in all for 2,690,000 men. There were actually in service 1,490,000.
There were 400,000 disabled; 304,369 perished; 220,000 were captured,
and 26,000 died in captivity. The expenses of the war were $3,500,000
per day. The national debt was $2,700,000,000.
This great American War was fought on both sides with a courage
and fortitude never before experienced in the annals of warfare.
As compared with the statements of forces and losses in battles of
European armies, the casualties in the battles of the Civil War were
three and four times as great. And this proves that in the American War
each side met “foe-men worthy of their steel.” These overwhelmingly
fearful casualties are not to be explained otherwise. And each
section respects the other more than before the war—a war in which
the conquered felt not, nor said, _peccavi_, and in which surrender
to greater numbers and heavier artillery involved no sacrifice of
belief in the truth and justice of their cause. Was there ever an
armed strife that brought forth greater generals or more knightly
valor, undiminished courage and unflinching fortitude on the part
of combatants? Together must the names of Grant and Lee go down to
posterity as great types of the American soldier,—the one, noble and
generous in victory; the other, though a hero uncrowned by success, a
warrior still more heroic in defeat.
THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.—The proximate causes of the war with
Spain are tersely set forth in the Joint Resolution declaring
the independence of Cuba and demanding the withdrawal of Spanish
sovereignty therefrom, which says:—
“_Whereas_, The abhorrent conditions which have existed for more than
three years in the island of Cuba, so near our own borders, have
shocked the moral sense of the people of the United States, have been
a disgrace to Christian civilization, culminating as they have in the
destruction of a United States’ battleship, with 266 of its officers
and crew, while on a friendly visit in the harbor of Havana, and cannot
longer be endured, as has been set forth by the President of the United
States in his message to Congress of April 11, 1898, upon which the
action of Congress was invited; therefore,
“_Resolved_, by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled:
“_First_, That the people of the island of Cuba are, and of right ought
to be, free and independent.
“_Second_, That it is the duty of the United States to demand, and the
Government of the United States does hereby demand, that the Government
of Spain at once relinquish its authority and government in the island
of Cuba, and withdraw its land and naval forces from Cuba and Cuban
waters.
“_Third_, That the President of the United States be, and he hereby is,
directed and empowered to use the entire land and naval forces of the
United States, and to call into the actual service of the United States
the militia of the several States to such extent as may be necessary to
carry these resolutions into effect.
“_Fourth_, That the United States hereby disclaims any disposition
or intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over
said Island, except for the pacification thereof, and asserts its
determination when that is completed to leave the government and
control of the Island to its people.”
This resolution was signed by the President at 11.24 o’clock A. M.,
April 20, 1898.
[Illustration: MORRO CASTLE, SANTIAGO, CUBA.]
It was on February 15, 1898, that the catastrophe referred to—the
blowing up of the Maine—occurred. On April 25, the formal declaration
of war was made.
Spain had three fleets,—Admiral Cervera’s flying squadron, the Asiatic
fleet under Admiral Montejo, and Admiral Camara’s fleet of heavy
armored vessels.
The American navy is always ready for emergencies, and even with the
grudging appropriations made by Congress, the “new navy,” while not
possessing vessels of such large size as those of some other nations,
was much more formidable than was generally supposed. Congress,
apprehending the outcome, had given the President $50,000,000 to
put the country on a war footing. In reply to the call for 125,000
volunteers, five times that number offered themselves.
It had been more than fifty years since the United States had
encountered a foreign foe, and since the close of the Civil War, for a
third of a century, peace had reigned.
[Illustration: ADMIRAL GEORGE DEWEY.]
April 25, by cable to Hong Kong, Commodore Dewey was ordered to find
and destroy the Spanish Asiatic fleet, which he proceeded to do on May
1st, without the loss of a single man. Entering Manila Bay, scorning
torpedoes and mines, his wonderful battle at Cavite is the admiration
of the world.
Schley, with his flying squadron, watched in Hampton Roads for an
attack by the enemy on the Atlantic coast. Havana was blockaded by
Sampson’s squadron April 22, and his searchlights seen from the Cuban
capital were as the handwriting on the sky, foredooming Spanish rule.
