movement--the divorce problem. In this problem woman has a peculiar
interest. The wife more frequently than the husband is seeking
in divorce a release from marital ills; for in her case it often
involves an escape from sexual slavery. The divorce movement,
therefore, is in part an expression of woman's growing independence.
In this instance as in others it does not, of course, follow that
the individualistic tendency is vicious. Nowhere in the field of
social ethics, perhaps, is there more confusion of thought than in
dealing with the divorce question. Divorce is not favored by anyone
for its own sake. Probably in every healthy society the ideal of
right marriage is a lifelong union. But what if it is not right,
if the marriage is a failure? Is there no relief? Here a sharp
difference of opinion has arisen. Some persons look upon divorce
as an evil in itself; others as a "remedy" for, or a "symptom" of,
social disease. The one class regard it as a cause; the other as
an effect. To the Roman Catholic, and to those who believe with
him, divorce is a sin, the sanction of "successive polygamy,"[833]
of "polygamy on the instalment plan."[834] At the other extreme
are those who, like Milton and Humboldt,[835] would allow marriage
to be dissolved freely by mutual consent, or even at the desire
of either spouse. Nay, there are earnest souls, shocked by the
intolerable hardships which wives may suffer under the marital
yoke, who, pending a reform in the marriage law, would, like the
Quakers of earlier days, ignore the present statutory requirements
and resort to private contract.[836] According to the prevailing
opinion, however, as expressed in modern legislation, divorce
should be allowed, with more or less freedom, under careful state
regulation. Whatever degree of liberty may be just or expedient
in a more advanced state of moral development, it is felt that
now a reasonable conservatism is the safer course. Yet divorce is
sanctioned by the state as an individual right; and there may be
occasions when the exercise of the right becomes a social duty.
The right is, of course, capable of serious abuse. Loose divorce
laws may even invite crime. Nevertheless, it is fallacious to
represent the institution of divorce as in itself a menace to social
morality. It is not helpful to allege, as is often done, that with
the increase of divorce certain crimes wax more frequent, thus
insinuating the effect for the cause. It is just as illogical to
assume that the prevalence of divorce in the United States is a
proof of moral decadence as compared with other countries in which
divorce is prohibited or more restricted. To forbid the use of
a remedy does not prove that there is no disease. Is there any
good reason for believing that what Tocqueville said fifty years
ago is not true today? "Assuredly," he declares, "America is the
country in the world where the marriage tie is most respected and
where the highest and justest idea of conjugal happiness has been
conceived."[837] It is remarkable, says Lecky, "that this great
facility of divorce should exist in a country which has long been
conspicuous for its high standard of sexual morality and for its
deep sense of the sanctity of marriage."[838] Bryce passes a similar
judgment: "So far as my own information goes, the practical level
of sexual morality is at least as high in the United States as in
any part of northern or western Europe (except possibly among the
Roman Catholic peasantry of Ireland)." There "seems no ground for
concluding that the increase of divorce in America necessarily
points to a decline in the standard of domestic morality, except
perhaps in a small section of the wealthy class, though it must
be admitted that if this increase should continue, it may tend to
induce such a decline."[839] Even more emphatic is Commissioner
Wright. After eloquently describing the relatively high place which
woman has reached in our land, he continues: "I do not believe that
divorce is a menace to the purity and sacredness of the family;
but I do believe that it is a menace to the infernal brutality, of
whatever name, and be it crude or refined, which at times makes a
hell of the holiest human relations. I believe the divorce movement
finds its impetus outside of laws, outside of our institutions,
outside of our theology; that it finds its impetus in the rebellion
of the human heart against that slavery which binds in the cruelest
bonds of the cruelest prostitution human beings who have, by their
foolishness, by their want of wisdom, or by the intervention of
friends, missed the divine purpose, as well as the civil purpose
of marriage. I believe the result will be an enhanced purity, a
sublimer sacredness, a more beautiful embodiment of Lamartine's
trinity,--the trinity of the father, the mother, and the child"--to
preserve which "in all its sacredness, society must take the bitter
medicine labelled 'Divorce.'"[840]
[833] According to CARDINAL GIBBONS there are "two species of
polygamy--simultaneous and successive": "Is Divorce Wrong?" in
_North Am. Rev._, CXLIX, 520.
