CHAPTER VII_Cesare Lombroso, a modern man of science

ENVIRONMENT AND THE THEORIES AS TO THE NATURE OF GENIUS—LOMBROSO’S

GENIUS AND PERSONALITY.

I remarked before that almost every one of Lombroso’s books might have

as its title, “The Cause of, and Prevention of ——.” One exception must,

however, be made to this generalization, or perhaps two. The first of

these relates to his book upon “The Man of Genius,”[49] and the second

to his work “Pensiero e meteore,”[50] in which were collected his

researches into the cosmic and telluric influences that determine human

actions.

To speak first of the last-named work, we learn from it, as also from

earlier and later minor writings, that in Lombroso’s opinion it is not

the internal, inborn factors only that exercise an important influence

upon the actions and the social behaviour of human beings. Indeed, to

Lombroso as a determinist we owe a service which distinguishes him from

the great majority of modern determinists. He was bold enough to revive

and to restore to psychology the cosmic determinism of the Pythagoreans.

It was not _within_ the organism alone that he sought the determining

influences of physiological and psychological activity. He looked for

these also _outside_ the organism—in the environment; and his conception

of this environment was the very widest possible (see p. 132). At first,

when still quite a young man, he laid stress, with Buckle, upon the

influence of civilization—that is to say, of the cultural

environment—upon individual phenomena. He saw, indeed, in these

phenomena, when they are of an abnormal character—taking, for example,

the form of insanity, crime, or prostitution—diseases of the social

organism, which become individualized in predisposed or malformed

persons (the theory of degeneration). Subsequently he came to note, and

perhaps to overestimate, the influence of meteorological and cosmic

processes—the influence, that is to say, of the physical environment.

Later still, when he had grasped the entire plan of the edifice of his

life-work, the most important part of that edifice was always the

doctrine of causes and of the environment—understanding always by the

term “environment” all that comes into relation from outside with the

individual and with society, everything competent to determine his

tendencies, his gifts, his capacities, and his actions.

Lombroso ultimately came to regard environment as profoundly important

in determining the production of criminality, as may be seen most

clearly in a passage from the fourth chapter of his work on “The Cause

and Prevention of Crime,” of which I here give a portion. After a

detailed explanation of the distinction between the older civilization,

typified by force, and contemporary civilization, typified by cunning,

and having shown that both these types are manifested in the criminal

career, he goes on to say: “We experience here _de facto_ the parallel

activity of two forms of criminality: atavistic criminality,

characterized by the relapse of abnormally predisposed individuals to

the employment of forcible means in the struggle for existence—means

which our own civilization has normally ceased to use—manslaughter,

robbery with violence, or rape; and evolutionary criminality, which is

just as maleficent in intention, but far more civilized in its means,

for in place of force and violence it employs cunning and artifice.”

The first form of criminality is exhibited only by _a comparatively

small number of unfortunately predisposed individuals_; the second form,

by those who are not sufficiently strong to withstand _the unfavourable

influences of their environment_.

Thus, following in the tracks of Quetelet, and contemporaneously with

Adolf Wagner—the former being the founder of “social physics,” and the

latter the man who demonstrated “the reign of law in the apparently

voluntary actions of human beings”—Lombroso regarded the activity of the

individual as devoid of all true spontaneity. He viewed it in its

dependence upon numerous external and internal factors, in part

belonging to the organization of the individual and in part to his

environment. In accordance with this view, he assigned to the intellect,

to “reason,” a minimal share in the control of actions, in the conduct

of the _ego_. And even in emotion he saw, for the most part, a simple

operation of unconscious processes, subsidiary reactions of the organism

in response to natural forces.

Thus, in his view, the personality of the doer tended to disappear;

individual differences faded away. In his determinism, the idea of the

“type,” of the “group,” of the “class,” preponderates. The average man,

whose type is deformed by the inexorable law of pathological inheritance

(which plays so large a part in all Lombroso’s works), acts under the

mechanical compulsion of his internal disposition and organization; and,

further, as if this alone were insufficient, he is driven by the

external conditions of life, whether those of the physical environment

or those of the social organization. Thus he reduces individual

differences, for the most part, to a few types, in which the

degenerative predispositions almost always manifest themselves in the

form of automatic “epileptic” discharges. This does not mean that he

altogether denied individual classification, but in his teaching all

individuals were contemplated in the light of one and the same

fundamental determinism. From the lowest step of this classification

occupied by the savage atavistic criminal, the series proceeds to the

altitude on which is enthroned the figure of the genius.

This determinism, although not expressly stated, underlies also his

account of genius.

Almost throughout his whole life he was interested in the problem of

genius. We see this from his first important work, published in the year

1855, upon the “Insanity of Cardanus.” It runs through the six Italian

and eight foreign editions of his work on “The Man of Genius.” We see it

also in the last important work published before he died, on “Genius and

Degeneration.”

