Louis Adolphe Thiers. Upon him devolved the task of making peace with
the German foe, of quelling the civil war, and of so managing the
finances of France, that her people within two years were enabled, to
the astonishment of the world, to pay the enormous indemnity extorted
by the Germans, and, by September, 1873, the last franc was paid and
the last German sentinel removed from the soil of France.
The civil war between the Republic and the Commune settled the
question once for all, that _Paris_, accountable for all the errors
and vicissitudes of the country, is not _France_, and there is every
reason to hope that out of the unequaled horrors of those awful days
of carnage the republican government of France arose to remain in
perpetuity.
Garibaldi, taking advantage of the fall of Louis Napoleon, and caring
not for the king’s promises, took possession with his troops of the
city of Rome, September 20, 1870, and on July 2 of the next year Victor
Emmanuel erected his throne in the Quirinal.
TURCO-RUSSIAN WAR.—In 1875, the Bosnians, Turkish subjects, revolted.
They maintained their struggle, and the enraged Turks sent Mohammedan
troops among the defenseless Bulgarians, destroying unnumbered
thousands of men, women, and children. Czar Alexander declared war
April 1, 1877. His army crossed the Balkans and occupied Shipka Pass.
Osman Pasha developed unexpected military genius and skill. For five
months he checked the onward march of the Russians and won world-wide
admiration by his defense of Plevna. By the first of December Plevna
was invested completely by the Russians. Driven back whenever
attempting to make a sortie, starvation compelled Osman to surrender
with forty-four thousand troops. Adrianople was occupied. The Treaty of
San Stefano was wrested in sight of Constantinople. It greatly reduced
Turkish power in Europe, and constituted Russia heir to Turkey in
Europe. Bulgaria was to be protected by fifty thousand Russian troops
for two years and to have a Christian governor.
Three months later, England formed a secret treaty with Turkey,
securing Cyprus and agreeing to protect Turkey in Asia. Austria,
too, was dissatisfied, and the treaty of Berlin was made in 1878, to
rectify the balances of the nations. Russia was by this treaty damaged
in prestige and, shorn of triumphs, was given only Asiatic provinces.
Turkey was stripped of all real power in Europe.
[Illustration: LOUIS ADOLPHE THIERS.]
CHINO-JAPANESE WAR.—In Japan’s declaration of war against China,
August 1, 1894, she set forth succinctly the provocation forcing her
to this action. She said that Korea had been brought into the notice
of the nations of the world by her efforts; that China constantly had
interfered with Korea’s government, insistently posing as her suzerain;
that when an insurrection in Korea broke out China sent troops into
Korea, and that when Japan, under the treaty of 1885, also sent troops
to assist Korea to quell the rebels, asking China’s coöperation in the
effort, China refused her rightful demand; that China’s course tended
to keep up the trouble indefinitely, so that the only course left for
Japan was to declare war.
As with Germany a score of years previously, when the time came
Japan was ready, not only with munitions of war, but with better
topographical knowledge of the enemy’s country than they themselves
possessed. The Emperor, whose dynasty antedates the Christian era,
gave his people a constitution, and stretching his hand towards
Korea he helped her in the same direction. He had Japan’s army and
her navy drilled by expert European officers. Arsenals and extensive
manufactories for the implements of war were started, with European
superintendents. The latest and best of ships were both bought at
foreign marts and made at home. Her students were to be found in the
universities of the world. Her agents were sent to study in their
capitals the economy of every government and the machinery of their
executive departments. To find the best and assimilate it seemed the
principle of her progression, so that both in military skill and the
knowledge of diplomacy she acquired the ability to hold her place among
the nations of the civilized world. A war alone was needed to prove
that this was a fact.
Japan’s navy consisted of four armored cruisers and eight vessels of
3000 tons each. This was a much lighter fleet than that of China, but
swifter. China’s navy had been trained by an able English naval chief,
Captain Lang. Her outfit of ships was, perhaps, superior to that of
Japan, consisting of five armored vessels, nine protected cruisers,
and torpedo boats besides. The principal battle of this Chino-Japanese
war was fought on September 15 at Ping Yang, an old capital of Korea,
situated at the meeting of several roads. The Japanese landed troops at
Gensan, on the northeast, and at Hwang-jo, on the northwest, coast of
Korea. These formed the right and left wings of the army whose centre,
under General Nodju, advanced from Seoul, about one hundred miles to
the south, of which the Japanese were already in possession. Only one
wing of the army met opposition in its march, a small battle having
been fought. The forces, so far as we can learn, were between twenty
and thirty thousand of Chinese and between thirty and forty thousand
of Japanese. Japan’s twenty-four years of scientific preparation,
her study of the art of war, the practicability of her strategic
movements,—admired by the soldiers of the world,—left China, with her
old semi-barbarian methods, no chance for victory.
