in place of the present ineffective interference. Putting it
another way, are there no cases in which this procedure could be adopted?
There are many; there are no cases in which it could not be adopted if you
had the guardians looked out, but that takes time. It would be foolish,
even if it were possible, to wait until you could treat every offender
before treating any. It would be wise to begin and treat as many as
possible in this way at once. It is not a question of finding so many
thousand men to look after so many thousand; it is merely the question of
finding one man to guide and supervise another man, the people in the
district being the critics and the judges of his success.
At one time, in this part of Scotland, the children of paupers and of
criminals, and the orphans of the poor, were brought up in numbers in the
poorhouse. They acquired characters in common that marked them off from
children outside. When they grew out of childhood, and were turned out in
the world to work and to live, many of them gravitated back to the
institution or to the prison. It occurred to someone that what these
children required was proper parents; and one was boarded out with a
family here, and another with a family there, at less cost to the parish
than had been incurred in keeping them in the poorhouse. Thousands of
children during the last generation have been boarded out in this fashion
to their great advantage in every respect; and their after-conduct has
been as good--they have been as decent and law-abiding citizens--as the
children of any other class in the community. This moral and social gain
has been accomplished at less financial cost than that incurred by
bringing them up in institutions. It was said that the institution child
had been handicapped because of the stigma of pauperism, but the
boarded-out child is equally a pauper in respect that he is supported by
the rates. The fact is that the stigma from which the poorhouse child
suffered was not the stigma of pauperism, but the stigma of
institutionalism.
When the public conscience was stirred regarding the treatment of the
insane, great buildings were erected and lavish provision was made for the
lunatic. To these places thousands were sent for treatment. By and by it
became manifest that in many cases their latter condition was worse than
their first. They were better housed, better fed, better clothed, and
better cared for; they were protected from the cruelty of the wicked and
the neglect of the thoughtless; but they acquired evil habits from each
other, and they infected some of their attendants with their vices. Here
and there suitable guardians were found for one and another of those whose
insanity was not of such a kind as to make it necessary in the public
interest that they should be confined to an institution; and now, in
Scotland, between five and six thousand are boarded out. That in some
cases mistakes are made no one denies; but the cases are few, and on the
balance there has been an enormous advantage to everyone concerned.
It has become apparent that not only the inmates of institutions acquire
peculiarities which mark them off from persons living outside, but the
officials who live in these places also tend to develop eccentricities,
and there are proposals made with the object of preventing them from
living in; the idea being that the more they are brought in contact with
life outside the less they are likely to become narrowed in their views
and their habits, and the better they will be able to do their work in
such a way as would commend itself to the public whom they serve.
If people can be had who are willing for a consideration to take charge
of lunatics, and to fulfil their charge to the satisfaction of the public,
it is not unreasonable to suppose that on suitable terms guardians could
be found for persons who have offended against the laws, and who cannot be
expected to refrain from offending if returned to the surroundings which
have contributed to their wrongdoing. The criminal may be presumed to have
a greater sense of responsibility than the insane person, and to be more
able to take a rational view of his position. In any case, it should never
be forgotten that so far as the public is concerned there are only two
ways of it; unless, indeed, we are prepared to kill the criminals or to
immure them for life. They must either be liberated, as at present,
without provision being made for their welldoing, and without guarantees
being taken for their good behaviour, even if opportunities were provided;
or they must be liberated on condition that they remain under some form of
supervision and guardianship.
Unconditional liberation has ended in disaster to all concerned.
Conditional liberation can only be expected to produce good results if the
conditions are reasonable. They must confer in every case the maximum
amount of liberty consistent with the security of the public; and the
final judges must be the public themselves. The offender should work out
his own salvation, and show that he deserves to have all restrictions
removed before they are removed. If he is merely required to do so under
highly artificial conditions within the walls of an institution, he will
soon learn how to get round the officials there. His conduct in the
institution can afford no means for judging what his behaviour will be
outside under entirely different conditions. Inside he has no choice but
to obey. Outside he has to think and act for himself, and has
opportunities of acquiring new interests and of learning habits which are
likely to persist because they are those of his fellow-citizens who are
free.