It is well known that he regarded the analogy between the epileptic

automatic discharge and the inspiration of genius as a proof of the

identity of these two phenomena. Here the indefiniteness of the concepts

“genius” and “epilepsy” is compensated by the importance and abundance

of the facts adduced by him to show that in the essence of genius an

“anomaly” is almost invariably to be recognized—and this not merely in

the peculiarities commonly observed in men of genius in spheres

altogether independent of the direct manifestations of their genius. But

inspiration, the discharge itself, is also cosmically determined. Thus

we understand why it is that, in the last edition of “The Man of

Genius,” the section upon the characteristics of the genius occupies no

more space than does the account of the environing causes of genius, and

occupies barely half the amount of space given to the section upon

genius as manifested in the insane.

However much or however little of these ideas may be found to possess

permanent value, one point of unquestionable importance is Lombroso’s

demand that among the conditions of the work of genius we must study the

personality of the genius himself with all his individual peculiarities.

A glance at the almost interminable series of “pathographies” of

highly-talented persons proves to us how strong an influence Lombroso’s

ideas exercised upon the intellectual world of Germany, and to what an

extent they gave rise to an anthropological method of study of the

nature of the man of genius.

We Germans must see, unless we are blind, the enormous importance in

relation to the work produced by the two most distinguished figures of

our recent intellectual history—Richard Wagner and Friedrich

Nietzsche—of the severe suffering with which both were afflicted. Even

if it be not true that pathology is the root of genius, at any rate,

pathos, not ethos, will persist as the sphere in which mortal man

attains the highest perfection, and the one in which he performs the

greatest deeds. And Lombroso’s own path through life, overburdened as he

was with sorrows, struggles, pains, and deprivations, shows us that, in

default of the forcible over-stimulation which severe suffering induces

in rich and deep natures, the energy of the highest spiritualization is

unable to radiate from the hidden depths of our nature; and yet these

same sorrows and struggles are likely, in those in whom the divine fire

of Prometheus has not glowed from the first, to lead to crime or to

insanity.

In the light of this idea, the life-work of the master, who displayed

the close relationship between these three great manifestations of

suffering humanity, genius, insanity, and crime, will no longer appear

so strange as his isolated and detached ideas appeared to his

contemporaries. And we shall continue to return again and again to his

works, as to an arsenal of means to help us to the understanding of the

highest and of the deepest endowments of mankind.

If we wish to do justice to the life-work of Lombroso, we must not omit

the study of his own personality, to which, therefore, a final glance

may be directed. By his birth and by his own peculiar temperament he

belonged to that Jewish aristocracy to which, as Bismarck pointed out,

Disraeli also belonged. The former well-to-do position and the high

standing of his family were changed greatly for the worse in consequence

of the Austrian domination in Italy. Lombroso was compelled to be not

merely his own teacher, but also his own bread-winner; and when at

length he had attained a good position as a consulting physician and

University Professor, owing to his espousal of the cause of the Italian

peasantry he lost the material advantages of a position which would

otherwise have led him to acquire considerable wealth in the

industrially powerful Northern Italy.

These losses freed him completely from the desire to strive for outward

success, and restored to him the leisure without which he could never

have collected his enormous materials, or carried on his incessant

polemic for clearer ideas, and effected the systematic arrangement of

his material. Thus his life attained a harmonious character such as

rarely belongs to the learned life of a successful physician; and whilst

he remained outwardly unpretending and modest, always ready to help

others both in word and deed, he continued to be the intellectual father

of new and ever new sensational hypotheses. He, “the slave of facts,”

never boasted of his diligence; and although in innumerable

controversies he unweariedly defended his ideas, his zeal was always on

behalf of the ideas themselves, never to gain material advantages.

Lombroso never sought for personal gain from the conceptions of whose

value and importance he was so firmly convinced, and which came to him,

as it were, intuitively. Indeed, his principal strength lay in

intuition, in his ready grasp of the essential. His theories of

intuitive genius lay stress upon certain analogies between intuition and

epileptoid states; and the great reverence paid by him to truth may

possibly have led him at times to underestimate the powerful, although

not always fully conscious, intellectual activity which paves the way to

every happy discovery.

We cannot here attempt to show the extent and importance of Lombroso’s

contributions to Italian culture outside the domain of anthropological

researches. From his house in Turin, and from the circle of thinkers,

officials and artists who assembled there, there was diffused a powerful

influence, and at times the very consciousness of Italy seemed to be

centred here at work. And, unceasingly, a manifold receptivity and

activity found the unity and the energy requisite for their concentrated

effects in the fiery soul in whose ardour the most heterogeneous

elements were fused, and whose spirit lives on in his successors and

disciples—

“cursores qui vitai lampada tradunt.”

APPENDIX A

LOMBROSO’S SPIRITUALISTIC RESEARCHES

During the correction of the previous chapters I have read Lombroso’s

final and posthumous work, and I feel that it is expedient to append a

brief account of Lombroso’s dealings with the spiritualists, which were,

indeed, characteristic of his peculiar personality, but are without

significance in relation to his more important investigations—those

which interest us and will interest posterity.