The battle was a bloody one; the defeated Chinese fled until they were
on the other side of the Yalu River, in Manchooria. Seven hundred (some
accounts say fourteen thousand) Chinese were captured, two thousand
killed and wounded. The army continued fighting and conquering until
practically the province of Manchooria was in Japan’s possession, as
well as the peninsula of Liaotung, terminating with Port Arthur.
The battle of Yalu, or Hai Yun Tao, afforded the first practical test
of modern vessels, guns, and projectiles in Asiatic waters. Ping Yang
has been called China’s Sedan, and Yalu, Japan’s Trafalgar. Japan had
nine cruisers and two converted cruisers wherewith to fight twelve
Chinese warships and four torpedo boats. It is said that Japan used
melanite shells. The fleet of Chinese warships, convoying transports
with ten thousand troops, entered the Yalu River. The next day,
September 17, the Japanese fleet, under Admiral Ito, went out to meet
them. A European officer on a Chinese vessel says: “Passing along the
Chinese line, the Japanese poured as heavy a fire as they could bring
to bear upon each ship in succession, and, while they had sea-room,
circled round their opponents. The Japanese state that no Japanese
war-ship was lost and only three seriously injured.” A Chinese officer
says: “As soon as the Chinese on the port side had brought their guns
to bear and had obtained range accurately, the Japanese would work
around and attack the starboard side.” Four ships were destroyed and
two badly injured. One of the Chinese ships was said to have been
hit two hundred times. The Chinese ironclads that escaped were later
sunk off Wei Hai Wei. Port Arthur, captured October 21, was filled to
overflowing with ammunition, grain, and other supplies.
China made three informal overtures for peace. Finally, Li Hung
Chang went from Tientsin to Shimonoseki, to make terms, on the 19th
of March, 1895. By the treaty there made, May 17, China recognized
the independence and autonomy of Korea, ceded certain territory in
Manchooria, all the islands in the eastern part of the bay of Liaotung
and the northern part of the Yellow Sea, Formosa, and all islands
belonging to it, and the Pescadores group. Two hundred million Kuping
taels were exacted as indemnity, to be paid in eight installments, one
every six months. The inhabitants were to sell out and leave, or in two
years to be Japanese subjects. Russia, Germany, and France recommended
that Japan should not permanently possess the peninsula of Feng Tan,
and Japan agreed to their suggestions.
[Illustration: CAVALRY CHARGE AT GRAVELOTTE. (A. DE NEUVILLE.)]
[Illustration: BATTLE OF YALU RIVER.]
Formosa, as a strategetical post, is of the greatest value. Korea and
Japan now control absolutely the Japan Sea. It was only after four
months of fighting that Japan completely conquered the Formosans and
had all her new possessions under her control.
China paid Japan an additional $30,000,000 for the release of Port
Arthur and Liaotung peninsula. China was well pleased. But in April,
1897, Russia herself had obtained possession of Port Arthur and Talien
Wan, and in December the Germans received Kaio Chao, the finest naval
station of the province of Shantung. France subsequently obtained
Kwang-Chau, the best port of Wangsi; and England, though not joining
these powers in the demand in favor of China in 1895, obtained Wei Hai
Wei in 1897.
GRECO-TURKISH WAR.—In 1895, the fearful atrocities committed by the
“unspeakable” Turk began to assume appalling proportions. During three
years one hundred thousand Cretans were murdered. February 8, 1897,
the Cretans proclaimed union with Greece. The Greeks, unable longer to
endure the sufferings of their kindred, determined to help them.
Prince George left for Crete with a torpedo flotilla February 10;
Colonel Vassos, aide-de-camp to the king, followed with fifteen hundred
men and two batteries on the 13th. Prince Nicholas led a regiment of
artillery to the Thessalian frontiers. The powers sent a collective
note of protest to Greece, but it was not heeded. Colonel Vassos landed
in Crete on the 14th. Sailors from the fleet of the powers occupied
the coast towns of Crete. Pasha Berovitch resigned and returned to
Constantinople. Greek reserves rallied promptly. Volunteers offered.
