SPIRAL AND PLANETARY NEBULÆ.
A Substitute for History—Photograph of the Great Spiral taken at the
Lick Observatory—Solar System Relations Unimportant—Chaotic
Nebulæ—Lord Rosse’s Great Discovery—Dr. Roberts’ Photographs—The
Astonishing Discovery of Professor Keeler—The Perspective of the
Spirals—The Spiral Nebulæ are not Gaseous—The Spiral is a Nebula in
an advanced Stage of Development—Character of the Great Nebula in
Andromeda.
IN a great college in America a new educational experiment has been
tried with some success. Instead of the instruction in history which
students receive in most other institutions, an attempt has been made in
this college to give instruction in a very different manner, which it is
believed will not be of less educational value than the more ordinary
processes of teaching. In the course of study to which I am now
referring the student is invited to consider, not so much the history of
the development of the Constitution of one particular country, as to
make a broad survey of the different Constitutions under which the
several countries of the world are at this moment governed. The
promoters of this scheme believe that many of the intellectual
advantages which are ordinarily expected to be gained by the study of
the history of one country may be secured equally well by studying only
existing conditions, provided that attention is given to several
countries which have arrived at different stages of civilisation.
Without attempting to say how far the study of the existing
Constitutions of France and Germany, America and Australia, Turkey and
India, Morocco and Fiji, might be justly used to supersede the study of
English history, it may at least be urged that if we had no annals from
which history could be compiled it might be instructive to employ such a
substitute for historical studies as is here suggested. This is, indeed,
the course which we are compelled to take in our study of that great
chapter in earth-history which we are discussing in these pages. It is
obvious from the nature of the case that it can never be possible for us
to obtain direct testimony as to what occurred in the bringing together
of the materials of this globe. We must, therefore, look abroad through
the universe, and see whether we can find, from the study of other
systems at present in various stages of their evolution, illustrations
of the incidents which we may presume to have occurred in the early
stages of our own history.
If Kant had never lived, if Laplace had never announced his Nebular
Theory, if the discoveries of Sir William Herschel had not been made, I
still venture to think that a due consideration of the remarkable
photograph of the famous Great Spiral, which was obtained at the famous
Lick Observatory in California, would have suggested the high
probability of that doctrine which we describe as the Nebular Theory.
[Illustration: Fig. 28.—THE GREAT SPIRAL NEBULA (Lick Observatory).
(_From the Royal Astronomical Series._)]
If an artist thoroughly versed in the great facts of astronomy had been
commissioned to represent the nebular origin of our system as perfectly
as a highly cultivated yet disciplined imagination would permit, I do
not think he could have designed anything which could answer the purpose
more perfectly than does that picture which is now before us. We might
wish indeed that Kant and Laplace and Herschel could have lived to see
this marvellous natural illustration of their views, for photographs
were of course unthought of in those days, and, I need hardly say, that
for any one celestial nebula that could have been known in the times of
Laplace, hundreds are now within the reach of astronomers.
We entreat special attention to this picture which Nature has herself
given us, and which represents what we may not unreasonably conclude to
be a system in a state of formation. Let me say at once that our solar
system, however imposing it may be from our point of view, is but of
infinitesimal importance as compared with the system which is here in
the course of development. It is sometimes urged that it is difficult to
imagine how a system so large as ours could have been produced by
condensation from a primæval nebula. The best answer is found in the
fact that the Great Spiral now before us may be considered to exhibit at
this very moment a system in actual evolution, the central body of which
is certainly thousands of times, and not improbably millions of times,
greater than the sun, and of which the attending planets or other
revolving bodies, are framed on a scale immensely transcending that of
even Jupiter himself. The details of this remarkable nebula seem to
illustrate those particular features which had been previously assigned
to the primæval nebula of our system, long before any photograph was
available for the purpose of their study.