It was about the year 1890 that throughout Europe the investigations of

psychiatrists, neurologists, and psychologists into the subject of

hypnotism attained their acme. During the years 1885 to 1890 there was

an unceasing current of hypnotic experiments. Almost every clinic had

its own mediums; and soon some of these mediums, of whom not a few

attended more than one clinic, produced occult phenomena, such as the

action of medicaments at a distance (Bourru and others), the polarizing

effect of magnets, thought-transference, and thought-reading, in

addition to the phenomena of the hypnotic sleep and hypnotic suggestion.

Not infrequently such séances as these, instituted by serious men of

science, closely resembled the phenomena of the “animal magnetism” of

the first third of the nineteenth century and the séances of the

spiritualists during the middle third of the century. Men who,

unquestionably, were well experienced in observation and in rigorous

experiment—such men as Charcot, Richet, Preyer, Forel, and

Zöllner—believed in the reality of the occult phenomena which gradually

made their appearance in the hypnotic mediums.

In the year 1888, Lombroso published a series of exhaustive experiments,

dealing more especially with the limits of suggestion in the waking

state, and the influence of a permanent magnet upon suggested

sensations. It was most remarkable that this positivist investigator, a

man whose habit it had been to confine himself to objective

investigation, and to consider subjective phenomena as entirely

subsidiary and to deal with them with extreme caution, should concern

himself with matters so little accessible to objective observation as

the reaction to hypnotic procedures and the examination of suggested

ideas in hypnotized and hysterical subjects, and while engaged in this

path of study to associate, ultimately, more and more intimately with

thought-readers, spiritualists, and other thaumaturgists.

It was, indeed, a result of his overwhelming conviction, at once of the

objectivity and of the materiality of the performances of hypnotized

persons, associated with a reluctance to accept the explanation of such

phenomena by purely subjective factors—viz., their explanation solely by

means of ideas—that led Lombroso to the credulous assumption that there

existed a peculiar material condition of the brain-substance as the

cause of all these categories of phenomena.

The fact that the mediums themselves either coquetted in a most

equivocal manner with the possibility of associated immaterial

processes, or else introduced the absurd doctrines of spiritualism for

the explanation of the phenomena occurring at their séances, did not

discourage Lombroso from the continually renewed study of

thought-readers, calculating wonders, telepathists, and teleurgists

(persons who claimed the power of giving rise to mechanical changes in

remote objects), for he believed in the genuineness of different forms

of “trance”; and his honourable capacity for belief, his disinclination

to explain anything that was new as the result of deception merely

because it was an unusual experience, frequently delivered him over to

the devices of cheats.

I can explain here that, from my own experience, his most important

medium, Eusapia Palladino, whom, in April, 1894, in association with

Lombroso, Enrico Ferri, the psychologist Luigi Ferri, the physiologist

Richet, the anthropologist Sergi, and the painter Siemiradzki, I

observed in several séances, was, indeed, a “miracle”—_i.e._, a miracle

of adroitness, false bonhomie, well-simulated candour, naïveté, and

artistic command of all the symptoms of hystero-epilepsy. In Rome, where

the séances were held, she had at her disposal certain extremely adroit

male mediums, who were associated in all her tricks. These mediums

behaved irreproachably. During the séances, in consequence of emotional

excitement and superstitious terror, they suffered publicly from

hysterical paroxysms; and they were clever enough to charm Siemiradzki

by arranging that “from the fourth dimension” a sheet of writing-paper

should fall into his lap, upon which was inscribed in isolated Polish

words[51] a prophecy of the speedy restoration of the kingdom of Poland.

I took an exact transcript of this manifestation, and must repeat to-day

what I said sixteen years ago, that if (as the mediums asserted, though

I do not myself believe it) the spirit of Kosciuszko really wrote these

hopeful words—instead of prophesying _finis Poloniæ_—then “in the fourth

dimension” the spelling and grammar of the Polish language must have

been very badly preserved. (Charles Dickens made the same observation in

respect to English spelling as exhibited by “spirits.”)

At that time it was my impression that in these séances Lombroso’s

interest was in the spiritualists, not in the “spirits,” and, in the

next place, in the abnormal trance-state of the mediums. This was

undoubtedly so at that time; but his subsequent publications have shown

that at a later date he went much further than this, and ascribed to the

brain-substance the faculty of exercising a powerful influence beyond

the periphery of the body (although, according to the dominant and still

unshaken opinion, the function of the brain-substance is subject to the

law of isolated nervous conduction). For example, in the _Annales des

Sciences Psychiques_, 1892, p. 146 _et seq._, Lombroso wrote as follows:

“Not one of these facts (which we must admit to be facts, since we

cannot deny that which we have seen with our own eyes) is of a nature to

render it necessary to suppose for its explanation the existence of a

world different from that admitted by neuropathologists to exist. I see

nothing inadmissible in the supposition that in hysterical and

hypnotized persons the stimulation of certain centres, which become

powerful owing to the paralyzing of all the others, and thus give rise

to a transposition and transmission of psychical forces, may also result

in a transformation into luminous or motor force. In this way we can

understand how the force, which I will call cortical or cerebral, of a

medium can, for example, raise a table from the floor, pluck someone by

the beard, strike him or caress him—very frequent phenomena in these

séances. In certain conditions, which are very rare, the cerebral

movement which we call thought is transmitted to distance, sometimes

small, sometimes very considerable. Now, in the same way in which this

force is transmitted, it may also become transformed, and the psychic

force may manifest itself as a motor force. Do we not see the magnet

give rise to a deflection of the compass-needle without any visible

intermediary?”