Colonel Vassos established headquarters in the mountainous interior at
Sphakia.
March 18, the powers blockaded Crete. On the 27th, Crown Prince
Constantine proceeded to the Turkish frontier. On April 5, the powers
declared no gain should accrue to the combatant who approached
Thessalian borders. April 8, three thousand Greeks crossed near Krania,
began fighting, and were driven back. On April 17 Turkey declared
war. On the 18th, a battle of twenty-four hours, in Milouna Pass,
crowned Turkish arms with victory. Another hard fought battle, at
Reveni, discomfited the Greeks. Greeks passed the Arta River and Greek
ironclads bombarded Prevessa. On the 19th, the Turks were in Thessaly
and the Greeks in retreat to Larissa. After terrific battles Tornavo
and Larissa, on the 25th, fell into the hands of the Turks. Colonel
Smolenski fought desperately at Valestino, but had to yield; and Volo
also fell to the Turks. The Turks occupied Pharsaos on May 6. Greece
asked the powers for peace, May 8; Cretan autonomy was agreed to, and
Turkey permitted armistice on the 15th. The war closed. Turkey was
forced to yield all Thessalian territory, and Crete was relieved of
Turkish oppression. Greece was forced to withdraw all support from
Crete and pay $20,000,000 indemnity.
The remarkable feature of this war was the intensely hard fighting from
start to close, and the disposition of the powers to assist Turkey by
interfering with the Grecian navy. Frequently the Austrians helped the
Turks by placing their guns in position. It was only when the Sultan
conquered Thessaly and threatened to keep it that the powers interposed.
The crime committed by the powers against civilization and Christianity
by their action seems incredible, even though the peace of Europe was
thereby secured.
ENGLAND’S WARS IN THE SOUDAN.—The Khedive of Egypt had obtained great
loans from Europe. England and France took financial control of the
country. Arabi Pasha inaugurated a rebellion and fortified Alexandria.
Many Europeans were murdered, and England bombarded the city, taking
possession July 12, 1882. General Wolseley, at Tel el Kebir, September
13, fought and defeated Arabi, who fled leaving two thousand dead.
France withdrew from the financial arrangement. The English remained
to put the Egyptians in condition for self-government. England has
remained ever since.
Mohammed Ahmed arose in the Soudan, proclaiming himself El Mahdi,
the Mussulman Messiah. The barbarian hordes flocked to his banner.
He defeated the Egyptians in four engagements, October, 1883. The
Anglo-Egyptian force of ten thousand men, under General Hicks, was
destroyed, only two escaping. General Gordon was sent to the relief of
the Egyptian army. He reached Khartoum, February 18, 1884. The Mahdists
besieged the city. Gordon sent for reinforcements. England was so slow
in sending them that they arrived two days too late. Khartoum was
captured through treachery, and Gordon, the most beloved of English
soldiers for his saintly and heroic character, was put to death on
January 27, 1885.
General Sir Horatio Herbert Kitchener was made Sirdar in 1890. He
started from Cairo with one thousand British and fifteen thousand
Egyptians, black and fellah troops, building a road across the desert
as he advanced, and engineering his gunboats up the Nile. The distance
from his base, at Cairo, to his first storehouse, at Wady Halfa, is
eight hundred miles. April 8, 1898, was fought the battle of Atbara, a
fort at the point where the Atbara River enters the Nile. Here Mahmud,
the commander of the barbarians, was captured and his army of twelve
thousand infantry destroyed. Osman Digna got away with the greater part
of the cavalry, numbering four thousand.
The force was about a month reaching Wady Hamed, and, September 1,
was in sight of Omdurman. The Sirdar’s line was drawn up in crescent
form, with Omdurman and Khartoum for its centre. In this position was
fought the first battle of Egeda, in which twenty-two thousand of the
Dervishes fell. The Khalifa and Osman Digna fled with a scant handful
of followers, and are now said to be bandits in the Kordofan. The
number of the annihilated army of the Mahdists will never be known.