[834] The epigram of Father Yorke, of San Francisco.
[835] WILHELM V. HUMBOLDT, _Sphere and Duties of Government_:
cited by MILL, _On Liberty_, 185, 186.
[836] For examples see SEWELL, in _Westminster Review_, CXLV,
182 ff., suggesting a form of private contract; and BESANT,
_Marriage_, 19, 20, who asks: "Why should not we take a leaf
out of the Quakers' book, and substitute for the present legal
forms of marriage a simple declaration publicly made?... but
as soon as the laws are moralized, and wives are regarded as
self-possessing human beings, instead of as property, then the
declaration may, with advantage, seek the sanction of the law."
She mentions the well-known cases of Mary Wollstonecraft, her
daughter and Shelley, Richard Carlile, and that of George Henry
Lewes and George Eliot. Mrs. Caird would not go so far. The
state, she concludes, hes no right to interfere in the marriage
contract. "How can it withdraw its interference without causing
social confusion? The answer seems plain. By a gradual widening
of the limitations within which individuals might be allowed to
draw up their private contracts, until, finally, moral standards
had risen sufficiently high to enable the state to cease from
interfering in private concerns altogether."--_The Morality of
Marriage_, 126. DONISTHORPE, "The Future of Marriage," _Fort.
Rev._, LI, 263, recommends a system of free private contract
for one year, renewable at the pleasure of the parties. He is
criticised by MALMSBURY, _ibid._, 272-82. _Cf._ also "Marriage
and Free Thought," _ibid._, L, 275 ff.
[837] TOCQUEVILLE, _La démocratie en Amérique_, II, 215.
[838] LECKY, _Dem. and Liberty_, II, 208.
[839] BRYCE, _Studies in Hist. and Jur._, 850.
[840] WRIGHT, in _Arena_, V, 141, 143. See also his _Practical
Sociology_, 170 ff.; and compare the article of SAVAGE,
"Matrimony and the State," _Forum_, X, 117 ff.; that of JANES,
"Divorce Sociologically Considered," _New Englander_, May, 1891,
395-402; and that of ADLER, "The Ethics of Divorce," in _Ethical
Record_, II, 200-209; III, 1-7.
This brings us to the root of the matter: the need of a loftier
popular ideal of the marriage relation. "An ounce of prevention is
worth a pound of cure." While bad legislation and a low standard
of social ethics continue to throw recklessly wide the door which
opens to wedlock, there must of necessity be a broad way out.
How ignorantly, with what utter levity,[841] are marriages often
contracted; how many thousands of parents fail to give their
children any serious warning against yielding to transient impulse
in choosing a mate; how few have received any real training with
respect to the duties and responsibilities of conjugal life! What
proper check is society placing upon the marriage of the unfit? Is
there any boy or girl so immature if only the legal age of consent
has been reached; is there any "delinquent" so dangerous through
inherited tendencies to disease or crime; is there any worn out
debauchee, who cannot somewhere find a magistrate or a priest to tie
the "sacred" knot? It is a very low moral sentiment which tolerates
modern wife-purchase or husband-purchase for bread, title, or social
position. "As our laws stare us in the face," exclaims an eloquent
writer, "there is no man so drunken, so immoral, so brutal, so
cruel, that he may not take to himself the purest, the most refined,
the most sensitive of women to wife, if he can get her. There is
no woman so paltry, so petty, so vain, so inane, so enfeebled in
body and mind by corsets or chloral, flirtation, or worse, that she
may not become the wife of an intellectual, honorable man, and the
mother of his doomed children. There is no pauper who may not wed a
pauper and beget paupers to the end of his story. There is no felon
returned from his prison, or loose upon society uncondemned, who may
not make a base play at wedlock, and perpetuate his diseased soul
and body in those of his descendants, without restraint. There is
no member of what we call our 'respectable' classes who may not, if
he choose, make a mock of the awful name of marriage, in sacrilege
to which we are so used that we scarcely lift an eyelid to suppress
surprise or aversion at the sickening variety of the offence."[842]
[841] The following newspaper paragraph relating to a notorious
wedding resort in Michigan illustrates the shocking frivolity
with which the most important of human relations is sometimes
treated: "It is estimated that fully 20,000 people will visit
this city tomorrow to attend the third annual Maccabees'
county picnic.... It is thought tomorrow will prove to be the
greatest day in the history of St. Joseph as the Gretna Green
of Chicago.... Fully forty-four bridal couples will arrive from
Chicago to take advantage of being married free, as is offered
by the Maccabees in a part of their program. The parties with
matrimonial intentions, upon calling at Marriage Temple, will
be furnished by County Clerk Needham with their license and a
handsome marriage certificate, free of charge, provided they
consent to be married in public from the verandah of the hotels.