We must not without further consideration dismiss this idea as absurd,

because a very simple experiment suffices to show that the well-known

and continuous heat-radiation from the living body—that is to say, the

dispersal from the body of ultra-red etheric undulations—undergoes

notable and easily measurable changes, in association with every change

in the intellectual or emotional equilibrium, just as the arterial

pulse, which changes under the influence of emotional disturbance, gives

rise to varying oscillations in the air. But we do not possess

sense-organs adequate to detect either these atmospheric or these

etheric undulations. We were unable to establish their existence until

physiology had given us Mosso’s plethysmograph and Zamboni’s dry

battery.

There was a very powerful subjective reason why Lombroso did not apply a

strenuous criticism to the occult phenomena of Eusapia, of Pickmann,

etc. His own most important ideas had at first encountered doubt from

the learned world, and in many cases contempt and ridicule. For this

reason he was free from the tendency, traditional in academic circles,

towards an extreme reserve in relation to completely new facts and

theories contrary to the dominant views, and therefore dangerous to

those advocating them. On the contrary, to doubt the good faith of those

who were producing the new hypnotic and other mediumistic phenomena was

not only contrary to his natural disposition, incapable of any pettiness

and indisposed to mistrust anything that was unusual, but it also

conflicted with the tendencies resulting from his own personal

experiences.

In the year 1872, when he brought before the Medical Academy of Milan

his experiments and investigations regarding the etiology of pellagra

through the consumption of spoilt maize, he was accused by the surgeon

Porta, Dean of the medical faculty of Pavia and an advocate of the

interests of the great landlords, of having falsified his experiments,

and of having artificially induced lesions in the animals he

experimented on—the result being that the whole matter was turned to

ridicule, and he and his pellagrous chickens were made fun of at the

next carnival.

Lombroso was accustomed to quote a verse from Dante, “Io non piangea, si

dentro impetrai” (“I did not weep, but my heart was turned to stone”),

in order to explain the impression left upon him by this experience. The

controversies about pellagra continued for about thirty years, until at

length, in the year 1902, official recognition was given to his theory

by the legislation carried in that year for the prevention of the

disease.[52] The _déclassé_, the Jew, the self-taught man, could not be

allowed to take an equal rank in the university life amongst the sons of

the well-to-do classes of Northern Italy, so closely allied with the

landed interest; and for this reason the most distinguished and

influential member of the academic circle described his laborious and

tedious researches as falsified. It was this experience which made it

psychologically impossible for him, when he came to study occult

phenomena, to take into consideration the possibility of fraud.

This helps us to understand how he came to enter upon these

investigations, and how it was that he allowed himself in many cases to

be deceived regarding the reality of the processes under observation.

But it was precisely his unmitigated positivism which led him _a priori_

to regard many things as possible and open to discussion, from which

others in their specialist narrowness would have (doubtless in this

instance more wisely) turned away. In the year 1888, Lombroso believed

himself to have proved the influence of the magnet upon suggested colour

sensations. With this begins the series of his publications upon occult

phenomena (“Studi sull’ ipnotismo e sulla credulità,” _Archivio di

psichiatria_, 1888, ix., pp. 528–546). From these effects of the magnet

(whose subjective causation he left an open question) he drew the

following inference: “The magnet is an object known to have effect

within the physical sphere. If a new result is seen to follow its

application, this must also be of a physical character, and cannot be of

any other. Thus in the hypnotized person, whose cerebral molecules are

in a condition different from that in the brain of the non-hypnotized

person, the magnet has given rise to a rearrangement of the cerebral

molecules. If the observed effect is purely subjective, we must conclude

that the subjective phenomena are dependent upon the physical

conditions, and that the rearrangement of the cerebral molecules gives

rise to the phenomenon of so-called polarization.”

Psychologically allied with this is Lombroso’s utterance regarding

muscle-reading, to the effect that if an act of the will is effective at

a distance, this proves that the will, far from being immaterial, is a

phenomenon of movement, and is, therefore, a manifestation of matter.

Indeed, he expresses his astonishment that thought-transference is so

rarely observed: “May it be that in the forms of energy known under the

names of electricity, magnetism, heat, light, and sound, there is

produced the same thing as in thought; and if one admits this, may it

not be that thought is simply a phenomenon of movement.”[53]

At the time when these first experimental studies were published,

Lombroso was, however, still sceptical regarding spiritualistic

phenomena, as is proved by the following utterance, which I publish here

in full because in it we can already detect the psychological tendencies

which ultimately led him to capitulate—_i.e._, to recognize the

existence of telepathic phenomena at séances: “Every epoch is unripe for

the discoveries which have had few precursors; and if it is unripe it is

also unadapted to perceive its own incapacity. The repetition of the

same discovery prepares the brain to make it its own, to accept it, and

finds minds gradually becoming less hostile to its acceptance. For

nearly twenty years the discoverer of the cause of pellagra was regarded

throughout Italy as mad; to-day the academic world still laughs at

criminal anthropology, at hypnotism, at homeopathy. Who knows whether

we, who to-day laugh at spiritualism, may not also be in error? Thanks

to the misoneism which lies concealed in us all, we are, as it were,

hypnotized against the new ideas, incapable of understanding that we are

in error, and like many insane persons, whilst the darkness hides the

truth from us, we laugh at those who stand in the light” (“L’ influenza

della civiltà e dell’ occasione sui genio,” _Fanfulla della Domenica_,

1883, Nr. 29).

