THE BEGINNING OF THE NEBULA.
Nebula not of Infinite Duration—8,300 Coal-Units was the Total Energy
of the System—460 Miles a Second—Solar Nebula from a
Collision—What we Know as to the Colliding Bodies—Probability of
Celestial Collisions—Multitudes of Dark Objects—New Star in
Perseus—Characteristics of New Stars—Incandescent Hydrogen—The
Ruby in the Spectrum—Photographs of the Spectrum—Rarity of a
Collision on a Scale Adequate to a Solar System.
WHATEVER may have been the antiquity of the actual elements that formed
the primæval nebula from which the solar system has been evolved, the
nebula itself has certainly not been of infinite duration. The question
then arises as to what has been the origin of the nebula as such, or
rather by what agency the material from which the nebula was formed
underwent so radical a transformation from its previous condition as to
be changed into that glowing object which we have considered so
frequently in this book. We have to explain how, by the operation of
natural causes, a dark body can be transformed into a glowing nebula.
Let us first estimate what the quantity of energy in that system is. The
sun has been pouring forth heat for inimitable ages, and will doubtless
continue to pour forth heat for millions of years to come. But the
destiny which awaits the sun, though it may be protracted, yet cannot be
averted. The sun will go on pouring forth its heat and gradually
shrinking. The time will come at last when the radius of the sun will
have appreciably decreased, and when once it has assumed a density
corresponding to a solid state its history as a radiant globe will be
approaching its close. A period of insignificant extent, a century or
less, will then suffice for that solid globe to cool down so as to be no
longer an efficient source of light and heat. We shall assume that when
the sun has ultimately become solid and cold, and when it is no longer
the life and light of our system, it will have attained a mean density
of 21.5, which we have chosen because that is the density of platinum,
the heaviest substance known. In all probability the solar density will
never become so great as this, but to include the most extreme case in
our argument I am making the assumption in the form stated. We are now
to estimate what will have been the total energy that the sun has
radiated from the moment when as an indefinitely great nebula it first
began to radiate at all, down to that moment in the future when, having
shrunk to the density of platinum, and having parted with all its heat,
the solar radiation is at an end.
In the beginning of the evolutionary history the sun was a nebula, which
we have supposed to extend in every direction to an indefinitely great
distance. The system has resulted from the contraction of that nebula,
and the energy liberated in that contraction has supplied the sun’s
radiation. We calculate (_see_ Appendix) the energy that would be given
out in the contraction of a nebula whose materials were originally at
infinity, and which ultimately coalesced to form a cold, solid globe of
the density of platinum, and as heavy as the sun. There is no object in
attempting to express this quantity of energy in foot-pounds—the figures
would convey no distinct impression—we shall employ the coal-unit
explained in Chapter VI. We imagine a globe of coal the weight of the
sun; then, if that globe of coal were adequately supplied with oxygen,
it would, on combustion, give out a certain amount of heat, which is a
convenient unit for our measurements. It is demonstrated that the
quantity of energy given out by the contraction of the nebula from
infinity, to this globe of the density of platinum, would be about equal
to the quantity of energy which would be produced by the combustion of
8,300 globes of coal as heavy as the sun, an adequate contribution of
oxygen being supposed to be supplied. This expresses the original
endowment of energy in the solar system, or rather a major limit to that
endowment; it shows that the solar system can never have developed more
energy by contraction than that which could be produced by the
combustion of 8,300 globes of coal as heavy as the sun. We may mention
that of this great endowment of energy an amount which is rather less
than half (3,400) has been already expended, so that rather more than
half of the sun’s career as a radiant globe may yet have to be run.
We can also express the total energy of the solar system in a different
manner. We shall consider what must be the velocity of the sun, so that
the energy that it will possess, in virtue of that velocity, shall be
equal to the energy which could be produced by the combustion of 8,300
globes of coal of the same weight. This calculation is very much
simplified by making use of a principle which we have already stated and
applied in Chapter V. We have shown that if a piece of coal be animated
with a velocity of five miles a second, the energy it possesses in
virtue of that motion is equal to the energy produced by the coal in the
act of combustion. If a body were moving at the rate of, let us say, 100
miles a second—its speed being then twenty times as great as the
particular speed just mentioned—its energy, which depends on the square
of the velocity, would be 400 times as much as would be produced by the
burning of a piece of coal equal to it in weight. We can easily
calculate that if the sun were moving at a speed of 460 miles a second,
it would possess, in virtue of its motion, as much energy as would be
generated by the contraction of the primæval nebula from infinity down
to a globe of the density of platinum.
It is thus easy to form a supposition as to how the nebula constituting
our solar system may have come into being; most probably it originated
in this way. Let us suppose that two masses, either dark or bright,
either hot or of the temperature of space, or the temperature of frozen
air, were moving with speeds of 460 miles a second. No doubt the
velocities we are here postulating are very high velocities, but they
are not unprecedentedly high. We know of stars which at this present
moment move quite as fast, so that there is nothing unreasonable in our
supposition so far as the velocities are concerned. Let us suppose that
each of these bodies had a mass which is half that of our present solar
system. If these two bodies dashed into collision, when moving from
opposite directions, the effect of the blow would be to transform the
energy into heat. That heat would be so great that it would be
sufficient not alone to render these globes red-hot and white-hot, but
even to fuse them—nay, further, to drive them into vapour, even to a
vapour which might expand to an enormously great distance. In other
words, it is quite conceivable that a collision of two such masses as we
have here supposed might be adequate to the formation of a nebula such
as that one which in the lapse of indefinite ages has shaped itself into
the solar system.
