wall, from six to ten inches deep,) she proceeds to construct within it,
of the pieces of the leaf she cuts off, several cells, of the shape and
about the size of a thimble, which she inserts successively, the bottom
of one into the mouth of that below it. It takes from nine to twelve
pieces of leaf to complete each cell, and as each is finished she stores
it with a rose-colored conserve made chiefly of pollen and honey,
collected from the flowers of the thistle. When to this magazine of
sweets is superadded the egg from whence its future consumer is to
spring, the provident provider of the store covers in the whole with
three more pieces of leaf, cut in a circle, _as truly accurate as
compasses could describe_. Room being left above the cover for the
insertion of a succeeding cell, our “upholsterer” thus proceeds till her
nursery tunnel is completely filled up.”
* * * “The leaves employed by the leaf-cutter, are materials of somewhat
stubborn texture, those sometimes of the mountain ash, and birch, as
well as the rose, herein enhancing the skill of their employer. It would
seem, however, that pliability and thinness are qualities somewhat
regarded, and most wonderfully discerned by the little artist in
question; for we have noticed in more than one summer, the smooth,
delicate, tender leaves of a dark variety of China rose, almost
scolloped by the circles and ovals of her excision, while the foliage of
the “cabbage” close by, has been left untouched, as if too coarse and
common for her purpose.”—_Acheta Domestica._
Reaumur relates that a gardener at Rouen, once chancing to dig up the
nest of a leaf-cutter bee, was so utterly amazed with the singular skill
of the contrivance that he was terrified, and hastened with it to the
priest of the parish, believing it to be nothing less than the work of
witchcraft. Monsieur le Curé, it appears, had something of the same
suspicions; he advised the man to carry the nest to Paris; the gardener,
however, took it first to a distinguished Naturalist living at Rouen,
who relieved the poor fellow’s mind by opening one of the cases and
showing him the grub within.
We learn that there are several leaf-cutting or upholsterer bees, in the
United States, although it is not probable that either is precisely
similar to that alluded to by Mr. Knapp, and the author of Acheta
Domestica.
NOTE E.
THE ROSE-BEETLE, (_Cetonia Aurata_,) p. 53.
The Rose-Chafer, or Rose-Beetle, the _Cetonia aurata_ of entomologists,
is a beautiful insect, very common in England but unknown in our own
country. “On the back of the corslet burnished green and gold are the
prevailing hues, on breast-plate, cuisse, and gauntlet the lustre of the
precious metal is predominant, mingled with changeable reflections of
purplish crimson,” says the writer of Acheta Domestica. “Like the rest
of its tribe, this pretty beetle undergoes the usual triple
metamorphosis of insect life. From an egg laid within the earth, he
emerges a grub or larva, to feed on roots, most usually those of the
rose. * * Thus, hermit-like, and upon this hermit’s fare, he lives in
dark seclusion for four years, and when these are over, constructs for
himself, about the month of March, a still more straitened cell—an
earth-formed case, resembling a pigeon’s egg. He proceeds, under its
cover, to the second stage of _pupa_—from thence to the third and last
estate; and after remaining another fortnight under ground, for his
enameled mail to acquire hardness, comes forth in all his splendor to
meet the roses. The antennæ are of curious and very elegant formation.
They each terminate in a knob composed of several laminæ or plates,
opening or shutting like the leaves of a book, and which also like a
book, can be put away at the pleasure of their insect owner, on a shelf
or deep cavity on either side its head. They are always thus put
carefully away when the chafer is inactive, or asleep. It has been
noticed as a singular fact that the rose-beetle has been found not
unfrequently, while in its two first stages, the tenant of an ant-hill,
and that without being attacked by its carnivorous inhabitants. It is
hence called, in some countries, “king of the ants;” and it is said also
that German cattle dealers invest it with supernatural powers, and feed
it carefully in beds as a means of insuring prosperity to their herds
and fortunes.”—_Acheta Domestica, second series, p. 72, English
edition._
The true rose-chafer has not been found among our American beetles.
NOTE F.
DYER’S BROOM, (_Genista Tinctoria_) p. 58.