Any clergyman in the city, upon request ... , will officiate.
Hundreds of excursionists from Indiana will come for the express
purpose of witnessing the ceremonies." On this point read the
interesting article of DENDY, "Marriage in East London," _Cont.
Rev._, LXV, 427-32.
[842] ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS, "Women's Views of Divorce," _North
Am. Rev._, CL, 130, 131.
It is vain to conceal from ourselves the fact that here is a real
menace to society. Marriages thus formed are almost sure to be
miserable failures from the start. It is the simple truth, as
earnest writers have insisted, that often under such conditions the
nuptial ceremony is but a legal sanction of "prostitution within the
marriage bond," whose fruit is wrecked motherhood and the feeble,
base-born children of unbridled lust. The command to "be fruitful
and multiply," under the selfish and thoughtless interpretation
which has been given it, has become a heavy curse to womanhood
and a peril to the human race.[843] On the face of it, is it not
grotesque to call such unions holy or to demand that they shall be
indissoluble? What chance is there under such circumstances for
a happy family life or for worthy home-building? In sanctioning
divorce the welfare of the children may well cause the state
anxiety; but are there not thousands of so-called "homes" from whose
corrupting and blighting shadow the sooner a child escapes the
better for both it and society?
[843] _Cf._ FLOWER, "Prostitution Within the Marriage Bond,"
_Arena_, XIII, 59-73; _idem_, "Wellsprings of Immorality,"
_ibid._, XI, 56-70; HEINZEN, _The Rights of Women and the Sexual
Relations_, 44 ff.; STETSON, _Women and Economics_, 63 ff.;
CAIRD, _Morality of Marriage_, 73-91, 134 ff., discussing the
influence of the Reformation upon sensuality; KARL PEARSON,
"Socialism and Sex," in his _Ethic of Free Thought_, 427-46, on
the alleged evil influence of Luther on the sex-relations; BEBEL,
_Die Frau und der Sozialismus_, 93 ff., taking the opposite view
as to Luther, and considering the causes of the decline in the
birth and marriage rates.
The traditional opinion is represented by NAUMANN, _Christenthum
und Familie_, 21, 22, who believes in getting children at all
hazards, relying on God to take care of them: "Es gibt auch
Christen," he says, "welche sich vor Entfaltung des vollen
Gottessegens in den Ehen fürchten, ganz als ob es nicht wahr
wäre: was unser Gott erschaffen hat, das will er auch erhalten.
