developed, among which the most fastidious taste may readily find
its ideal. Some of these have been perfected from the standpoint of
utility, while with others the guiding principle has been purely
æsthetic. Thus there are breeds which are characterized by their size,
rapid growth, and excellence of flesh; others which have been developed
simply as egg-producing machines and which have even lost the maternal
instinct for incubation; and still others in which the beauty, the
complication, and the perfection of the feathering constitute the
principal claims to attention.
The standard weights of the heavy varieties, such as Brahmas and
Cochins, is now 11 lbs. to 12 lbs. for cocks, and 8½ lbs. to 9½ lbs.
for hens. In the United States, there has been developed a distinct
American class of medium weight fowls, of which the Plymouth Rocks
and Wyandottes are the most popular varieties. The cocks of these
varieties weigh from 8½ lbs. to 9½ lbs., and the hens 6½ lbs. to 7½
lbs. They are valued both for their flesh and for egg production. The
rapid multiplication of varieties by modern breeders is illustrated
by the Wyandottes, which came into existence during the last third of
the century, and of which there are now five distinct varieties: the
Silver, Golden, White, Buff, and Black.
[Illustration: FRENCH COACH-HORSE “GLADIATOR.”]
The breeder’s art has been most successfully brought to bear in
stimulating the function of egg production. Not many years ago, an
average yield of 125 to 150 eggs annually from the hens of even a small
flock was considered all that it was possible to obtain, but at present
there are varieties which may be relied upon to produce more than 200
eggs annually. In some instances, it is alleged that an average of
nearly 300 eggs a year has been reached in small flocks which have been
given special care.
It should not be forgotten that there has also been great improvement
in the various breeds of horses. The heavy draught horses have been
bred into a more compact form, with better legs and feet and less
sluggish disposition. The most noticeable advance has, however,
been in the lighter grades of horses, and this has largely been
accomplished by infusing the blood of the English thoroughbred. The
French, by systematically breeding the heavy mares of the country
to thoroughbred stallions with careful selection of the offspring,
produced an extremely valuable breed of carriage-horses, known there as
the _demi-sang_, and which have been imported into the United States
as French coach-horses. These animals, beautiful in form and action,
have been brought to a high degree of perfection, and the breed is so
well established that its good qualities are reliably transmitted from
generation to generation.
There are also German coach-horses and similar breeds in several other
countries, which have been established by following the same general
plan as that adopted by the French. These breeds are peculiarly the
product of the nineteenth century, and are in their most valuable
condition as the century closes.
The American trotting horse has without doubt been one of the most
remarkable triumphs of the breeder’s art which the century has seen.
Originating in considerable obscurity, but undoubtedly owing much of
its excellence to the thoroughbred, the trotter was born with the
century, and has continually increased its speed until the very end.
It now gives promise of continuing its evolution through at least a
considerable part of the twentieth century. In the decade from 1800
to 1810, the best recorded speed at this gait was 2:59; from 1810 to
1820, the time was lowered to 2:48½; from 1830 to 1840, it reached
2:31½; from 1840 to 1850, the limit was 2:28; from 1850 to 1860, 2:19¼;
from 1860 to 1870, 2:17¼; from 1870 to 1880, 2:12¾; from 1880 to 1890,
2:08¾; and from 1890 to 1898, 2:03¾.
This extraordinary and constantly progressing increase in speed during
the century has excited the interest and admiration of the world. It
is, however, quite generally admitted that too much attention has been
given to speed and not enough to disposition, size, conformation, and
soundness, to bring the animals to their highest value for other than
racing purposes.
Owing to the relatively small extent of agricultural territory and the
great development of manufactures, Great Britain has become the best
market in the world for animals and animal products. The purchases
of cattle, sheep, beef, and mutton have been particularly large.
Considering, first, the importations of cattle, it is found that during
the five years from 1861 to 1865 inclusive, the average number was
174,177; from 1866 to 1870, the average was 194,947; from 1871 to 1875,
215,990; from 1876 to 1880, 272,745; from 1881 to 1885, 387,282; from
1886 to 1890, 438,098; from 1891 to 1895, 448,139; and for the two
years 1896 and 1897, 590,437.
This unparalleled growth in the consumption of foreign cattle has
had a marked influence in encouraging the development of the cattle
industry of some other parts of the world, particularly in the United
States, Canada, and Argentina. The export trade of the United States
has developed even more rapidly than the import trade of Great Britain.
In 1871 this traffic was in its infancy, and but 20,530 head of cattle
were exported, valued at $400,000. By 1879 the number had increased
to 136,720, valued at $8,300,000. Then came the British restrictions
prohibiting American cattle from leaving the docks where landed, and
requiring their slaughter on these docks within ten days from their
arrival. These regulations were a rude shock to the American cattle
grower, and led to measures here for the control and eradication of
the cattle diseases which were cited by the English authorities as the
cause of their unfavorable action.