There are many species of Broom in the old world. The common Broom of
England has large, yellow, butterfly-shaped blossoms, and growing, as it
does, in large patches on waste lands, produces a vary brilliant effect
when in bloom. But it is also very useful in its way. The twigs were
probably the first besoms of the housewives of old, in days when witches
were believed to ride on broom-sticks to their gatherings; certain it
is, at least, that our brooms of the present hour derive their name from
the early use of the twigs of the plant for similar purposes.
Cordage, matting, and even coarse cloth have been made of the fibres of
the Broom. Houses are sometimes thatched with the twigs, which have been
also used for tanning instead of oak bark.
It was a sprig of the Broom or Genet, as it is called in French, worn in
the helmet of a count of Anjou, of olden time, which became at length a
family badge, and gave the name of Plantagenet to the race of English
kings, who for three centuries reigned over our forefathers.
Dyer’s Broom, woad-waxen, _genista tinctoria_, has become naturalized
here and there in some parts of New York and New England.
NOTE G.
THE DESTRUCTION OF INSECTS BY PLANTS, p. 62.
That singular American plant the sarracenia, pitcher-plant, hunters-cup,
or side-saddle flower, as it is variously called, is a striking instance
of the peculiarity referred to in the text, by Mr. Knapp. It is well
known to all who are familiar with our native plants, that the hollow
leaves of the sarracenia are generally found to contain more or less
water, with dead insects of various tribes which have been drowned in
the liquid. One might have supposed that this was purely accidental, but
it is not impossible that the plant may require for its sustenance a
certain amount of animal nourishment. The experiment of an English
gardener would lead one to believe that such is the case; taking a hint
from the drowned flies usually found in the hollow leaves of the
pitcher-plant he tried a singular experiment; he fed the vegetable on
beef-steak, small pieces of the beef being laid within the hollow
leaves. The superior beauty and size of the particular plant treated in
this way, subsequently proved that the surmise was correct, and that the
pitcher-plant is to a certain degree, _carnivorous_. Such may very
possibly be the case with other flowers which are known to entrap
insects of different kinds; they may need these as nourishment.
Generally speaking, it is the blossom and not, as in the instance of the
Sarracenia, the leaf which allures the insect and thus destroys it; in
this sense the hunter’s-cup is more ogre-like than most of its
companions possessing the same dangerous power, since it is not only
during the season of flowering, but throughout the summer that unwary
flies and gnats are drowned in its leafy reservoirs.
NOTE H.
THE IVY, (_Hedera Helix_,) p. 64.
The Ivy is found throughout most of the countries of Europe, and also in
parts of Asia and Africa. It was one of the sacred plants of the old
Egyptians, and held the same character among the Greeks also. In our own
western hemisphere the Ivy was unknown until introduced by the colonists
from Europe; nor does it seem likely ever to become, like so many other
contributions of the old countries, naturalized here; our dryer summers
or colder winters, do not apparently agree with it. Possessing one
qualification rare among climbing plants, that of being an evergreen, it
may, on this account, be considered as the finest of the purely
ornamental vines of temperate regions. It is believed to live to a very
great age, as the parent stems of vines still attached to buildings some
centuries old, are found nearly as large as the trunks of good-sized
forest trees.
NOTE I.
THE SNOWDROP, page 70.
Mr. Knapp tells us in the text, that in England the Snowdrop will linger
longer than any other plant on the site of a deserted garden,
outlasting, in this way, as a memorial of human tillage even the rose-
bush, the plumb-tree, or the daffodil. With us the pansy, heart’s-ease,
or garden-violet appears to have something of the same character; we
have found it opening its pretty, lowly blossoms among the grass, the
only vestige of a flower-garden, ploughed up more than thirty years
earlier.
NOTE J.
THE VERVAIN, page 71.
We have in the United States several native Vervains, and one species of
European origin; the nettle-leaved Vervain, _Verbena urticifolia_, has
become one of our road-side weeds. We are told that verbena was a Latin
name given to any sacred herb, and by no means confined to the single
family of plants to which the term Vervain is now applied.
NOTE K.
THE MISTLETOE, page 71.
The Mistletoe has been sometimes asserted to be unknown in America; but
this is an error. The yellow Mistletoe, _Viscum flaviscens_, is found on
the trunks of old forest trees, the elm, the oak, and the hickory, in
the middle, western, and southern states of the union. This singular
parasitic plant has yellowish leaves, with white berries tinged with the
same color. _See Gray’s Botany._
NOTE L.