In the Great Nebula in Orion, to which we have already referred, as well
as in many other similar objects which we might also have adduced, the
nebulous material from which after long ages new systems may be the
result, was shown in an extremely chaotic state. It was little more than
an irregular stain of light on the sky. But in the picture of the Great
Spiral which is before us (Fig. 28) it is manifest that the evolution of
the system has reached an advanced stage; such considerable progress has
been made in the actual formation that the final form seems to be
shadowed forth. The luminosity is no longer diffused in a chaotic
condition; it has formed into spirals, and become much condensed at the
centre and somewhat condensed in other regions. As we now see it, the
object seems to represent a system much more advanced in its formation
than any of the other great nebulæ with which we have compared it. In
comparison with it the evolution of such an object as the Great Nebula
in Orion can hardly be said to have begun. But in the Great Spiral many
portions of the nebula have already become outlined into masses which,
though still far from resembling the planets in the solar system, have
at least made some approach thereto while the central portions are being
drawn together, just as we may conceive the great primæval fire-mist to
have drawn together in the actual formation of the sun.
The famous nebula which we are discussing, and which is generally known
as the Great Spiral, is found in the constellation of Canes Venatici,
very near the end star in the tail of the Great Bear, and one-fourth of
the way from it to Cor Caroli. It will be easy to find it from the
indication given in the adjoining Fig. 29. As a nebulous spot it is an
object which can be seen with any moderately good telescope, but to
detect those details which indicate the spiral structure demands an
instrument of first-class power. This object had indeed been studied by
many astronomers before Lord Rosse turned his colossal reflector upon
it. Then it was that the wonderful whirlpool structure was first
discovered, and thus the earliest spiral nebula became known.
[Illustration: Fig. 29.—HOW TO FIND THE GREAT SPIRAL NEBULA.]
In those days there were few telescopes of great power, and none of
those instruments appeared able to deal with this nebula sufficiently to
reveal its spiral character. The announcement of the discovery of the
spiral constitution of this object was therefore received with
incredulity by some astronomers, who believed, or professed to believe,
that the spiral lines of nebulous matter which Lord Rosse described so
faithfully, existed only in the imagination of the astronomer. Indeed,
in one notable instance, it was alleged that these features were to be
attributed to actual imperfections in the unrivalled telescope. The
incredulity widely prevalent in the middle of the last century about the
existence of the spiral nebulæ may be paralleled by the incredulity
about other discoveries in more recent years. When a highly skilled
observer, using an instrument of adequate power, and, it may be,
enjoying unequalled opportunities for good work, testifies to certain
discoveries; when he has employed in the verification of his
observations the skill and experience that years of practice have
procured for him, it is futile for those who have not the like
opportunities, either from the want of instruments of adequate power or
from climatic difficulties, to deny the truth of discoveries because
they are not able to verify them. It was absurd for astronomers to
refuse assent to the great discoveries of Lord Rosse simply because
instruments inferior to his would not show the spiral structure.
In due time, one astronomer after another began to admit that possibly
the remarkable form which Lord Rosse announced as characteristic of some
nebulæ might not be a mere figment of the imagination. The complete
vindication of Lord Rosse’s great discovery was not, however, attained
until that wonderful advance in the arts of astronomy when the
photographic plate was called in to supplement, or rather vastly to
extend, the powers of the eye. Dr. Isaac Roberts not only showed by a
magnificent photograph that the Great Spiral discovered by Lord Rosse
was just as Lord Rosse had described it, he not only showed that the
other spirals announced by Lord Rosse were equally entitled to the name,
but, with the newly acquired powers that the photographic plate placed
at his disposal, he was able to show that many other nebulæ, which had
been frequently observed and had even been sketched, possessed further
features too faint and delicate to be seen by any human eye, even with
the help of the most powerful telescope. These further features were
discovered because they came within the ken of the intensely acute
perception of the photographic plate. On the plate these features which
the camera showed, were added to those which the eye had already
perceived, and when these additions were made it was not infrequently
found that the nebula assumed the form of a spiral. But the most
remarkable circumstance has still to be added. Some of the plates
exposed by Dr. Roberts show clear and unmistakable photographs of spiral
nebulæ as exquisite in detail as the Great Spiral itself, but yet so
faint that they have never been seen by the eye in any telescope
whatever, though they could not elude the photographic plate. Thus, Dr.
Roberts not only confirmed in the most splendid manner that really great
discovery of the spiral nebulæ of which the honour belongs to Lord
Rosse, but the eminent photographic astronomer added many other spirals
of the greatest interest to the list of those objects which Lord Rosse
had himself given.
Though these discoveries placed the fact of the existence of spiral
nebulæ in an impregnable position, and though they greatly increased the
interest with which astronomers study such objects, yet another stop had
to be taken before the spiral nebula attained the position of
extraordinary importance as a celestial object which must now be
acknowledged to be its due.