All sorts of systems have had their trial in dealing with the offender. It
has always been recognised that it was necessary to remove him from the
place where he had offended. He has been transported to other lands, there
to begin a new life; but the conditions under which the operation was
carried out were appalling. He has been placed in association with other
offenders, and left, with very little supervision, to become worse or make
others worse. He has been placed in solitary confinement; cut off from
company of any sort; with the result of wrecking his mind as well as his
body. At present he is separated from his fellows, but he has no
opportunity to come in contact with healthy social life. One system has
broken down after another. All systems have failed to deal with him
satisfactorily.
There can be no system, but only a method; and that, the method adopted by
the physician in dealing with his patient. When he has satisfied himself
that the man who comes to him for advice is suffering from a certain
disease, he enquires into the past history, the habits and pursuits, and
the social condition of the patient; and on the information gained
considers his treatment. The course of conduct prescribed for one person
may be quite unsuitable for another, although both suffer from the same
complaint; and the wise physician knows that he cannot leave out of
account the opinion of the patient himself as to what should be done. It
is just so with the offender. In many cases he is best able to tell what
should be done for him; and provided it is not something that would
result in harm to the community there is no reason why his opinion should
not be considered, but every reason why it should. The expert may know a
good deal about the offender, but it has been proved over and over again
that he does not know how to reform him; for he has been given ample
opportunity, and his prescriptions have ended in failure. The official
person is apt to imagine that he and his methods should be above
criticism. His office has been magnified for so long that he honestly
believes it is necessary that it should be maintained in the interests of
the public. No institution can be created which will not result in the
formation of vested interests in its continuance; and yet every
institution must be judged by its results, and not by the opinions of
those who are set to manage it.
With the improvement in the social condition of the people; with an
increase in the minimum standard of living; with the abolition, or even
the mitigation, of destitution, the whole complexion of things would be
altered. That changes in these directions will occur there is every reason
to suppose, but meanwhile many fall by the way and many take the
opportunity to grasp an advantage to the loss of their neighbours. Under
any social condition offences may occur. Whatever laws we make there may
always be law-breakers. A man may become possessed by jealousy or wrath
and injure his neighbour, or from envy or greed may rob him, but he can
only acquire the habit of doing so with our permission. If he is checked
at the beginning and placed under control, he will not acquire that habit.
Our present methods have not prevented the growth of the habitual
offender, and they have not been designed to help those who have gone
wrong to reform. The great defect in all our systems is that they are not
based on a recognition of social conditions as they exist. Most men can
and do behave under supervision, and that supervision in many cases could
be made as effective outside an institution as inside one. Men prefer a
greater to a lesser degree of liberty. At present they have more than one
choice. They may conform to our laws and go free; or they may break our
laws in the knowledge that if they are caught, on payment of a penalty
either in money or in time, they may resume their wrongdoing once more.
The habitual offender continues to offend because he prefers to risk
imprisonment and live in his own way rather than accept the humdrum,
peaceful life of his law-abiding neighbour. When he finds that there is no
question of pay in the matter, but that he is simply offered the choice of
good behaviour outside of prison, or incarceration within a prison, he
will begin to review his position.
There is only one principle in penology that is worth any consideration;
it is to find out why a man does wrong, and make it not worth his while.
There is nothing to be gained by assuming that individual peculiarities
may be disregarded, and there is everything to be lost thereby. If we
would make the best of him we should restrict the liberty of the offender
as little as possible consistent with the well-being of the community, and
enlarge it gradually as reason is shown for doing so. We cannot injure him
without injuring ourselves, and we ought to set about to make the best
rather than the worst of him.