In unsern Augen ist es Glaubensschwäche, wenn ein christliches
Volk sich vor dem Gottessegen reicher, blühender Kinderschaaren
fürchtet." On the same side see HARTMANN, _The Sexes Compared_,
28 ff.; POMEROY, _The Ethics of Marriage_, 45 ff., 94 ff. For
an antidote read the able discussion of the diminishing need
of child-bearing under modern conditions, by OLIVE SCHREINER,
"The Woman Question," _Cosmopolitan_, XXVIII, 51 ff.; and LADY
SOMERSET, "The Welcome Child," _Arena_, XII, 42-49; criticised
by USSHER, _Neo-Malthusianism_, 101 ff., 201. _Cf._ WRIGHT,
_Practical Sociology_, 68 ff.; BERTHEAU, _Lois de la population_,
299 ff., 342 ff.
How shall the needed reform be accomplished? The raising of ideals
is a slow process. It will not come through the statute-maker,
though he can do something to provide a legal environment favorable
for the change. It must come through an earnest and persistent
educational effort which shall fundamentally grapple with the
whole group of problems which concern the related, though distinct,
institutions of marriage, the home, and the family. In this work
every grade in the educational structure, from the university to
the kindergarten and the home circle, must have its appropriate
share. Already a few of our higher institutions have made a worthy
beginning. Departments of physical culture, economics, history, and
sociology are providing instruction of real value. But the movement
should become universal; and the curriculum should be broadened and
deepened. The actual concrete problems must be dealt with frankly
and without flinching. To gain the right perspective it is highly
important that a thorough historical basis should be laid through
the study of ethnology, comparative religion, and the evolution
of cultural, economic, and matrimonial institutions. Moreover,
the elements of such a training in domestic sociology should find
a place in the public school program. If need be, a little more
arithmetic or a little more Latin may be sacrificed. Where now,
except perhaps in an indirect or perfunctory way, does the school
boy or girl get any practical suggestion as to home-building, the
right social relations of parent and child, much less regarding
marriage and the fundamental questions of the sexual life? In this
field the home, as the complement or coadjutor of the school and the
state, has a precious opportunity. Indeed, our inspiring hope lies
in the fact that, in spite of unfavorable conditions, many homes,
presided over by enlightened parents, are discharging worthily, if
not yet ideally, the high function of social training. Here father,
mother, and child are equal members of the "trinity." Here it is
held as binding an obligation and as joyous a privilege for the
parents to honor their children as for the children to honor their
parents. Of a truth, is there anything on earth more beautiful and
inspiring than the real companionship of parent and child; than a
home life in which the characters of the young are molded and their
faculties drawn out by free and frank discussion with their elders;
where mutual love is based on mutual respect? But what shall be said
of the opposite picture--of the countless families in which mother
and child still cower before the paternal despot; where authority
and not reason prevails; where, as in the good old colonial days,
the child is harshly thrust into the background and his insistent
individualism is insulted and repressed? Before the home can become
a healthful school for social education, parents must themselves be
trained; they must become aware of their real place in the social
order.
In the future educational program sex questions must hold an
honorable place. Progress in this direction may be slow, because
of the false shame, the prurient delicacy, now widely prevalent
touching everything connected with the sexual life. Nor is it a
light matter to brave orthodox sentiment in this regard. It is not
always safe for the teacher, even in institutions deeming themselves
modern, to deal frankly with the organic facts which are of vital
concern to the human race. The folly of parents in leaving their
children in ignorance of the laws of sex is notorious. Yet how much
safer than ignorance is knowledge as a shield for innocence. The
daughter will face the vicissitudes of life more securely if she
has been told of the destiny that awaits her as wife and mother;
if she has been warned of the snares with which lust has beset
the path of womanhood. The son is likely to live a nobler life if
he has learned to repudiate the dual standard of sexual morality
which a spurious philosophy has set up; if he understands that
"instincts" may be safely controlled; if he has been warned that
selfish excesses within or without the marriage bond must be dearly
paid for by the coming generations. Indeed, it is of the greatest
moment to society that the young should be trained in the general
laws of heredity. Everywhere men and women are marrying in utter
contempt of the warnings of science. Domestic animals are literally
better bred than human beings. Through ignorance and defiance of the
rules of health, we are destroying our physical constitutions. Under
the plea of "romantic love" we blindly yield to sexual attractions
in choosing our mates, selfishly ignoring the welfare of the race.