Although the pleuro-pneumonia, about which most apprehension was
expressed, has long since been extirpated, and an elaborate inspection
service has been organized to prevent any affected animals from leaving
our shores, the restrictions have been continued. Fortunately, the
trade was only temporarily embarrassed, and has continued its growth
notwithstanding this obstruction. In 1889 these exports first exceeded
200,000, and the following year reached 394,836. Since that time the
number has fluctuated between 287,000 and 392,000, until 1898, when it
reached the enormous aggregate of 439,255, valued at $37,800,000. Not
quite all of these cattle have gone to Great Britain, but that has been
the destination of by far the greater part.
[Illustration: PACING HORSE “STAR POINTER.” TIME, 1 M. 59¼ S.]
The exports of sheep have varied widely, according to the fluctuations
of the markets at home and abroad. From 1870 to 1873 the number varied
from 39,000 to 66,000; from 1874 to 1889, it varied from 110,000 to
337,000. In 1890 the exports were but 67,500; in 1891, 60,900; in 1892,
46,900; and in 1893, 37,200. Beginning with 1894, the exports of sheep
again increased, reaching in that year 132,000; in 1895 they were
405,000; and in 1896, 491,000. In 1897 there was a decrease to 244,000,
and in 1898 a further decrease to 200,000, valued at $1,213,000.
The export trade in horses and mules was inconsiderable, varying from
2000 to 8000 a year until 1895, when 14,000 horses and 4800 mules
were shipped to foreign ports. This trade increased in 1896 to 25,126
horses and 6534 mules, together valued at about $4,000,000. In 1897 a
further increase was made to 39,532 horses and 7753 mules, the value
being $5,400,000. And, finally, in 1898 there were exported the largest
number ever sent from this country, amounting to 51,150 horses and
6996 mules, valued at $6,691,000.
Swine are not exported in very large numbers, as they do not stand
shipping well. The largest number sent abroad was 158,581, in 1874, the
value of which was $1,625,837. In 1897 and 1898 there were only 16,800
exported each year. Very few of these cross the ocean.
This resumé of the development of the international traffic in live
animals and the status of the animal industry would not be complete
without some reference to the markets for animal products. The quantity
of foreign meat consumed in Great Britain is most remarkable. The
imports of fresh beef, which from 1861 to 1865 averaged but 15,772
cwts., had increased in the years 1891 to 1895 to an average of
2,020,668 cwts., and in 1897 exceeded 3,000,000 cwts. The proportion
of this supplied by the United States is indicated by the returns for
1896, giving a total of 2,659,700 cwts. of imported beef, of which this
country furnished 2,074,644 cwts.
Great Britain also imported 3,193,276 cwts. of fresh mutton in 1897,
more than nine tenths of it being frozen carcasses from Argentina and
Australasia. Of fresh and salted pork, the United States supplied
4,183,800 cwts. out of a total of 6,563,688 cwts. The principal other
animal products imported by that country are, 1,750,000 cwts. of lard,
276,458 cwts. of rabbits, and 1,683,810,000 eggs.
The continent of Europe consumes considerable quantities of lard
and salted pork, which are largely furnished by the United States,
notwithstanding the unfavorable attitude of the governments towards
such traffic and the existence of many annoying and injurious
regulations. Fresh meats from America have been practically excluded.
The British markets for dairy products and wool have also had
considerable influence upon the prosperity of the animal industries in
various parts of the world. The rapidly increasing demand for dairy
products is worthy of attention. In 1877 there were imported into the
United Kingdom 1,637,403 cwts. of butter and margarine. In 1897 the
imports had been raised to 3,217,801 cwts. of butter and 936,543 cwts.
of margarine, or a total of 4,154,344 cwts., being two and one half
times the quantity imported in 1877.
The quantity of cheese imported in 1877 was 1,653,920 cwts., and had
increased to 2,603,608 cwts. in 1897.
The country supplying the largest quantity of butter in 1896 was
Denmark, with France second, Sweden third, Holland fourth, and
Australasia fifth. Nearly all of the margarine came from Holland. The
largest quantity of cheese came from Canada, the United States being
second, with less than half the quantity furnished by her neighbor to
the north, and Holland third.
The quantity of wool imported by the United Kingdom, France, Germany,
Austria, Belgium, United States, and other consuming countries,
increased from 200,000 tons, in the decade 1821–1830, to 3,300,000 tons
in 1871–1880. This wool came principally from Australia, River Plate,
South Africa, Russia, and Spain.