[Illustration: Fig. 30.—A GROUP OF NEBULÆ (_Lord Rosse_). (3440, 3445 in
n.g.c.)
(_From the Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society._)]
We have already had occasion (page 67) to mention the marvellous
discoveries of nebulæ which the lamented Professor Keeler made with the
Crossley Reflector at the Lick Observatory. We have explained that his
discoveries have shown the number of nebulæ in the heavens to be
probably at least twenty times that which previous observations would
have authorised us in asserting. The mere announcement that 120,000 new
nebulæ were within the reach of a photographic plate attached to the
Crossley Reflector, would, by itself, have been a statement so
remarkable as to command the immediate attention of the scientific
world. But the interest of even this statement shrinks to unimportance
relatively to the further fact which Professor Keeler has added. I do
not know, in the annals of astronomy, a pronouncement of greater
interest, certainly none of more importance for our present purpose,
than the statement that of the 120,000 new nebulæ, at least half are
spirals. Here is indeed a stupendous revolution in our knowledge of the
celestial objects. Fifty years ago Lord Rosse announced the discovery of
a spiral nebula, and the existence of this spiral was doubted at first,
though it was gradually conceded at last. Now we have the announcement,
on the unchallenged evidence of the photographic plate itself, that to
all appearances there are at least 60,000 spiral nebulæ in the heavens.
It is, alas! too true that Professor Keeler did not live long enough to
enumerate all those nebulæ himself, and, indeed, they have not so far
been actually counted, but to those who will study Professor Keeler’s
papers, the evidence of the substantial accuracy of the statement is
incontestable.
[Illustration: Fig. 31.—A RAY NEBULA (_Lord Rosse_). (3628 in n.g.c.)
(_From the Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society._)]
And astonishing as this statement may be, we have still to add that, in
face of the actual facts, it may be regarded as even a moderate estimate
of the abundance of spirals in the universe. We must remember that a
spiral nebula is a flat object with long arms extending from it which
lie nearly in the same plane. If we are actually to see that such an
object is spiral, it is necessary for it to be turned squarely towards
the earth. If the object be too much foreshortened, it is quite plain
that we can hardly expect to detect its spiral character. It is also
obvious if the spiral happens to be turned edgeways towards us, that
then its spiral form cannot be seen; it would merely appear as what
astronomers often call a ray. In the enumeration of the spirals it is
therefore only possible for us to include those which happen to be so
far squarely turned towards the earth as to make their spiral character
unmistakable. We might, therefore, reasonably expect that the numbers of
spiral nebulæ actually counted would fall short of the reality. We know
that there are many nebulæ of a somewhat elliptical shape (Fig. 31).
There are also many nebulæ that look like long rays (Fig. 30). Those who
are familiar with the appearance of nebulæ in great telescopes will
recall at once the numerous spindle-shaped objects of this class. It can
hardly be doubted that many of the nebulæ, more or less oval in form,
and also these rays or the spindle-shaped objects so frequently seen in
good telescopes (Fig. 33) are in reality spiral nebulæ, which are turned
not squarely towards us, but which we are merely looking at more or less
edgewise, so that they have been foreshortened enough to hide their
peculiar structure (Figs. 34, 35). Taking these considerations into
account, it becomes obvious that the estimate of Professor Keeler as to
the number of spiral nebulæ in the heavens, vast as that estimate seems,
may still fall short of the truth. Thus we are led to one of the most
remarkable conclusions of modern astronomy, viz. that the spiral nebula,
next to a star itself, is the most characteristic object in the sidereal
heavens.
In treating of the nebulæ in Chapter IV. we explained those fundamental
features of the different spectra which make it possible to discriminate
with confidence between a nebula which is purely gaseous and a nebula
which cannot be so described. As the spiral nebulæ form a class
characterised among all the other nebulæ by the possession of a very
particular structure, it is interesting to enquire what evidence the
spectrum gives with regard to the nature of the material which enters
into the constitution of the nebulæ which belong to this strongly-marked
group. I do not mean to say that all the 60,000 spirals have been
examined with the spectroscope, but, as already explained on page 67, a
sufficient number have been examined to decide the question. We learn
from Professor Scheiner, a well-known authority on astronomical
spectroscopy, that the spectra of spirals are generally found to be
continuous; in other words, we learn that a spiral nebula is not
gaseous. It does not consist, like, for example, the nebula in Orion, of
vaporous matter in a state of incandescence.