DYER’S WEED, WOLD, (_Luteola reseda_,) p. 72.
Dyer’s Weed, Weld, Wold, _Luteola reseda_, has become partially
naturalized, here and there, in western New York. It is a plant about
three feet high, from whose leaf and stem a yellow coloring matter is
obtained, which is preferred to all other substances for giving a
brilliant greenish-lemon tint. It is also much used for dyeing silk a
golden yellow.
The reader is probably aware that while many minerals and a certain
number of animal substances are employed in coloring, the largest
portion of our dyes are borrowed from the vegetable kingdom.
NOTE M.
SULPHUR, OR BRIMSTONE BUTTERFLY, (_Gonepteryx Rhamni_,) p. 74.
“This is the Brimstone Butterfly, which, gaily painted,
“Soon
Explores the tepid noon,
And fondly trusts its tender dyes
To feeble suns and flattering skies.”
“It has been supposed by some that this early visitant, (also a late
one,) is, like the above, a winter survivor; but from the trim of his
yellow robes, usually so fresh and glossy, it would seem more likely
that, instead of being laid up—not in lavender, but perhaps in ivy—they
are of the newest spring fashion. Be this as it may, he is the very
pink, or, as he has been more properly considered, the very primrose of
Papillons, sometimes to be seen like a living shadow of the primrose’s
self, fluttering beside it in the sunny hedge-row, or the sheltered
copse. We may know him by the cut of his bright, sulphur-colored
pinions—each, instead of being rounded, ending in a smooth tail-like
angle.
“Of all the wings of the butterflies, these bear perhaps the closest
similitude to floral productions, and on each, as if to perfect the
resemblance of the delicate, flower-like coloring, is a reddish spot, an
exact copy of that often produced by decay or accident on the surface of
a yellow petal. In the beautiful raised bearing of their reverse, the
pinions of the “Brimstone” are no less correspondent with the same; but
those of the female, which, instead of yellow, are of a greenish white,
resemble perhaps yet more nearly, the leaf of a poplar on its under
side. The dye of the antennæ—that purplish pink so frequent upon tender
leaf and flower-stems—also the clothing of the body, a soft satin down
like that by which stalks and seed pods are so often covered, are all
alike accordant with the floral character of this most elegant flutterer
of the spring. This pretty butterfly comes of a pretty caterpillar, with
a smooth green coat, dotted or shagreened with black, and marked by a
whitish line along the back and sides. It is said to feed usually on the
leaves of the hawthorn and alder.”—_Acheta Domestica._
NOTE N.
FURZE, (_Ulex Europæus_,) p. 77.
The Furze, Gorse or Whin, is a low, shrubby plant, common in barren
soils throughout western Europe, and belonging to the natural order
_leguminosæ_. The yellow flowers, covering broad tracts of untilled
land, produce a brilliant and striking effect when in bloom. It is said
that Linnæus, when he first saw them, fell on his knees with expressions
of delight at their beauty, lamenting that the plant should be wanting
in Sweden. It is occasionally cultivated in poor soils for fodder, as
horses are fond of it, and the cattle are also fed with it in some parts
of England, after it has been bruised in a sort of mill. In tracts of
country where wood is scarce, it is frequently used by the cottagers for
fuel. The pods of the Whin, or Furze, when ripe burst open with a loud
crackling sound, which is described as pleasing, of a warm summer’s day.
We Americans have no other acquaintance with the Furze than what is
derived from books and prints.
NOTE O.
THE MAPLE, (_Acer campestre_,) p. 79.
The common English Maple, _Acer campestre_, is wholly different from our
own various species. It is a tree found throughout the greater part of
Europe south of Scotland and Sweden, and is observed as far east as the
Caucasus. In England, however, it is little more than a bush, or small
tree of no great beauty, and whose wood is chiefly used for turning cups
and bowls, such as hermits used in days when ballads were written about
them. Its leaves are heart-shaped, with either two or five segments
which are not serrated; its flowers are erect, in branching corymbs.
In the southern Caucasus this maple is said to become a fine tree, the
wood being in request for its hardness; and it is used for purposes less
peaceful than the hermits bowl, being worked up into gun-stocks.