Is there not a higher ideal of conjugal choice? Experience shows
that in wedlock natural and sexual selection should play a smaller
and artificial selection a larger rôle.[844] The safety of the
social body requires that a check be put upon the propagation of
the unfit. Here the state has a function to perform. In the future
much more than now, let us hope, the marriage of persons mentally
delinquent or tainted by hereditary disease or crime will be legally
restrained. Yet law can do relatively little. A reform of this kind
must of necessity depend mainly upon a better educated popular
sentiment; upon a higher altruism which shall be capable of present
sacrifice for the permanent good of the race. "When human beings and
families rationally subordinate their own interests as perfectly to
the welfare of future generations as do animals under the control
of instinct the world will have a more enduring type of family
life than exists at present. This can only be accomplished by the
development of controlling ideals which are supported not only by
reason and intelligence but by ethical impulse and religious motive.
This larger altruism which protects the permanent interests of the
future against the more temporary values of the present must be
of the heart as much as of the head.... In the mating of men and
women, money, social position, worldly expediency, the conventional
and fictitious values so influential in these days, will count for
much less, while organic health and efficiency, character, unselfish
devotion to high ideals, to the great world interests will count
for far more. In this obedience to ideals so farsighted, romantic
love will not be lost in any way, as some seem to fear. Men and
women will not choose one another in cold blood simply because
intelligence and reason point the way, but human sentiment and
every romantic quality will be enhanced when permanent and future
interests are furthered by a saner and finer human choice."[845]
[844] For a radical discussion of this topic, see STANLEY,
"Artificial Selection and the Marriage Problem," _Monist_, II,
51 ff.; _idem_, "Our Civilization and the Marriage Problem,"
_Arena_, II, 94-100. He is criticised by WALLACE, "Human
Selection," _Fort. Rev._, XLVIII, 325 ff. An extreme position
is taken by GRANT ALLEN, "The Girl of the Future," _Universal
Rev._, May, 1890; and "Plain Words on the Woman Question," _Fort.
Rev._, Oct., 1889. _Cf._ WERTHEIMER, "Homiculture," _Nineteenth
Century_, XXIV, 390-92.
[845] See DR. THOMAS D. WOOD'S able paper, _Some Controlling
Ideals of the Family Life of the Future_, 27.
There is then no need to despair of the future. It is vain to turn
back the hand on the dial. The problem of individual liberty has
become the problem of social liberty. Individualization for the sake
of socialization must continue its beneficent work. There must be
growth, constant readjustment. Marriage will in truth be holy if it
rests on the free trothplight of equals whose love is deep enough
to embrace a rational regard for the rights of posterity. The home
will not have less sanctity when through it flows the stream of the
larger human life. The family will, indeed, survive; but it will
be a family of a higher type. Its evolution is not yet complete.
Coercive ties will still further yield to voluntary spiritual ties;
for individual liberty appears to be the essential condition of
social progress.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX
Apparently no successful attempt has ever been made to prepare a
complete and systematic bibliography of matrimonial institutions.
Indeed, to do so would be a formidable undertaking; but that such a
book would be of vast service to social history no one can doubt.
Useful lists of authorities, however, are appended to the works of
various writers, notably to Lubbock's _Origin of Civilization_;
Starcke's _Primitive Family_; Chamberlain's _Child and Childhood_;
Lehr's _Le mariage_; and especially Westermarck's _Human Marriage_.
For marriage with kindred, including the deceased wife's sister,
there is a good, though not exhaustive, bibliography by A. H. Huth
in the _Report of the First Annual Meeting of the Index Society_
(London, 1879), 25-47; greatly enlarged in his _Marriage of Near
Kin_ (2d ed., London, 1887), 394-465. Ethbin Heinrich Costa's
_Bibliographie der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte_ (Braunschweig, 1858)
is helpful, particularly for the earlier monographic literature.