The British loss of whites was less than two hundred, and the native
loss less than three hundred. The fire of the barbarians was generally
too high to effect great injury. September 2 will be a marked day in
England’s calendar. The Sirdar marched into Khartoum, the Union Jack
was raised, and beneath its floating crosses his chaplains performed
Gordon’s funeral ceremonies on the spot where he was slain nearly
fourteen years before.
THE BOER WAR.—By the treaty of 1881 Great Britain claimed suzerainty
over the South African (Transvaal) Republic and Orange Free State.
These Republics claimed that by the treaty of 1884 Great Britain gave
up her claim of suzerainty. Here arose an issue which was aggravated
by the discovery of diamonds at Kimberley and of gold at Johannesburg,
followed by the Jameson raid, which, shorn of its disguise, was notice
to the Boers that Great Britain desired and designed to occupy and
absorb their two Republics. The diplomatic war went on for years
between President Kruger, of the Transvaal, and Mr. Chamberlain, Great
Britain’s Colonial Secretary. It culminated in an ultimatum on the
part of Kruger, on October 9, 1899, which Chamberlain rejected. Both
sides had been preparing for this, and on October 11, the outbreak
of the war, Great Britain had already an army of 25,000 men in South
Africa, while the Boers had mobilized an equal, if not superior, army
of effectives. The Boers immediately invaded Natal and Cape Colony,
shutting up General White and his army in Ladysmith, and Colonel
Powell and his forces in Mafeking. Kimberley was also besieged. The
initial battles were numerous, fierce, and generally favorable to the
Boers. Great Britain’s eyes were speedily opened to the gravity of
the situation. She hurried large reinforcements to the scene till her
armies far outnumbered those of the Boers. Yet her best generals, as
Buller at Tugela River, and Methuen, at Magersfontein, continued to
meet with disastrous defeats. Lord Roberts, in connection with General
Kitchener, was sent, January 10, 1900, to supersede the blundering
generals, and to organize a new campaign. It was seen that direct
battle against the Boers was bound to end in defeat. So Roberts was
provided with an overwhelming army, estimated at 225,000, and he
at once entered upon a war of strategy. His northward advance was
general along his lines, thus keeping the Boers divided. He flanked
them out of their strongholds. By February he had invaded the Orange
Free State, and raised the siege of Kimberley. On February 27 he
captured General Cronje and his force of 4000 men, and on March 13 took
possession of Bloemfontein, the Free State capital, whence he issued
a proclamation annexing the republic under the name of Orange River
Colony. On February 28 the siege of Ladysmith was raised, and shortly
after that of Mafeking. The Boers continued to fight doggedly, all
the while inflicting heavy losses on their enemy, but resistance was
futile against such overwhelming odds. They were gradually forced from
one position to another in the direction of Pretoria, the Transvaal
capital. On March 5 Presidents Kruger and Steyn joined in peace
proposals, which were rejected. On March 12 they made an appeal to the
nations for mediation. All refused to mediate. On March 27 the Boers
lost their ablest general in the person of General Joubert, who died
at Pretoria. By May 12 Kroonstad, the second Free State capital, had
fallen into Lord Roberts’ hands. The Vaal River was then crossed and
the Transvaal invaded. On May 31 the British army entered the important
town of Johannesburg, and hastened toward Pretoria, which was captured
on June 5, 1900. President Kruger and General Botha had left a few days
before, the former in the direction of the Portuguese port of Lorenzo
Marques, the latter with the remnant of the Boer army to the mountains
beyond Pretoria. On September 3 Lord Roberts declared the Transvaal
annexed to Great Britain under the name of the Vaal River Colony.
Generals Botha and De Wet continued a guerrilla warfare far past
the end of the century. President Kruger accepted the protection of
Holland, and sailed thither on October 20, 1900. Lord Roberts arrived
in England in December, 1900, to receive his honors. At the turn of the
century the South African problem was a most wearying one for Great
Britain.
THE BOXER UPRISING.—The defeat of China by Japan in 1894, the ambition
of European powers to occupy her ports and enlarge their “spheres of
influence,” the ominous threats to partition her territory, soured the
Manchu dynasty and the people of northern China against foreigners.
The Empress Dowager deposed the young Emperor, seized the reins of
government, and catered to that reactionary and hostile spirit which
culminated in the “Boxer” uprising. These mobs began the destruction
of missions, the murder and expulsion of missionaries, and concerted
attack against everything that savored of foreign direction and
influence. The Chinese regular soldiers were either helpless before
them or in sympathy with them. By May, 1900, all the powers represented
at Peking stood aghast at the startling fact that their respective
legations were beleaguered in Peking, and liable to be murdered.