THE END
INDEX
INDEX
A
Adolescence, 131
Adoption, 304
Agents for the poor, 204
Alien, criminal, 100
-- immigrant, 98
Ancestors, difficulty of tracing, 19
Apprenticeship in institutions, 297-300
Assistance to parents, 120, 125, 307
Averages, 15
B
Blind alley occupations, 130
Boarding out of children, 334
Boarding out or boarding in, 336
Boys' amusements, 121-30
Boys and adventure, 126
Boys and theft, 124
Boy labour, 130
Boy, rebellious, 118
Boy recreation, 128
Boy Scouts, 128
Boy trader, 133
Boy, truant, 119
C
Cases, illustrative, 26, 27, 29, 33, 34, 37, 38, 39, 42, 54, 59, 71, 74,
77, 80, 81, 92, 104, 118, 119, 143, 144, 145, 146, 151, 152, 155,
201, 254
Cells, police, 195
Cells, prison, 222
Cells, punishment, 233
Centralisation of prison management, 210
Chaplains, prison, 218, 233
Charity, 268
Chastity and general conduct, 158
Children's courts, 122, 125
Children, cruelty to, 56
Churches and the immigrant, 97
Civil prisoners, 254
Civil servants, ability of, 214
Compulsory feeding in prison, 245
Concealment of pregnancy, 155-7
Conduct, loose, in some districts, 157
Confinement, solitary, 229-31, 337
Control of prostitutes, 159
Conversion, 307
Convicts, 255
Courts, children's, 122, 125
Courts, higher, 206-9
Courts, police, 198-203
Crime and character, 8
Crime and city life, 109, 110
Crime and social inequalities, 103
Crime and vice, 10
Crime and women's wages, 149
Crime in relation to drink consumed, 62
Criminal, alien, 100
Criminal class, 11
Criminal, habitual, 11
Criminal, indictments, 207
Criminal lunatics, supervision of, 320
Criminal, notorious, 12
Criminal statistics, 14
Criminals and offenders, 7
Criminals, conduct of, modified in prison, 5, 6
Criminology, pseudo-, science of, 13, 14
D
Dancing clubs, 142
Deaths in prison, 251
Debt, imprisonment for, 254
Defective and the police, 37
Defects of probation system, 317-24
Density of population and crime, 79
Destitute child, the, 74
Destitute, dilemma of the, 72
Destitution, 68, 69, 70
Destitution and theft, 70
Destitution through age, 74
Diet in police cells, 196
Diet, prison, 223-4
Discharged Prisoners' Aid Societies, 261
Discharged prisoners and police, 260
Discharged prisoners and their helpers, 262
Discharged prisoners, demands on, 263
Discipline, 301
Doctor and patient, 245
Domestic servants, 153-5
Drink and child neglect, 56
Drink and crimes against the person, 53
Drink and cruelty, 54
Drink and malicious mischief, 58
Drink and passion, 54
Drink and personality, 53
Drink and petty offences, 52
Drink and poverty, 68
Drink and the professional thief, 60
Drink and pugnacity, 54
Drink and sexual offences, 56
Drink and social condition, 64
Drink and social evils, 51
Drink and theft, 59
Drink inducing assault, 54-5
Drinking clubs, 315
Drink in the country, 62
Drink in the town, 63
Duration of control for young offenders, 286
E
Education and quackery, 162
Exercise in prison, 242
Executioner and surgeon, 171
Exemplary punishment, 135, 179
Expiation, 178
F
Faculty and its exercise, 22
Faculty and position, 20
Fallen women, 263-4
Family history, 21
Family life, 304
Family responsibility, 307
Feeding, compulsory, 245-9
Fellowship, 88, 115-6, 308-10
Fines, 176-8, 317
Fit, the, and the unfit, 19
Flogging, 171
Football, 129
G
Gambling and theft, 105
Gambling, prosecutions for, 108
Gambling, the Church and, 107
Gambling, the Press and, 107
Girl of the slums, 148
Girls and sexual offences, 151
Government by clerk, 295
Gratuities to prisoners, 231
Gulf between visitor and prisoner, 236
H
Habits formed in prison, 259
Habitual criminal, 288
Habituals under license, 296
Heredity, 17-23