For supplementary materials, especially the curiosities of the
subject, consult Hugo Hayn's _Bibliotheca Germanorum erotica:
Verzeichniss der gesammten deutschen erotischen Literatur mit
Einschluss der Uebersetzungen, nebst Angabe der fremden Originale_
(2d ed., Leipzig, 1885); the same writer's _Bibliotheca Germanorum
nuptialis_ (Cologne, 1890); and the well-known _Bibliographie des
ouvrages relatifs à l'amour, aux femmes, au mariage_, etc. (3d ed.,
6 vols., San Remo, London, Nice, and Turin, 1871-73). Legal works on
marriage and related institutions are included in Martin Lipenius's
_Bibliotheca realis juridica omnium materiarum, rerum, et titulorum,
in universo universi juris ambitu occurrentium, post F. G. Struvii
et G. A. Jenichenii curas emendata ... et locupletata_ (2 vols.,
folio, Leipzig, 1757); but of much more service for the present
purpose is the great work of J. F. von Schulte, _Die Geschichte der
Quellen und Literatur des canonischen Rechts von Gratian bis auf die
Gegenwart_ (3 vols., bound in 4, Stuttgart, 1875-80). Many recent
publications are entered in George K. Fortescue's _Subject Index of
the Modern Works Added to the Library of the British Museum in the
Years 1880-1895_ (3 vols., London, 1886-97); while Poole's _Index_
contains the titles of more than 1,200 articles on various phases of
the subject, including woman in her family relations.
For topical analysis of the literature presented in this
Bibliographical Index consult the critical and descriptive notes at
the heads of the respective chapters.
I. EARLY HISTORY OF MATRIMONIAL INSTITUTIONS
Abercromby, John. "Marriage Customs of the Mordvins." _Folklore_, I,
417-62. London, 1890.
Achelis, A. "Die Geschlechtsgenossenschaft und die Entwickelung der
Ehe." _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin_, XXV,
Heft 4. Berlin, 1890.
Achelis, T. "Die Entwicklung der Ehe." _Beiträge zur Volks- und
Völkerkunde_, II. Berlin, 1893.
------ "The Historical Development of the Family." _Open Court_, II,
806, 807. Chicago, 1888-89.
Adam, Lucien. Du parler des hommes et du parler des femmes dans la
langue caraibe. Paris, 1879.
Adams, Henry. Historical Essays, New York, 1891.
Alabaster, Ernest. Notes and Commentaries on Chinese Criminal Law.
London, 1899.
_American Anthropologist._ 11 vols. Washington, 1888-98.
_American Antiquarian._ 20 vols. Chicago, 1879-98.
American Association for the Advancement of Science. _Proceedings._
47 vols. Philadelphia, Cambridge, and Salem, 1849-98.
Amram, D. W. "Divorces on Condition [Hebrew]." _Green Bag_, III,
381-83. Boston, 1891.
------ "Chapters from the Ancient Jewish Law: Divorce." _Ibid._, IV,
36 ff., 493 ff. Boston, 1892.
------ The Jewish Law of Divorce. Philadelphia, 1896.
Anchieta, Padre José d'. "Informacão dos casamentos dos Indios do
Brazil." _Revista trimensal de historia e geographia_, VIII (1846),
254-62. Rio de Janeiro, 1867.
_Annales de l'Institut international de sociologie._ Publiées
sous la direction de René Worms. II, "Travaux du second congrès,
septembre-octobre 1895." Paris, 1896.
_Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland_, _Journal
of_. 26 vols. London, 1872-97.
Araki, Toratoro. Japanisches Ehoschliessungsrecht: eine
historisch-kritische Studie. Inaugural-Dissertation. Göttingen, 1893.
Atkinson, J. J. Primal Law. London, New York, and Bombay, 1903.
Avery, J. "Polyandry in India and Thibet." _American Antiquarian and
Oriental Journal_, IV, 48-53.
------ "The Races of the Indo-Pacific Oceans: Polynesians."