The Sycamore-maple, _Acer pseudo-platanus_, is a very different tree, of
noble growth, indigenous to southern Europe. This has been transplanted
to England where it is much cultivated, and has been called the Sycamore
from an erroneous notion that it is the same as the Sycamore of the
east. Neither of these Maples will compare, for autumnal coloring, with
those of our American woods. The true English Maple alluded to in the
text, is described as “shifting its dress to ochery shades, then trying
a deeper tint, and lastly assuming an orange vest.” This is pale indeed
compared with the Rubens-like coloring of our native trees of the same
family.
The Maples are a very numerous and widely diffused tribe of trees. No
less than thirty-four species are enumerated by botanists, belonging to
different parts of the earth.
NOTE P.
AGARICS, page 85.
Scientific writers have examined no less than a thousand different
species of Agarics, or those fungi belonging to the class of mushrooms,
and probably there are many more than have yet been enumerated. Some few
only of these plants are edible; a large proportion are highly poisonous
to man, while the character of many more have never yet been
ascertained. It is particularly remarkable that those which are found
wholesome in one country often become very dangerous in a different
soil; in England, for instance, only three kinds are eaten, the
_Agaricus campestris_, or common mushroom, the _A. pratensis_, or fairy-
ring mushroom, and the _A. Georgii_; but in southern Europe many more
are used as food, and among these a number of the same species which in
Great Britain have proved very dangerous. In Kamschatka again, the
_Agaricus muscarius_, considered a deadly poison in England, is found
quite harmless, and is regularly used as food.
The following directions have been given in avoiding poisonous
mushrooms; all those possessing either of the characteristics mentioned
being dangerous:
1. Such as have a cap very thin compared with the gills.
2. Such as have the stalk growing from one side of the cap.
3. Those in which the gills are of equal length.
4. Such as have a milky juice.
5. Those that readily produce a dark, watery liquid.
6. All those that have a thin, web-like substance wound about the
superior portion, or collar of the stalk.
As yet little has been printed regarding our American Agarics, while
those of Europe have been very closely studied by many scientific men,
who have published the result of their investigations. The following is
a list of those mentioned by Mr. Knapp in the volume before the reader:
_agaricus fimiputris_; _a. æruginosus_; _a. odorus_; _a. fragrans_; _a.
varius_; _a. oreades_; _a. georgii_ or _arvensis_; _a. surrectus_; _a.
caseus_, (or _infundibuliformis_;) _a. campestrus_; _a. pratensis_; _a.
muscarius_; _hydnum floriforme_, or _h. compactum_; _helvella mitra_,
(or _h. crispa_;) _lycoperdon cinereum_, or _didynium cinereum_; _l.
fornicatum_, or _geaster fornicatus_; _l. stellatum_, or _g.
hygrometicus_; _morchella esculenta_; _phallus impudicus_; _clavaria
hypoxylon_.
These Agarics are all found in the United States, with the exception of
two species, _a. varius_, and _a. surrectus_, considered as yet
unrecognized. _A. georgii_, is regarded as a variety only of _a.
arvensis_.
The esculent morell, _morchella esculenta_, noted by Mr. Knapp as very
rare in his own neighborhood, is widely diffused throughout the United
States. In some parts of the state of New York it is prized as a
delicacy for the table, and in the old orchards of Westchester county,
for instance, is by no means uncommon.
NOTE Q.
THE MARTEN, (_Mustela Martes_,) p. 95.
The American Sable, or Pine Marten, _Mustela Martes_, is believed by
some Naturalists to differ decidedly from that of Europe. It is a very
active, nocturnal animal, twenty or thirty inches in length, and found
in old forests between forty and sixty-eight degrees of north latitude.
Trees are exclusively the homes of these pretty little creatures, which
are so perseveringly hunted for their beautiful furs. Their skins are
sold for one or two dollars apiece, according to their condition, color,
&c. As the Martens have litters of six or eight young at a time, they
would probably be almost as common in our woods as squirrels, if it were
not for the value man has attached to their fur.
NOTE R.
THE HEDGEHOG, (_Erinaceus Europæus_,) p. 96.