His tactics were to take no risk with his vessels while awaiting the
appearance of the Spanish ships, so he failed to return the greeting of
the shore batteries.
[Illustration: MAIN DECK OF CRUISER CHICAGO.]
The first casualties of the war were in Cardenas harbor May 11, when
upon the Winslow, while chasing a decoy gunboat too far under the fire
of the land batteries, Ensign Bagley and four sailors were the first
men of the navy to lay down their lives.
It was known that Cervera had sailed from Cadiz toward the West
Indies. Sampson made a tour of Porto Rico to hunt the Spaniard, who
mysteriously eluded the sight of the Americans. San Juan was bombarded
on May 12. On May 30 Schley, who in the meantime had arrived off
Santiago, dispatched: “I have seen the enemy’s ships with my own eyes.”
Cervera had then been in the harbor ten days. On the 31st, Schley
commenced a bombardment, and the forts at the mouth of Santiago harbor
and the vessels within replied for an hour. June 1 Sampson came, and
all hope of escape for Cervera was cut off. On that night Lieutenant
Hobson executed his bold, heroic plan of sinking the Merrimac in the
channel of the harbor, which was accomplished without the loss of one
of his seven co-heroes, although subjected to a deadly fire from forts
and vessels.
[Illustration: DEWEY’S GUNS AT MANILA.]
The first troops landed on Cuban soil were the marines, 650 in number,
under Lieutenant-Colonel Huntington. This battalion had been on board
the Panther since May 22, and the men were eager to land. After Sampson
had shelled the shore and adjacent hills and woods, on the afternoon of
June 10 the landing was made and the American flag raised for the first
time on Spanish territory in the west. No Spaniards were seen until
after the tents had been erected and the evening shadows were falling.
Then for five nights and days there was no sleep for these men, than
whom there were no greater heroes in this short, sharp war. With few
exceptions they received their “baptism of fire,” and nobly did they
acquit themselves.
I am told that when almost utterly exhausted the first platoon reached
the summit of Cusco hill, so exactly in unison was their fire that the
Spanish, believing that machine guns were opening upon them, turned
and ran, never again making a stand. The first to consecrate the soil
with his life’s blood was Dr. John Blair Gibbs, who left a $10,000
practice in New York to go as surgeon of the battalion, and who had
greatly endeared himself to both officers and men. Sergeant Goode, one
of the finest subalterns in the corps, and four men were killed. The
good condition and health of this battalion during the whole campaign
were due to the fine organization of the commissariat and the strict
discipline maintained in this corps.
General Shafter arrived off Santiago, June 20, with a force of 773
officers and 14,564 men. General Garcia, the Cuban commander, with four
thousand insurgents, was at Assuadero, eighteen miles west. There he,
Shafter, and Sampson held a consultation. On the 22d, the disembarkment
of troops was begun. On the morning of the 23d, General Lawton with
his division advanced to Juragua. Major-General Wheeler, after landing
964 of his force, pursuant to General Shafter’s orders, moved rapidly
to the front, and, passing through Lawton’s lines, pushed on to Las
Guasimas, attacking and defeating General Linares on the morning of
June 24.
The entire American force was pressed forward under General Wheeler,
General Shafter being detained on the ships to attend to the landing
of the armament and supplies. On the 29th, the commanding general left
his ships and pitched his camp on the Santiago road, and on the next
day orders were given for an attack along the whole line. In carrying
out these orders, General Lawton with about six thousand men attacked
El Caney, a small town about five miles north of Santiago. The garrison
consisted of 520 men, the defenses being one block-house and a shore
fortification. It was not until four o’clock that General Lawton’s
success was complete. His loss was 437 killed and wounded, and but 30
of the enemy succeeded in escaping and reaching the Spanish lines.