In the year 1891, when Lombroso, in association with Bianchi and

Tamburini, had held the first sittings with Eusapia Palladino, he wrote

in a letter to Dr. Ciolfi: “I am ashamed and sorrowful that with so much

obstinacy I have contested the possibility of the so-called

spiritualistic facts. I say the _facts_, for I am inclined to reject the

spiritualistic _theory_; but the facts exist, and as regards facts I

glory in saying that I am their slave.”

There soon followed other sittings, most of them with Eusapia as medium,

conducted by Von Aksakow and Du Prel. (To this period belong all the

sittings in which I myself took part with Siemiradzki, and in which

there took place Lombroso’s thorough investigation of the trance-state

of both the male mediums mentioned above.) From 1896 onwards, after

observations made on the “thought reader” Pickmann, Lombroso published

in his _Archivio di psichiatria_ a perpetual record of his mediumistic

experiments.

His last work of all, published after his death (“Ricerche sui fenomeni

ipnotisi e spiritici,” pp. 320, Turin, Unione Editrice, 1910), might be

regarded by the credulous as a “Greeting from the Spirit-World.” We,

however, who renounce this “Spirit-World,” may well content ourselves

with the undying intellectual achievements of the deceased investigator;

to our enemies we freely give the Lombroso of senile decay, for the

Lombroso of youth, for ever young, is ours.

APPENDIX B

LIST OF BOOKS CONSULTED

PAOLA E GINA LOMBROSO: Cesare Lombroso, Appunti sulla vita. Turin, 1906.

C. LOMBROSO: Writings, 1854–1909.

C. LOMBROSO: Archivio di psichiatria, Scienze penali ed Antropologia

criminale. Turin, 1880–1909.

ENRICO FERRI: Sociologia criminale. Turin, 1902.

FRASSATI: La nuova scuola di diritto penale. Turin, 1891.

M. CECCAREL: Della vita e degli scritti di Paolo Marzolo. Treviso, 1870.

L. BIANCHI: L’ Opera di Cesare Lombroso nella scienza e nolle sue

applicazioni. Turin, 1906.

MARIO CARRARA: Cesare Lombroso (Annuaria della R. Università di Torino,

1909–1910).

H. KURELLA: Cesare Lombroso und die Naturgeschichte des Verbrechers.

Hamburg, 1892.

H. KURELLA: Naturgeschichte des Verbrechers. Stuttgart, 1893.

H. KURELLA: Die Grenzen der Zurechnungsfähigkeit und die

Kriminal-Anthropologie. Halle a S., 1903.

H. KURELLA: Die soziologische Forschung und Cesare Lombroso, Monatsschr.

f. Kriminalpsychologie und Strafrechtsreform, 1906. S. 308 u. ff.

G. ASCHAFFENBURG: Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung. Heidelberg, 1903.

R. SOMMER: Kriminal-psychologie und straftrechtliche Psychopathologie.

Leipzig, 1904.

APPENDIX C

FACTS AND DOCUMENTS OF POSITIVISM, 1841–1865

PREPARATORY WORK, 1841–1850

1841. JOULE: Thermogenic Effects of the Electric Current.

HERSCHEL: Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences.

LIST: Das nationale System der politischen Ökonomie.

1842. R. MAYER: Erhaltung der Energie.

R. WAGNER: Handwörterbuch der Physiologie.

A. COMTE: Cours de philosophie positive.

L. FEUERBACH: Wesen des Christentums.

1843. J. S. MILL: Inductive Logic.

MATTEUCCI: Discovery of the Nerve-Current.

1844. FARADAY: Electrical Conduction and the Nature of Matter.

1845. _Discovery of the Electrical Incandescent Lamp._

1846. W. WEBER: Electrodynamic Measurements.

_Discovery of Anæsthesia by Ether._

1847. HELMHOLTZ: Die Erhaltung der Kraft (Conservation of Energy).

_Discovery of Anæsthesia by Chloroform._

1848. QUETELET: Du système social.

DUBOIS-REYMOND: Animal Electricity.

_Discovery of Gold in California._

1849. _Discoveries of Bacillus of Anthrax and of Aniline Dyes._

1850. HERBERT SPENCER: Social Statics (Identity of Laws of Organic and

Social Evolution).

DOMINANCE OF POSITIVISM, 1851–1860.

1851–1860. _Mileage of European Railway Systems increases by 250 per

cent._

1851. LYELL: Principles of Geology.

LOMBROSO: Concerning Marzolo’s “Monumenti storici rivelati dall’

analisi della parola.”