Warships were instantly ordered to Taku. By June 1, 1900, twenty-three
vessels had reported,—nine Russian, three British, three German,
three French, two American, two Japanese, one Italian. A force of 2000
soldiers was landed from these, and immediately started for Peking,
under command of the British Rear-Admiral Seymour, for the rescue of
the legations. This force was defeated by the “Boxers,” and compelled
to retreat to Tien-Tsin with heavy loss. An attempt to torpedo the Taku
harbor was resented by the warships. They bombarded and blew up the
Taku forts. In this action the American warships did not participate.
The “Boxers” swarmed in Tien-Tsin, and an allied force of 4000 men was
sent thither to capture it. In their first attack, on July 9, they were
repulsed with heavy loss. Being reinforced up to 7000 men, their second
attack, on July 13, was successful. The city was taken, and made the
base of further operations against Peking, 80 miles up the Pei-ho. The
allies were further reinforced, and started for Peking with an army of
16,000 men. They met the Chinese army of 30,000 men at Pei-Tsang, and
after a severe battle on August 5, drove them from their fortifications
with great loss. The Chinese rallied at Yang-Tsun, but were again
defeated by the allies on August 6. They offered no further serious
resistance to the allies, who moved swiftly on Pekin, invested it,
and, on August 14, breached its walls and entered it in triumph. The
legations were relieved after an imprisonment of nearly three months.
Two ministers, one of Japan, the other of Germany, had been murdered.
The others had escaped death only by concentrating and defending
themselves in the English compound. The allied forces occupied the city
for a time, and then those of Russia and the United States withdrew,
leaving a strong legation guard. The Chinese government appointed
Li-Hung-Chang and Prince Ching ministers to meet ministers of the
powers to arrange terms of settlement. After months of conference a
protocol was signed in January, 1901, which was supposed to contain the
germs of future settlement. But there was that in the Chinese situation
which was bound to tax the diplomacy of the world during many years of
the twentieth century.
A REVIEW OF MARTIAL RESULTS.—The history of the world shows that
successful war adds to the glory and prestige of the victorious nation,
and this is particularly exemplified by the wars of the nineteenth
century. France, so long victorious, dazzled the world. At Waterloo,
her glory was clouded. Napier, in his closing words of the history
of these events of the twenty years of war and turmoil, showed how
thoroughly the English people appreciated that their greatness
and power were due to the glory achieved by the arms of Britain’s
chivalrous sons.
While England was covering herself with glory, her offspring, the
United States, was teaching her, in the war of 1812, that being now of
age his pockets were not again to be turned inside out, a lesson which
thereafter she heeded.
Greece, throbbing with the impulse of freedom, achieved her
independence, displaying all the heroism of her Hellenic ancestry.
The Mexican war added greatly to the glory of American arms and
resulted in the acquisition of a vast territory, whose inhabitants
quickly assimilated themselves to the requirements of American
citizenship.
The Revolution of ’48 but served to consolidate the power of Prussia,
laying the foundation for the Imperial crown to rest upon the head of
her king, while fitting France for her future solid republican career.
The Crimean war, except that it checked the policy of Russia, produced
few results in comparison with the vast amount of blood and treasure so
lavishly spent.
The victories of Magenta and Solferino illumined again the eagles of
France. The “Seven Weeks’ War,” while still further consolidating
Germany under Prussia, was not without its blessings for Austria, and
advanced “Young Italy” greatly toward the goal of her ambition.
In America, the appeal to arms was made to decide the questions mooted
since the nation’s birth. One effect of this war was to show the
wonderful prowess and soldierly qualities of the American citizen.
The Franco-Prussian war lifted the dignity of Hohenzollern to its
height, ended forever the Empire of France in a crushing fall, and
taught the lesson of scientific preparation for war, than which no
science is more worthy of intense study and application in all its
branches.
The Chino-Japanese war was a triumph of a growing civilization over
semi-barbarism, and foreshadows the prominent rôle that Japan may be
called upon to play in the twentieth century. The enlargement of her
territory was a fitting reward for her unselfish championing of her
weaker sister, Korea.