While Lawton was moving on El Caney, the cavalry division, unmounted,
and Kent’s infantry division were ordered to move forward. Crossing
San Juan River at a point about five hundred yards from the enemy’s
fortifications on San Juan ridge, the left of the cavalry rested on
the main Santiago road and the infantry formed to the left of the
cavalry. These troops were subjected to a very heavy fire in advancing
from El Pozo, in crossing the river and in forming on the other side;
they, however, most bravely charged the enemy in their strong position
on Kettle Hill and San Juan ridge, and drove them precipitately from
their strong fortifications; the American loss being 154 killed and
997 wounded. This placed the Americans in a position commanding the
fortifications around the city of Santiago.
[Illustration: GENERAL JOSEPH WHEELER.
(Copyright by Aimé Dupont, 1899.)]
The Spanish fleet, consisting of five armored cruisers of 7,000 tons
and 2 torpedo-boat destroyers, attempted to escape from Santiago at
9.30 o’clock on Sunday morning, July 3, just nine weeks after the
destruction of Montejo’s fleet. Schley and Sampson destroyed the
vessels and made prisoners of 70 officers and 1600 men; 350 were killed
and 160 wounded.
[Illustration: THE TRUCE BEFORE SANTIAGO.]
Fighting more or less severe occurred until the 10th, when negotiations
for surrender were inaugurated, resulting in the capitulation of
Santiago, July 16, the Spanish fortifications, twenty-four thousand
prisoners, and a large amount of arms and ammunition. At noon on
Sunday, July 17, 1898, the American flag was hoisted over the
headquarters at Santiago.
General Miles started on the invasion of Porto Rico, July 25, and
reached Guanica at daylight next morning. He landed with three thousand
five hundred men, marched toward Yauco, five miles distant, which he
entered after a skirmish, and was received enthusiastically by the
citizens, as he also was at Ponce, where he was joined by General
Wilson, who had come with the war ships, and who was made governor. The
army continued on to San Juan along the military road, meeting very
little opposition.
July 26, the French ambassador, M. Jules Cambon, acting for Spain, made
overtures for peace. The protocol was signed on April 21, by M. Cambon
and Secretary of State Day. A cessation of hostilities was proclaimed.
At the very moment of the signing of the protocol, the last naval
battle took place at Manzanilla, Cuba, and an artillery engagement at
Aybonito in Porto Rico.
[Illustration: AGUINALDO, THE TAGAL LEADER.]
The one-hundred-days Spanish-American war was concluded by the treaty
of Paris.
It will be only in the retrospect that we may tell the results of
this conflict. As the future unfolds them to our view, it may be that
it will have been more momentous in its consequences than we can now
determine. One thing it has proved, that is, that this nation is really
_reunited_; for, from all sections and from all grades of life, men
flocked together to fight and conquer under the old Stars and Stripes.
II. FOREIGN WARS.
NAPOLEONIC WARS.—The long contest between France and Austria began
when the Girondist ministry of France declared war, April 20, 1792. By
the execution of Louis XVI., January 21, 1793, the Revolution threw
down the gauntlet to all ancient Europe. England, whose sympathies
had hitherto been more or less with France, began to take measures to
bring about more cordial relations with the other powers of Europe.
Spain, Portugal, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, for the time seemed to
forget their several grievances as they found themselves confronted
with a totally new move on the chessboard of European autonomy. The
year 1794 saw the French Revolution progressing triumphantly, and all
Europe, except England and Austria, appeared acquiescent in apathetic
indifference. In 1795 the royalists made a supreme effort to recover
power, but were crushed by the “Man of Destiny,” and the Directory,
consisting of five members, of whom Carnot was one, came into power.
Dominated by the martial genius of Carnot, “the organizer of victory,”
the Directory won the confidence of the army. Scherer, the commander,
lacked the qualifications to undertake a successful campaign against
Austria, and Bonaparte, succeeding him, soon infused his own spirit
into the army and bound it to himself with a devotion that never failed.
Early in the year 1800, Napoleon, having been made first consul, took
up his abode in the old palace of the kings of France, the Tuileries.
The history of Napoleon for the ensuing fifteen years is the history
of Europe. It is, therefore, best to begin with the close of the
eighteenth century, in order to appreciate the situation at the dawn of
the nineteenth.