SCHOPENHAUER: Parerga und Paralipomena.

_Discovery of the Neanderthal Skull and Other Evidences of the

Antiquity of Man._

HELMHOLTZ: Ophthalmoscope.

RUHMKORFF: Induction Coil.

RICHARD WAGNER: Oper und Drama.

MILLET: Le Semeur; und COURBET: Das Begräbnis von Ornans.

1852. MOLESCHOTT: Kreislauf des Lebens.

1855. PFLÜGER: Electrotonus.

NAEGELI: Investigations Regarding Vegetable Physiology.

BÜCHNER: Kraft und Stoff (Force and Matter).

FARADAY: Magnetic Philosophy.

_Discovery of Hot-air Engine, of Bessemer Steel, and of

Aniline-violet._

WALT WHITMAN: Leaves of Grass.

1856. _Discovery of the Annular Kiln, of the Regenerative Gas Furnace,

and of the Mercurial Air-pump._

J. VON LIEBIG: Theory and Practice of Agriculture.

LE PLAY: Les Ouvriers Européens.

THE FOUR CLASSICAL YEARS OF POSITIVISM, 1857–1860.

1857. BUNSEN: Exact Methods for the Analysis of Gases.

MOREL: Traité des Dégénérescences.

MARX: Materialist Conception of History.

BUCKLE: History of Civilization.

TOCQUEVILLE: La Révolution et l’Ancien Régime.

FLAUBERT: Madame Bovary.

1858. VIRCHOW: Cellularpathologie.

M. SCHIFF: Lehrbuch der Physiologie.

1859. KIRCHHOFF und BUNSEN: Spectrum Analysis.

DARWIN: Origin of Species.

J. S. MILL: On Liberty.

_Discovery of the Telephone, the Ice Machine, and the Azo

Colouring Matters._

1860. FECHNER: Psyohophysik.

BOUCHER DE PERTHES: De l’Homme Antédiluvien et de ses Œuvres.

BOUCHER DE PERTHES: Discovery of the Gas Engine.

SEMPER: Der Stil.

AFTER-EFFECTS, 1861–1865.

1861. BACHOFEN: Das Mutterrecht (Matriarchy).

GRIESINGER: Pathology of Mental Disorders.

SCHLEICHER: Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen.

MANET: Frühstück im Grünen.

DOSTOIEFFSKY: Raskolnikow.

FONTANE: Wanderungen durch die Mark.

_Liberation of Serfs in Russia._

1862. HERBERT SPENCER: First Principles.

IBSEN: The Comedy of Love.

TOURGUENEFF: Fathers and Sons.

_Construction of Pacific Railway._

_Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation._

_Bismarck’s Realpolitik (Blood and Iron)._

1863. HUXLEY: Man’s Place in Nature.

LYELL: Antiquity of Man.

HUGGINS: Spectra of Fixed Stars and Nebulæ.

BROCA: Sur le Siège, le Diagnostic et la Nature de l’Aphémie.

PASTEUR: Theory of Fermentation.

RENAN: Vie de Jésus.

WUNDT: Vorlesungen über die Menschen und Tierseele.

1864. LOMBROSO: Genio e follia.

A. WAGNER: The Reign of Law in the Apparently Voluntary Actions

of Human Beings.

LASSALLE: Bastiat-Schultze.

DE GONCOURT: Renée Mauperin.

ZOLA: Confession de Claude.

TOLSTOY: War and Peace.

1865. MEYNERT: Anatomy of the Cerebral Cortex and its Relations to the

Sensory Surface of the Body.

LUBBOCK: Prehistoric Times.

LOMBROSO: Aliénations Mentales Étudiées par la Méthode

Expérimentale.

HAECKEL: Generelle Morphologie.

VON LIEBIG: Induktion und Deduktion.

CANNIZZARO: L’ emancipazione della ragione.

J. S. MILL: Comte and Positivism.

TAINE: Le Positivisme Anglais.

_Extension of Democracy in England by Russell and Gladstone._

_Martin Steel, Gas-engines, Influence Machines._

INDEX

Adaptation, deficient, of degenerates, 123

Africo-Hellene race of Calabria, 129

“Agrarian Investigation,” 114

Agrarian problems, Lombroso, 127

Agrarian reform, 156, 157

Aksakow, Von, 176

Alcoholism and criminality, 95

Altruism deficient in criminal types, 105

Analogies, Lombroso’s talent for the discovery of, 112

Anarchism, 149

Animal magnetism, 168

Anomalous character of genius, 162, 163

Anthropology, earlier and recent significations of the term, 10 note

subject-matter of, 132

Lombroso’s conception of, 135, 137, 138

according to Virchow, Broca, and Mantegazza, 135

criminal, 18–54. See also separate organs, as brain, skull, etc.

tabular statement of primatoid varieties, 27–29

fundamental notion of, 42

physiognomy, 47–53

tabular statement of distinctive anatomical characters, indicating

abnormal congenital predisposition in more than 800 non-insane

criminals, 54

significance of, 130–138

Congress for, 147, 148

of women. See “Woman as Criminal”