Heredity and original sin, 22
Hire-purchase trading, 254
Homes for Offenders, association in, 269
Homes for Women, 265
Hooliganism, 135
Hospitals, prison, 243
I
Imitativeness of girls, 148
Immigrant, alien, 98
Imprisonment, effect of, 269-70
Incorrigible and incurable, the, 168
Inebriate Homes and their inmates, 272-3
Inebriate Homes, defect of, 278
Inebriate Homes, failure of, 275
Information, official, 47
Insane, boarding out of, 335
Insanity and drink, 34
Insanity and embezzlement, 29
Insanity and fire-raising, 26
Insanity and murder, 31-3
Insanity and responsibility, 24
Insanity and theft, 26
Insanity, crimes suggestive of, 31
Insanity escaping notice, 28
Insanity inducing crime, 26
Insanity resulting from criminal indulgence, 33
Institution and family life, 283
Institution habits, 282
Institution, stigma of, 335
Institutions, common interests of inmates of, 279
Institutions, military model of, 279
Interest, personal, 48
J
Jealousy and crime, 145-7
Jury, Scottish, 209
K
Knowledge and experience, 138
L
Labour, limitation of hours of, 131
Law, administration of, 113
Law and conduct, 8
Law and locality, 9
Law, the, and the poor, 85
Law, ignorance of, 90
Law, inability to obey, 90
Law, respect for, 181, 319
Lectures in prison, 241
Lethal chamber, 168, 330
Liberation, conditional, 336
Liberation, prisoner on, 258
Liberation, unconditional, 336
Library, prison, 240
Licensing, 314-316
License, spirit, penalties for breach of, 314
M
Medical man and prisoners, 5
Medical officer, prison, 218, 251
Medicine and quackery, 162
Mental defect and destitution, 37
Mental defect and responsibility, 36
Mental defect resulting from indulgence, 39
Mental defect and theft, 37
Mental development, unequal, 35, 132
Mentally defective, 35
Mental faculty and social stress, 36
Mental incapacity and child neglect, 56
Method, practical, 337
Migration of town workers, 87
Migration from the country, 96
Minor offences, 312
Murder and the death sentence, 31
Murder, the element of accident in, 32
O
Obedience, 301
Obscene language, 92
Occupations, blind alley, 130
Offenders, first, 9
Offenders, guardianship of, 333
Offenders, habitual, 287
Offenders, minor habitual, 313, 327
Offenders, occasional, 313
Officials, public supervision of, 113, 212, 249
Official utterances, 275
Overcrowding, 79, 80
Overcrowding and assaults, 83
Overcrowding and increase of regulations, 88
Overcrowding and sexual offences, 82
P
Pain and vitality, 175
Parent and child, 119, 120, 123
Parents, assistance to, 125
Parliament, helplessness of, 111
Paternity in concealment cases, 157
Paupers, boarding out of, 334
Penalties, 178
Penalties, inequality of, 176, 177
Penalties, multiplication of, 88
Permanent officials, 113, 212, 249, 274
Pernicious literature, 126, 127
Personal service, 115
Physical defect and crime, 41
Pleas of insanity, 32, 208
Pleas, special, 208
Police and the defective, 37
Police and discharged prisoners, 260
Police and local conditions, 191
Police and military models, 190
Police and public, 189
Police casualty surgeon, 197
Police cells, 195, 196
Police courts, 91, 198-202
Police court assessors, 200
Police courts, country, 90, 206
Police courts, summary work of, 202, 203
Police, difficulties of, 195
Police, duties of City, 91
Police efficiency, 191
Police force inspection, 190
Police judges, 198-203
Police judges, appeals from, 199
Police, multifarious duties of, 189
Police pay, 190
Police persecution, 260
Police prosecutors, 198
Police station, 194
Police, transference of, 192
Political action, 111, 112
Poor, the, and the law, 84
Poverty and crime, 67, 78