Austria and England, with several small German principalities, were
still in arms against France. The plans and movements of the armies
under Napoleon showed him to be verily a master in military skill.
Opening this campaign, he left Massena with about eight thousand
soldiers to hold the territory from Nice to Genoa, so as to keep the
Austrian army in Italy busy. He sent the Rhine army, under Moreau, to
threaten Bavaria and to secure the most important position between the
Rhine and the Danube. Moreau drove the Austrians to Ulm, and disposed
his left flank to support Napoleon. Meantime, he himself was recruiting
another army for operations on the Po. Baron de Melas, commanding the
Austrian troops in Northern Italy, besieged Massena in Genoa, which,
after severe suffering, surrendered, leaving De Melas free to join the
army of the Po. Napoleon was between de Melas and Austria. General Ott,
with eighteen thousand men, attempted to reach Placentia, but Lannes,
with twelve thousand, defeated him at Montebello, forcing him back to
Allesandria. Napoleon hastened across the Po to Stradella to intercept
De Melas and prevent his breaking through the French lines to Placentia.
[Illustration: NAPOLEON, 1814. (MEISSONIER.)]
The night of June 13, 1800, the French army was scattered, watching
along the Po and the Tessino for the Austrians, while their army, forty
thousand strong, with ten thousand more not far distant, was ready at
daybreak of the 14th to cut its way through the armies of France, and
reach Placentia. The French force was but eighteen thousand, but Victor
with his division held his position firmly, and the great leader,
Kellerman, was in command of the cavalry. Backward and forward surged
the battle with varying fortune, and at noon victory seemed perched
upon the banners of Austria. De Melas was so certain that the battle
was won that he galloped back to Allesandria and sent dispatches to
that effect to the governments of Europe. General de Zach was left
in command to conduct the pursuit and to drive the French across the
Scrivia. Napoleon, dismayed, hoping against hope that Desaix, whom he
had sent towards Novi the day before to look out in that quarter for
De Melas, might hear the thunders of the battle and return, saw him
in the distance, hurrying with his troops, who, though worn and tired,
were eager for the fight, and Napoleon saw already the tide of battle
turned.
Desaix had found no trace of the Austrians, but he had heard the sound
of battle at day dawn, and he knew that De Melas was there, and that
there he was needed, and not at Novi. He roused his division, and
hastened back to Napoleon. A short conference with his chief, to whose
questioning he answered, “The battle is lost, but it is only three
o’clock, there is yet time to win another,” and the battle of Marengo,
glorious in its consequences to Napoleon, stupendous in its carnage,
was won; but Desaix, the brave paladin, lay dead upon the field. De
Melas returned from Allesandria to meet the victorious army he had
left—flying in disorder—thoroughly routed. On December 2, Moreau and
Ney won the field of Hohenlinden, and the “peace of Luneville” was
concluded, February 9, 1801.
The result of this campaign was the cession of Austria’s strongholds in
the Tyrol and Bavaria to France, as also a number of important holdings
in Italy. France secured the left bank of the Rhine, the Belgian
provinces and Tuscany, and the king of Naples closed his harbors to
England. In March, 1802, by the “treaty of Amiens,” peace was concluded
with England.
The coalition of Denmark, Sweden, Russia, and Prussia, with France
against England, in 1800, fomented by Napoleon, broke down in 1801,
after Nelson’s battle of Copenhagen.
England had secured the supremacy of the sea and dominion over India,
rescued Portugal, Naples, and the States of the Church from France, and
restored the Sublime Porte to Turkey. Finding Napoleon again militating
against her interests, and resenting his encroachments, England
declared war against France in the spring of 1803. Russia espoused the
cause of England, Prussia held off, and Austria was friendly, though
not in fighting trim. The third coalition comprised England, Russia,
and Austria.
Powerless to hurt England on the seas, Napoleon, who had the year
previous been proclaimed emperor, attacked Austria, invaded her
territory, captured her army at Ulm, proceeded to Vienna, and occupied
a great part of the valley of the Danube. On December 2, 1805, the
“Battle of the Three Emperors” (the battle of Austerlitz) was fought.