Before the collision, which resulted in the formation of the nebula,
each of these bodies, or rather their centres of gravity, would be
moving in what may be regarded for the moment as straight lines, and a
plane through those two straight lines will be a plane which for ever
afterwards will stand in important relation to the system. It will be,
in fact, that principal plane of which we have so often spoken.
As those two bodies met they would possess a certain moment of momentum,
and this moment of momentum would remain for ever unaltered, no matter
what may be the future vicissitudes of the system.
For the sake of simplicity in describing what has occurred, we have
spoken as if the two bodies were of equal mass, and, moving with equal
velocities from opposite points of the heavens, dashed into collision.
But what actually happens cannot have been quite so symmetrical. There
is one feature in the solar system which absolutely proves that the
collision cannot have taken place precisely in the way we have laid
down. If it had happened that two equal masses had been hurled into
collision with equal velocities from precisely opposite directions, then
there could have been no resultant moment of momentum. From the
principle of the conservation of moment of momentum, we can see that, if
absent in the beginning, it could never originate later. As, however, we
have a large moment of momentum in the movements of the planets and the
sun, it is certain that the collision cannot have taken place in a
manner quite so simple.
[Illustration: Fig. 53.—CLUSTER WITH STARS OF 17TH MAGNITUDE
(n.g.c. 6705; in Antinous).
(_Photographed by Dr. Isaac Roberts, F.R.S._)]
The probabilities of the case show that it is almost infinitely unlikely
that two bodies of equal dimensions, and moving with equal velocities in
opposite directions, should come squarely into collision. It would be
much more likely that the bodies should be not of the same size, not
moving with the same velocity, and should collide partially rather than
squarely. The collision may have been, in fact, little more than a
graze. The probabilities of the case are such as to show that what
actually occurred was a collision between two unequal masses, which were
moving in directions inclined to each other and with different
velocities. It is easy to show that, granted sufficiently great
velocities, an impact which fell far short of direct collision might
still produce enough heat to transform the whole solar system into
vapour.
The circumstances which would naturally accompany so transcendent an
incident will also go far to account for a difficulty which has been
often felt with regard to the evolution of the system from a nebula.
Were such a collision to take place we should certainly not expect that
the resulting nebulous mass, the product of a shock of such stupendous
violence, would be a homogeneous or symmetrical object. Portions of the
colliding body would become more highly heated than others; portions of
the bodies would not be so completely transformed into vapour as would
other parts. There would thus be differences in the nebula at the
different parts of its mass. This non-homogeneity would be connected
with the formation and growth of planets in the different parts of the
nebula.
There is another circumstance connected with the movement of the sun
which should here be mentioned. It is well known that the sun has a
velocity which carries it on through space at the rate of half a million
miles a day. In this movement the whole solar system, of course,
participates. This movement of translation of our system must also be a
result of the movements of the two original colliding masses. These two
masses imparted to the system, which resulted from their union, both the
lineal velocity with which it advances through space, and also that
moment of momentum which is of such vast importance in the theory.
A consideration of the probabilities of the case make it quite certain
that the celestial bodies we see are as nothing compared with the dark
bodies we do not see. The stars we see are moving, and the natural
assumption is that the dark objects with which the heavens teem are also
in motion. We shall, under these conditions, not feel any insuperable
difficulty in the supposition that collisions between different bodies
in the heavens may have taken place from time to time. We remember that
these bodies are moving in all directions, and at extremely high
velocities. We are quite willing to grant the excessive improbability
that any two bodies particularly specified should come into collision.
Within view of our telescopes we have, however, a hundred millions of
stars, and if we multiply that figure even by millions, it will still,
we may well suppose, not be too large to express the number of bodies
which, though contained within the region of space ranged over by our
telescopes, are still totally invisible. In these circumstances, we may
admit that occasional collisions are not impossible. Please note the
strength which the argument derives from the enormous increase in our
estimate of the number of bodies, when we include the dark objects as
well as the stars. If we were asked whether it would ever be possible
for two bright stars to come into collision, we might well hesitate
about the answer. We know, of course, that the stars have proper
motions; we know, too, that the stars, in this respect unlike the
planets, have no definite directions of movement under the control of a
supreme co-ordinating attraction. Some stars move to the right, and some
to the left, some one way and some another; but even still,
notwithstanding their great number, the extent of space is such that the
stars keep widely apart, and thus collisions can hardly be expected to
take place, unless perhaps in a cluster such as that shown in Fig. 53.