_American Antiquarian_, VI, 361-69. Chicago, 1884.
Ayrer, Georg Heinrich. De jure connubiorum apud Romanos quam sub
divini numinis tutela, etc. Göttingen, 1736.
Backer, Louis de. Le droit de la femme dans l'antiquité: son devoir
au moyen âge. A. Claudin, éditeur. Paris, 1880.
Bachofen, J. J. Das Mutterrecht: eine Untersuchung über die
Gynaikokratie der alten Welt nach ihrer religiösen und rechtlichen
Natur. Stuttgart, 1861.
------ Die Sage von Tanaquil. Heidelberg, 1870.
------ Antiquarische Briefe. Strassburg, 1886.
Bader, Clarisse. La femme dans l'Inde antique: études morales et
littéraires. 2d ed. Paris, 1867.
------ La femme biblique, son influence religieuse, sa vie morale et
sociale. New ed., revised and corrected. Paris, 1873.
------ La femme grecque: étude de la vie antique. 2 vols. 2d ed.
Paris, 1873.
------ La femme romaine: étude de la vie antique. 2d ed. Paris, 1877.
Baegert, Jacob. "An Account of the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the
Californian Peninsula." Trans. by Charles Rau. _Report of the
Smithsonian Institution_ for 1864, 378-99. Washington, 1865.
Bagehot, Walter. Physics and Politics. London, 1872.
Ball, B. W. "The Rights of Women in Ancient Athens." _Atlantic
Monthly_, XXVII, 273-86. Boston, 1871.
Bandelier, A. P. "On the Social Organization and Mode of Government
of the Ancient Mexicans." _Report of the Peabody Museum_, II,
557-699. Cambridge, 1880.
Bardesan (_ca._ 250 A. D.). Book of the Laws of Countries.
(Identical with his De Fato.) Trans. in William Cureton's
Spicilegium syriacum. London, 1855.
Baring-Gould, S. "Marriage." In his Germany, Present and Past,
96-126. New York, n. d.
Baron, J. "Das Heirathen in alten und neuen Gesetzen." In R.
Virchow and I. von Holtzendorff's _Sammlung gemeinverständlicher
wissenschaftlicher Vorträge_. Berlin, 1874.
Barthélemy, Anatole de. "Le droit du seigneur." _Revue des questions
historiques_, I, 95-123. Paris, 1866.
Bastian, A. "Ueber die Eheverhältnisse." _ZFE._, VI.
------ "Matriarchat und Patriarchat." _Ibid._, _Verhandlungen_,
331-41. Berlin, 1886.
Bastian, A. Die Rechtsverhältnisse bei verschiedenen Völkern der
Erde. Berlin, 1872.
Baway, Ahamadu. "The Marriage Customs of the Moors of Ceylon."
_Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, Ceylon Branch, X, 219-33.
Colombo, 1888.
Beauchamp, W. M. "Permanence of Early Iroquois Clans and
Sachemships." _Proceedings of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science_, XXXIV, 381-92. Salem, 1886.
------ "Aboriginal Communal Life in America." _American
Antiquarian_, IX, 343-50. Chicago, 1887.
Beckwith, Paul. "Notes on Customs of the Dakotahs." _Report of the
Smithsonian Institution_ for 1886, Part I, 245-57. Washington, 1889.
Bergel, J. Die Eheverhältnisse der alten Juden im Vergleiche mit den
griechischen und römischen. Leipzig, 1881.
Bernhöft, F. Staat und Recht der römischen Königszeit im Verhältniss
zu verwandten Rechten. Stuttgart, 1882.
------ Verwandtschaftsnamen und Eheformen der nordamerikanischen
Volksstämme. Rostock, 1888.
------ "Ueber die Grundlagen der Rechtsentwicklung bei den
indogermanischen Völkern." _ZVR._, II. Stuttgart, 1880.
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------ "Studien über Frauengemeinschaft, Frauenraub und
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------ "Studien über zwei babylonische Rechtsurkunden aus der
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