The “Peace of Pressburg,” concluded December 26, left Austria shorn of
her ancient prestige, her title of German Empire, and of a great part
of her possessions. The “Sun of Austerlitz” melted the third coalition.
In the meantime the battle of Trafalgar, won by the immortal Nelson,
crushed the naval power of both France and Spain.
In September, 1806, Prussia declared war against France, and, to the
amazement of Europe, alone undertook to engage armies flushed from
their recent victories and still in Germany. October 14, Napoleon
utterly defeated the Prussians at Jena and Auerstadt, and entered
Berlin a conquerer, the king having fled to Königsberg. Russia came
to the aid of Prussia, but arrived too late to accomplish anything
except to check the advance of the French, whose armies wintered on the
Vistula. The next summer, however, the Russians met their final defeat
in this campaign at Friedland, and Königsberg was taken. The “Treaty of
Tilsit” ended the operations of this fourth coalition July 7, 1807.
The fifth coalition against Napoleon comprised England, Austria, Spain,
and Portugal. The decisive battle of this campaign was at Wagram, July
5 and 6, 1809, and terrible as were the consequences of his defeat
to Austria, so crippled was Napoleon that he willingly granted the
armistice of Znaim and concluded the “Peace of Vienna.” When the fifth
coalition ended, Napoleon had acquired the Illyrian provinces and part
of the Tyrol for France, and eventually the Emperor’s daughter, Maria
Louisa, for his wife.
[Illustration: ADMIRAL HORATIO NELSON.]
In 1812 came war with Russia, and that most disastrous campaign which
cost France more than three hundred thousand soldiers and Napoleon
his empire. Russia, England, Prussia, and Sweden formed the coalition
now, and Turkey had made peace with Russia. Napoleon crossed the
Niemen in June, halted at Wilna to put his new conscripts in better
order, addressed words of sympathy to Poland, and took measures to
keep Austria conciliated. The Russians retreated before him. He met
and fought and defeated them at Smolensk, August 17; they retreated in
good order, burning and destroying all in their reach. The terrible
battle of Borodino was fought September 7; the defeated Russians again
retreated in good order, pursuing the same tactics. Napoleon reached
Moscow September 15, but the heroic measure of Russia in destroying
that city was equal in its results to several victories. October 15,
the French troops commenced their fearful retreat. The Russian armies
grew bold, they harassed the French troops, weak from hunger and cold,
and from Moscow to Wilna their progress was one continual guerilla
warfare. From Wilna, their flight to France, December 5, was even more
disastrous. Of the grand army that set out in the spring not one fourth
ever returned.
Affairs in Spain had fared badly for France. Wellington defeated the
French army in Spain, and finally expelled it. France, though sometimes
shaken in her devotion by the conscription that was draining her
children’s blood, still had faith in Napoleon, and in 1813, having
raised another grand army, he undertook to subjugate Prussia. His
first victory was on the plain of Lutzen. The Prussians and Russians
retreated in good order through Dresden. Napoleon pursued and drove
them from Bauken, on May 20 and 21, and established his headquarters at
Dresden. Austria now joined the allies. In their attack upon Dresden,
August 26 and 27, they were defeated, but Russian troops and the King
of Bavaria coming up made Napoleon’s position untenable. The allies
were awaiting him at Leipsic. The battle raged for three days, and
Napoleon withdrew on October 19, utterly defeated.
January 23, 1814, Napoleon, having raised another army, left Paris to
assume command. The allies—England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia—were
more determined than ever to crush him. Many battles were fought, and
the fortunes of war varied. Blucher defeated him at La Pothiers on the
1st of February. Napoleon was the victor at Montenau; unsuccessful at
Soissons, March 3; victorious at Cravonne, March 7; and defeated by
Blucher at Laon, March 9. With more than half his army lost, Napoleon
worried the allies in their rear; but Blucher marched on Paris. The
prestige of Napoleon and France in Europe was at an end.