Anti-semitism, 149

Anti-social tendencies of degenerates, 104, 105

types, 119, 123

need for segregation of, 146

Ape-like characters. See Primatoid varieties

Apportionment of punishment, 131

Argot. See Jargon

Aristocracy, Jewish, 164, 165

Arrest of development in criminals. See also Atavism, 46

“Art for art’s sake,” in criminals, 89

Art, naturalism in, 133

Artistic method, new, the fruit of positivism, 134

Arts, industrial, and positivism, 133

Aschaffenburg, 60 note, 147, 177

Asymmetry, facial, 104

Atavism, 19–25, 45–48, 59, 60, 95, 96, 101, 105, 118, 160 162

and crime. See Atavism and prostitution, 59, 60

Austrian dominion in Italy, 165

Bachofen, 180

Bacon, Francis, 113

Baer, A., 24 note

Bagehot, Walter, quoted, 66 note

Battery, Zamboni’s dry, 172

Bebel, 110

Beltrani-Scalia, 80

Benedikt, 94

Bianchi, 175, 177

Biogenetic law, the fundamental, 118

Biological determination of social phenomena, 107 _et seq._

determinism. See also Determinism

of Lombroso, 161, 162

Bismarck, 165

Bistolfi, 82

Blameworthiness, 131

Books consulted, list of, 177

Born criminal. See Criminal, born

Born criminals form a degenerative subtype, 105

Boucher de Perthes, 180

Bourgeois criminality, 87

Brain in criminals, 38–45

Bread-riots at Milan, 1898, 153

Breeding, racial improvement by, 129, 146

Broca, 135, 180

Bruant, 91

Brusa, 141

Büchner, 8, 179

Buckle, 107

Bunsen, 134, 179, 180

Burdach, 7

Calabria, Lombroso’s work in, 114

races of, 114, 129

Camorra, the, 91

Cannizzaro, 181

Capital punishment, Lombroso favours, 128

Cardan, Jerome, Lombroso’s work on, 112, 162

Carrara, 81, 177

Cause and prevention, 158

Causes and prevention of crime, 147

Ceccarel, 177

Cerebrogenous characters, 27–29, 54

Chamberlain, Houston, 129

Characteristics common to criminals and epileptics, 98, 99

Characters, cerebrogenous, primatoid, etc. See under Adjectival term

Charcot, 168

Charuigi, 7

Cheats, 169

Child criminals, 97

Ciolfi, 175

Class-interests, power of, in preventing spread of truth, 151, 152

Class struggle. See Class war

Class war, the, and social evolution, 121, 122, 124, 125

Classes, differentiation by and through, 121

Clinical observation, 136

Comte, vi, 178

Congenital. See Inheritance

Congress for Criminal Anthropology, 147, 148

Conventional element in crime, 90

Correlation of growth, 104

Cosmic causality, 136

determinism, 69, 132–134

influences, 159

Cranio-facial developments, ratios of, 31, 34

Craniology. See Skull

Craniometry. See Skull

Crest, internal frontal, 28, 29

temporal, 29

Crime. See also Criminal

and insanity, 84, 85

and imbecility, 84, 85

and disease, 97

causes and prevention of, 147

related to genius and to insanity, 164

political. See Political crime

Criminal. See also Anthropology, criminal

accidental, 131

anthropology. See also Anthropology, criminal

Congress for, 147, 148

positive foundation of, 134

significance of, 130–138

subject-matter of, 132

born, 100, 131. See also Criminal type

Criminal born, the insensibility of, 88, 89

degenerate, 131

epileptic, 140, 145

habitual, 140, 145

insane, 131, 140, 145

jargon of. See Jargon

jurisprudence. 139–149

“Criminal Man, the,” 140

Criminal nature, 131. See also Criminal type and Criminal, born

and epilepsy, 98–103

occasional, 131, 140, 145

by passion, 140, 145

political, 119, 120. See also Political criminal

psychology. 79–105. See also Psychology, criminal

significance of term, 93 note

tendencies, inheritance of, 96, 97, 101

type, the, 102

criticism of idea of, 55

meaning and limitations of the doctrine, 50

physiognomy of, 51

types, female, comparatively rare, 61–63

lack “mother-sense,” 63

woman. See “Woman as Criminal”