This is a little animal very common indeed in England, and found in all
parts of Europe, excepting the extreme northern countries, Norway,
Lapland, &c. It is about nine or ten inches in length; the entire back,
and part of the head are covered with sharp brown spines which form its
sure defence against many enemies, for when surprised, or attacked, the
little creature has the power of rolling itself up into a spiny ball,
head, legs, and tail being completely concealed. In order to enable it
to take this shape, it has cutaneous muscles of a peculiar mechanism,
and the skin of the back is also capable of being drawn up like a hood,
or pouch, covering the head and limbs. There is apparently no effort
connected with this change of shape, for the little creature will roll
itself up in the twinkling of an eye, and frequently, when desirous of
descending a wall or abrupt bank, it will run to the edge, and without
hesitation, turn itself into a ball and throw itself off, trusting
entirely to the strength and elasticity of its spines, for protection in
the fall.
The Hedgehog feeds chiefly upon insects, although it also eats fruits
and eggs, and will even attack frogs and snakes. These little animals
sleep away the winter, and do not awake until the warm weather has
fairly set in.
The ignorant are ever making sad mistakes between their true friends and
their enemies, and the poor little hedgehog, which is rather serviceable
to man than otherwise, by devouring noxious insects, has long been
cruelly persecuted by the peasantry of Europe. It has been accused of
draining the udders of cows as they lie in the meadows at night, and
otherwise injuring them; “all urchin blasts and ill-luck signs,” says
the spirit in Cosmos, the urchin being another name for the hedgehog,
which, in fact, if it creeps about the cattle, is only in pursuit of the
flies that annoy them.
The Porcupine is sometimes called the hedgehog, but very erroneously,
being a larger animal, of very different habits, and belonging to a
different order.
The nest of the hedgehog is said to be very skillfully prepared, and the
female is a particularly watchful mother. A touching incident is related
which proves the strength of maternal instinct in these creatures; a
nest of small hedgehogs lay in a garden, whence every evening the mother
passed by a gate into an adjoining copse in search of food for her
young. On one occasion the gate was accidentally closed at an earlier
hour than usual, and the poor creature so exhausted herself with
fruitless anxiety, and efforts to reach her little ones, that she died
before morning, and was found lying lifeless close to the gate.
The flesh of the hedgehog is still eaten in some parts of Europe; it is
roasted or baked in pies. In olden times not only the spines of this
animal were used medicinally, but wise practitioners declared that “oil
in which one of its eyes has been fried, if kept in a brass vessel, will
endow the human eye with the faculty of seeing as well by night, as in
the day.”
NOTE S.
THE SHREW, page 104.
These little creatures, resembling mice in their general appearance, are
yet entirely distinct from them, as the cat is well aware, if many human
beings are not. Puss has never been known to eat a shrew. In Europe
these singular little animals are very common in the fields, and about
old walls, heaps of stone, &c. They feed on insects, worms, &c., while
the true mice are not insectivorous, but are classed with the rodent
order.
NOTE T.
THE MOLE, (_talpa Europea_) p. 104.
This animal, so very common in most countries of Europe, is said to have
no existence in America. It is at least still a subject of dispute among
naturalists whether the true mole of Europe be found on this continent
or not.
This creature, with whose name, at least, we are all familiar, has been
supposed to be blind; but the notion is erroneous. Eyes are not wanting
in the mole, but they are small, buried in the fur, and by a peculiar
muscular contrivance they can be pushed forward, or drawn within, so as
to be protected from particles of earth. The hearing of the mole is
particularly acute, although it has no external shell to the ear. Its
sense of smell is also particularly good. It feeds chiefly upon earth-
worms, but also eats mice, rats, frogs, lizards, and its appetite is
voracious. The subterranean domains of these creatures are extensive and
various in their character, their runs, or galleries, being generally
about five or six inches below the surface, though often reaching to
thrice that depth. They are nocturnal, like so many of the creatures
which people the earth; and they are as active in winter as in summer.
The mole is not found in Ireland, or in the northern parts of Scotland.
In America, if the true mole be actually wanting, we have other little
creatures of the same family, common throughout the country. These are
the shrew-moles. They differ widely, however, from the moles of Europe,
although possessing the same burrowing habits. The common shrew-mole of
America, _Scalops Aquaticus_, is about six inches in length, with a tail
one inch long.
Another of this family is a very singular little creature and peculiar
to North America. This is the Star-nose, _Condylura Cristata_, sometimes
called the Button-nose mole by our farmers. It is common as far south as
Virginia, is nocturnal in its habits, and partial to the banks of
streams. It is rather larger than the common shrew-mole.
NOTE U.
BIRDS OF ENGLAND, page 109.