We have no reason to think that a collision between two actual bright
stars was the origin of the primæval nebula of our system. But when we
reflect that the stars, properly so called, are but the visible members
of an enormously greater host of objects, then the possibilities of
occasional collision between a pair of these incomparably more abundant
dark bodies seems to merit our close attention. We are not by any means
claiming that such collisions occur frequently. But what we do say is,
that if, as we believe, these bodies are to be reckoned in many millions
of millions, then it does sometimes happen that two of them, moving
about in space, will approach together sufficiently to give rise to a
collision. It was from some such collision that we believe the nebula
took its rise from which the solar system originated.
We have the best reason for knowing that celestial collisions do
sometimes occur. It will be in the recollection of the readers of this
chapter that in February, 1901, the astronomical world was startled by
the announcement of the outbreak of a new star in Perseus. A photograph
of that part of the heavens had been taken a few days before. There were
the ordinary stars, such as existed from time immemorial, and such as
have been represented on the numerous maps in which the stars are
faithfully set down. But, on February 22nd, Dr. Anderson, already famous
by similar discoveries, noticed that the constellation of Perseus
contained a star which he had not seen before. Instantly the
astronomical world was apprised by telegraph that a new star had
appeared in Perseus, and forthwith most diligent attention was paid to
its observation. Photographs then obtained show the stars that had been
seen there before, with the addition of the new star that had suddenly
come into view. For a few nights after its discovery the object
increased in lustre, until it attained a brightness as great as that of
Capella or Vega. But in this state it did not long remain. This
brilliant object began to wane. Presently it could not be classed as a
star of the first magnitude, nor yet of the second, and then it ran down
until a little below the third, and even below the fourth. In the
subsequent decline of the star there were several curious oscillations.
On one night the star might be seen, the next night it would be hardly
discerned, while the night after it had again risen considerably. But,
notwithstanding such temporary rallies, the brightness, on the whole,
declined, until at last the star dwindled to the dimensions of a small
point of light, scarcely distinguishable with the naked eye. The decline
was apparently not so rapid as the increase, but nevertheless from the
first moment of its appearance to the last was not longer than a few
weeks.
This new star in Perseus established, in one sense, a record. For the
star was brighter than any new star which had been noticed since the
days of accurate astronomical observations. Not indeed for three
centuries had a star of such lustre sprung into existence. But a
temporary star, such as this was, has been by no means an infrequent
occurrence. Many such have been recorded. Those who have been acquainted
with astronomical matters for thirty years will recollect four or five
such stars. In each of them the general character was somewhat the same.
There was a sudden outbreak, and then a gradual decline. The questions
have sometimes arisen as to whether the outbreak of such an object is
really the temporary exaltation of a star which was previously visible,
or whether it ought not to be regarded as the creation of a totally new
star. In some cases it does seem possible that a new star may have been
partly, at all events, due to a large increase of brightness of some
star which had been known before. In the case of Nova Persei, however,
we have the best authority that this is not the case. Professor
Pickering, the distinguished astronomer of Harvard College Observatory,
happened to photograph the region in which Nova Persei appeared a few
days before the outbreak took place. He tells us that there is not the
least indication on his photograph of the presence of a star in that
region.
[Illustration: Fig. 54.—SPECTRUM OF NOVA PERSEI (1901).
(_Photographed with the 40 in. Yerkes Telescope by Mr. Ferdinand
Ellerman._)]
The spectrum of Nova Persei, in an instrument of sufficient power,
appeared a truly magnificent object. Like other stellar spectra, it
displayed the long line of light marked with the hues of the rainbow,
but it was unlike the spectra of ordinary stars in respect of the
enormous enhancements of the brightness at various parts of this
spectrum. For instance, at one end of the long coloured band a brilliant
ruby line glowed with a lustre that would at once attract attention, and
demonstrated that the object under view must be something totally
different from ordinary stars. This superb feature is one of the lines
of hydrogen. The presence of that line showed that m the source from
which the light came there must have been a remarkable outbreak of
incandescent hydrogen gas. At various points along the spectrum there
were other beautiful bright lines which, in each case, must have been
due to glowing gas. Here we have the evidence of the spectrum telling us
in unmistakable language that there were features in this star wholly
unlike the features found in any ordinary star. It is impossible to
dissociate these facts from the history of the star. Much of what we
have said with regard to the spectrum of Nova Persei might be repeated
with regard to the spectrum of the other temporary stars which, from
time to time, have burst forth. In each case the spectrum characteristic
of an ordinary star is present, but superadded to it are bright lines
which indicate that some great convulsion has taken place, a convulsion
by which vast volumes of gas have been rendered incandescent. In Fig. 54
we show the spectrum of Nova Persei on five dates, from February 27th to
March 28th, 1901. These photographs were taken by Mr. Ferdinand Ellerman
with the great telescope of the Yerkes Observatory. They show in the
clearest manner the bright lines indicating the incandescent gases.
We have pointed out the high probability that among the millions and
millions of bodies in the universe it may now and then happen that a
collision takes place. Have we not also explained how the heat generated
in virtue of such a collision might be sufficient, and, indeed, much
more than sufficient, to raise the masses of the two colliding bodies to
a state of vivid incandescence? A collision affords the simplest
explanation of the sudden outbreak of the star, and also accounts for
the remarkable spectrum which the star exhibits.
------------------------------------------------------------------------