Criminality, atavistic, 160

by passion, 100

evolutionary, 160

influence of environment on, 160

Criminaloid, the, 64, 145

Criminals, cruelty of, 84–86

recklessness of, 84, 85

responsibility of, 85, 86

economic status of, 86, 87

Criminology, school of positive, 140

Crispi, 153

Cro-Magnon, prehistoric man of, 33

Crossing of races, and its effect on political evolution, 74

Cruelty in women, 58

of criminals, 84–86

Cunning and force, 160

Dante, 173

Darwin, 33, 47, 117, 134, 180

Darwin’s “Descent of Man,” 33, 117

Darwinian tipped ear, 47

Darwinism. See Evolution

Death, indifference to, in criminals, 88, note

penalty, Lombroso favours, 128

Decentralization of Government, Lombroso favours, 127

Degenerate, the, an anti-social being, 104, 105

Degenerates, 123

Degeneration, 15 _et seq._, 103–105, 159, 160, 162

and crime, 103–105

genius and, 162

practical significance of term, 104

stigmata of, 103 105

theory of, 160

De Goncourt, 180

Democracy, Lombroso’s faith in, 125

Dental abnormalities, 104

De Perthes, Boucher, 180

“Descent of Man” (Darwin’s), 33, 117

Despine, 13, 14

Determinism, 69, 107 _et seq._, 116, 120, 121, 123, 132–134, 138, 161,

162

biological, of Lombroso, 107, 116, 120, 121, 161, 162

cosmic, 69, 132–134

economic, of Marx, 116, 123

Development, moral. See Moral development

Diagnosis, differential. See Differential diagnosis

Dickens, Charles, quoted, 170

Differences, individual, comparatively unimportant, 161

Differential diagnosis of varieties of criminal, 83–91

Differentiation in human species, 122

sexual, 57, 58, 121

Lombroso’s law of, 57

Differentiation, sexual, in savages as compared with civilized races,

Discovery, fruitful period of, in association with a positivist view of

the universe, 133

Disease and crime, 97

Disraeli, 165

Documents of positivism, 178–181

Donna delinquente, la. See “Woman as Criminal”

Dostoieffsky, 180

Dubois-Reymond, 178

Du Prel, 176

Ear, Darwinian tipped, 47

handle-shaped and projecting, 104

Morel’s, 48

peculiarities of, in criminals, 47, 48

Earpoint of Darwin, 47

Economic determinism. See Determinism

factors of crime, 87

motive, supremacy of, 151, 152

status in relation to crime, 86, 87

Ellis, Havelock, vi, 58, note

quoted, 67 note

Environment, 132, 159, 160

and crime, 160

and individual, 132 _et seq._

Epilepsy, 136

chronic, 100

and criminality, 98–103

and genius, 162

as an hereditary equivalent

of criminality, 103

larval, 100

Lombroso’s conception of, 99

Epileptic discharges, 161

Epileptoid states (Griesinger), 100

types common in prisons, 103

Epispadias, 104

Equanimity of criminals sentenced to death, 88 note

Equivalents, hereditary, criminality and epilepsy as, 103

Erotism, strong, abnormal in women, 59

Eskimo, skull of, 35

Esquirol, 7

Ethos and pathos, 164

Eugenics, 123, 128, 129, 146

Eurygnathism, 26, 29

Eusapia Palladino, 169, 172, 175, 176

Evolution of man from unknown primate asserted by Lombroso in 1871, 33

social, _versus_ revolution, 120

Evolutionism, English, 7

Experimental method, Lombroso’s tendency to neglect the, 135–137

Extreme value of weights and measurements in criminal brains, 40, 41,

in criminal physiognomy, 49–51

in criminal skulls, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42

Facts and documents of positivism, 178–181

Lombroso’s respect for, 134

Faraday, 178, 179

Fechner, 137, 180

Ferrati, 156

Ferrero, G., 56, 57, 81

Ferri, Enrico, 79, 140, 169, 177

Ferri, Luigi, 169

Feuerbach, 178

“First Principles,” 116

Flaubert, 179

Fontane, 180

Force and cunning, 160

Forehead, receding, 27, 31, 32

Forel, 168

Fossa, middle occipital, 28, 32

“Fra Diavolo,” skull of, 32

France and the revolutionary spirit, 68, 72–74

Frassati, 177

Free will, illusion of, 133

Frigerio, 48

Frigidity, sexual, of prostitutes, 63

Gabelli, 141

Gall, 13, 14, 17

Garofalo, 140, 141

Gasparone, skull of, 32

Genius, 70–73, 119, 120, 162–164

and anomaly, 162

“Genius and Degeneration,” 162

Genius and epilepsy, 162

its freedom from misoneism, 70

function of, in promoting social evolution, 120

index of, for the departments of France, 72

in the insane, 163, 164

and republicanism, 72, 73

and revolution, 70–72

Géricault’s drawing, “Tête d’un Supplicié,” 51

Gladstone, W. E., 181

Gobineau, 129

Goethe, 111, 113

Goncourt, de, 180

Gosio, 156

Greek racial elements in Calabria, 129

Greenlander, brain of, 44, 45

“Greeting from the spirit-world, a,” 176

Griesinger, 7, 100, 180

Growth, correlation of, 104

Gudden, 7

Haeckel, 118, 181

quoted, 118 note

Hamel, Van, 142, 143

Handle-shaped and projecting ear, 104

Harden, Maximilian, 81

Heinze, 88 note

Hellenic racial elements in Calabria, 129

Helmholtz, 134, 178, 179

“Henkelohr,” 47, 104

Hereditary equivalents, criminality and epilepsy as, 103

Heredity. See also Inheritance criminal, 96, 97

Herschel, 178

History, determinist view of, 107 _et seq._

Hohlenfels, prehistoric man of, 33

Homo delinquens, 120.