A nebula or a nebulous-looking object which does not give a spectrum of
bright lines, but which does give a continuous spectrum, is not
infrequently set down as being merely a cluster of stars. This is
undoubtedly a true statement with regard to some of these nebulous
objects, but it is not true with regard to all. It is much more
reasonable to suppose that the greater part of the materials of the
spiral nebulæ, though certainly not in the form of gas, are still not
condensed into objects large enough to entitle them to be called stars.
It must be remembered that when an object of a gaseous nature has lost
heat by radiation, and has begun to draw itself together, the gas
condenses into particles which constitute small portions of liquid or
solid, just as the vapour of water in the atmosphere condenses into the
beads of water that form the clouds in our own sky. These small objects,
even if incandescent, would no longer radiate light with the
characteristics of a gaseous nebula. The light they would emit would be
of the same character as that dispensed from the particles of carbon in
the solar photosphere to which the sun owes its light. Radiation from
such a source would give light with a continuous spectrum, like that
from the sun or a star.
From the fact that the spectra of the spiral nebulæ are continuous, we
may infer that, though these nebulæ have reached an advanced stage in
their development, they have not always, and, perhaps, not generally,
attained to the stage in which condensation transformed them into a
cluster of actual stars. They have, however, reached a stage in their
progress towards those systems of large bodies that they are ultimately
to become. The character of its spectrum may show us that the spiral
nebula is not very young, that it has attained a considerable age in its
evolution as compared with other nebulæ which do not show the spiral
character and which have a gaseous spectrum. The importance of this
consideration will be made apparent in the next chapter, when we discuss
the dynamical conditions to which a spiral nebula must submit.
But there is no reason to doubt that some of the spiral nebulæ may be in
reality star-clusters, in which there are aggregations of myriads of
points, each justly entitled by its dimensions and its lustre to be
regarded as a real star. The great nebula in Andromeda seems to be a
greatly foreshortened spiral. This, at least, is the interpretation
which may perhaps be most reasonably given to Dr. Roberts’ famous
photograph of this splendid object. The spectrum of the Andromeda nebula
has been photographed by Scheiner after a protracted exposure of seven
and a half hours. That spectrum showed no trace of bright lines, thus
proving that there is no discernible incandescent gas in the nebula of
Andromeda. It gives practically a continuous spectrum, across which some
broad bands can be recognised. It was interesting to compare this
spectrum of the great nebula in Andromeda with the solar spectrum seen
by the same apparatus and under the same conditions. Professor Scheiner
announces that there was a remarkable coincidence between the two, and
he draws the inference that the stars which enter into the nebula in
Andromeda are stars of that particular type to which the sun belongs.
[Illustration: Fig. 32.—PORTION OF THE MILKY WAY (NEAR MESSIER II.).
(_Photographed by Professor E. E. Barnard._)
(_From the Royal Astronomical Society Series._)]
But we have now to point out how the recent study of nebulæ has afforded
a yet more striking confirmation of the nebular theory. Laplace showed
how a gradually condensing nebula might have formed a sun and a system
of planets. Had Laplace known of the spiral nebulæ he would, I doubt
not, have found in them the most striking illustration of the operation
of evolution on a gigantic scale. They would have provided him with
admirable arguments in support of the nebular theory. It is possible
that they might also have provided suggestions as to the details of the
evolution, which he had not anticipated. But Laplace did not know of
such objects, and we can only deplore the loss of the instructive
lessons which his incomparable genius would have derived from them.
We must, however, admit that the lessons as to the origin of the solar
system, derived from the spiral nebulæ, must be received with due
limitation. We may say at once that the _great_ spiral nebulæ do not
appear to be evolving into systems like the sun and planets; their work
is of a higher order of magnitude altogether. The great spiral nebulæ
seem to be more analogous to galaxies, like the Milky Way (Fig. 32),
than to solar systems. The spiral nebula instead of being described as a
system, should perhaps be described as a system of systems. If the solar
system were drawn to scale on the photograph of the Great Spiral (Fig.
28) the orbit of Neptune would not be larger than the smallest
recognisable dot.
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