Poverty and crime against the person, 82
Poverty and drink, 68
Poverty, the praise of, 108
Preventive Detention Committees, 293
Preventive detention, rules for, 289
Prevention of Crimes Act, 1908, 284
Prison and military government, 4
Prison and poorhouse, 327
Prison, assaults in, 232
Prison cells, 222
Prison chaplain, 218, 233
Prison clothing, 224
Prison Commission, 211
Prison, deaths in, 251
Prison diet, 223-4
Prison exercise, 242
Prison, general plan of, 221
Prison governor, 217, 231
Prison habits, 259
Prison hospitals, 243
Prisons, inspectors of, 211
Prison lectures, 241
Prison library, 240
Prison matron, 217, 225
Prison medical officer, 218, 251
Prison offences, 232
Prisons, Parliamentary supervision of, 212
Prison, proper function of, 332
Prison punishments, 232
Prison routine, 220
Prison rules, 213
Prison Visiting Committee, 215-7
Prison warders, 219
Prison work, 226
Prison workshops, 228
Prisoner and doctor, 244
Prisoners and enquirers, 45
Prisoners and their friends, 47
Prisoners and police persecution, 260
Prisoners and recreation, 241-2
Prisoners and religion, 238
Prisoners and religious visitors, 235
Prisoners and visitors, 45, 235, 252
Prisoner's attitude towards visitor, 236
Prisoners, civil, 254
Prisoners, classification of, 5
Prisoners, common characters of, 11, 13
Prisoners' complaints, 233
Prisoners' gratuities, 231
Prisoners, ideals presented to, 237
Prisoners, insane, 24
Prisoners' language, 46
Prisoner on liberation, 258
Prisoners, sick, 244
Prisoners' statements, 44-7
Prisoners under death sentence, 167
Prisoners untried, 252
Prisoners, visits to, 45, 231, 235, 252-3
Probation of offenders, 317
Probation system, 318
Procurator Fiscal, 207
Property, supervision of, 110
Punishment, arbitrary, 172
Punishment, capital, 167-70
Punishment cells, 233
Punishment, corporal, 170
Punishment, deterrent, 179
Punishment in the past, 164
Punishment of children, 174
Punishment, retributive, 165
Q
Quackery, 163
R
Recreation, public, 86
Reform, the only method of, 337
Religious atmosphere, 269
Religious visitors, 235
Right and wrong, 138
S
Secretary of State and prisoner, 291
Secretary of State, multiplicity of duties of, 292
Self-deceit in criminals, 106
Senile changes and crime, 139
Sentences, short and long, 257
Servant, domestic, temptations of, 154
Service, domestic, conditions of, 153
Sexes, attraction by opposite, 141
Sexes, relative position of, 140
Sheriff Courts, 203-6
Sheriffs, 203-6
Sick prisoners, 244
Slum, the, 82-5
Social ambition and dishonesty, 104
Social inequalities and crime, 103
Social intercourse, 87
Social jealousy and distrust, 104
Social opinion and conduct, 182
Social questions, quackery in, 163
Social stress and mental faculty, 36
Spirit of the crowd, 136
Statistics, criminal, 11-4
Street trading, 133
Subordination, 302
Supervision of permanent officials, 113, 212, 249, 274
System of probation, 317
T
Theft and malicious mischief, 58
Trades, teaching of, 297
Treatment, rational principles of, 164
U
Unemployed workmen, decadence of, 73
Untried prisoners, 252
V
Vice and crime, 10
Visitors' attitude towards prisoners, 236
Visitors, religious, 235
Visits to prisoners, 45, 235, 252
W
Warders, assaults on, 232
Warrior and worker, 166
Widows and orphans, 112
Women and bigamy, 159
Women and theft from the person, 144
Women and standard of living, 150
Women as decoy, 145
Women as wage earners, 149
Women, fallen, 263-4
Women offenders, 144, 263
Women offenders, help for, 264
Women offenders, position of, 265
Y
Young offenders and license, 286
Young offenders, incorrigible, 287
Young offenders, reform of, 284