The excess of imports of wool into the United Kingdom over the exports
were, in 1892, 312,217,111 lbs., and in 1896, 383,845,450 lbs. Of the
total quantity imported by the United Kingdom in 1896, the United
States supplied but 4,500,000 lbs., while Australasia furnished
477,600,000 lbs.; Cape of Good Hope, 70,000,000 lbs.; British East
Indies, 43,000,000 lbs.; Natal, 21,000,000 lbs.; France, 20,000,000
lbs.; Turkey, 16,500,000 lbs.; and Belgium, 11,400,000 lbs.
The tendency of the last decade of the nineteenth century has been to
displace horses and adopt mechanical motors. The great increase of
steam railroads, cable cars, electric cars, bicycles, and automobile
vehicles has so reduced the demand for these animals that their value
has decreased over fifty per cent. While there is still a good market
for horses suitable for carriage use, for drays, for army service,
and for agricultural purposes, buyers are becoming more critical and
the future is uncertain. As it is five or six years after a breeding
establishment is started before any of the horses produced can be
placed upon the market, the effect of this uncertainty is to discourage
would-be horse breeders and influence them toward other enterprises.
[Illustration: AUTOMOBILE OR HORSELESS CARRIAGE.]
The end of the century also finds the sheep industry in a depressed
condition on account of over-production. The vast quantities of wool
grown in Australasia and South Africa have clogged the markets to such
an extent that Australian wool in the London market has dropped from
15d. per pound in 1877 to 8¼d. in 1897, and South African wool from
15¾d. to 7½d. during the same period. Other wools have fallen in about
the same proportion. Although sheep are raised for the production of
mutton as well as wool, and the tendency in the United States has been
towards the breeding of mutton sheep, the value of these animals has
been reduced about one half.
There have been periods of depression with the cattle and swine
industries, but prices have been well sustained. The European markets
are yearly requiring larger supplies, and the stock of beef-producing
cattle in the United States, in proportion to the population, is
rapidly diminishing. The decreased number is in a slight degree
counterbalanced by earlier maturity; but when due allowance is made for
this, it is plain that the United States has not the surplus of beef
which it boasted a few years ago. At the same time, our meat trade in
the markets of the world is threatened with more serious competition
from South America, Australasia, and even Russia.
The century closes in a period of wonderful achievements in the
extension of transportation facilities and in the education of the
masses in all parts of the world. The producer in South America,
Africa, and Australasia keeps abreast with the most enlightened
stock-growers of Europe and America in his knowledge of the best
breeds, the most economical methods of feeding, and the most desirable
handling of his products. There is no animal product so perishable but
that it can now be sent from the antipodes to London in good condition.
All of this has brought surprising changes in the traffic between
different countries and in the modification of industries to meet new
conditions. The producers of the most distant parts of the world are
aggressively entering our nearest markets. Competition is becoming more
intense, and commercial rivalry is assuming more the appearance of
warfare than heretofore. The nations of the world are actively engaged
in assisting their people in this struggle. They diffuse information
as to the best and most economical methods of production, they seek
out new markets, they subsidize transportation lines, they assist in
the introduction of new kinds of goods, they sustain their subjects in
the most aggressive practices, they exclude the products of competing
countries by tariffs and hostile sentiment, by discriminations,
by unpacking, delaying, or damaging goods, under the pretext of
inspection, and by burdensome charges and regulations. Some countries
have gone so far as to absolutely prohibit competing products for
comprehensive but indefinite sanitary reasons.
The outcome of this commercial warfare cannot be foreseen. The
struggle has been, and is, fiercest over the international traffic
in animals and animal products. The greatest forces of the world
are to-day contending as to what the future shall be. The United
States has only recently begun to realize that it also must take
part in this commercial struggle, if it would retain markets for its
products and secure prosperity for its people. Its trade has been
unjustly prohibited and discriminated against, its merchants have been
unfairly treated and insulted, and its protests have been treated
with ill-disguised contempt. Notwithstanding all these efforts at
repression, American trade has gone on increasing at an amazing rate,
the forbearance of the government having been far overbalanced by the
energy of the people. Having grown to be one of the greatest powers
of the world, with magnificent resources yet undeveloped, the United
States will no doubt maintain its position and continue to supply
the markets of the world with the best animals, the best meats, and
probably with the best dairy products.
LEADING WARS OF THE CENTURY
BY MAJOR GENERAL JOSEPH WHEELER, U. S. ARMY.
I. WARS OF THE UNITED STATES.
The progress of the nineteenth century, in everything that pertains
to civilization, arts, and sciences, has been greater than the total
progress in any decade of centuries in the history of the world, and
this is equally true in regard to the art and science of WAR; for the
expenditure of blood and treasure in the prosecution of the wars and
the fighting of the battles of this century far exceeds that of any
other like period.
The first year of the nineteenth century dawned upon the United States
at peace with the world. In September, 1800, Napoleon, finding that
he could not coerce the young nation into “an entangling alliance,”
and fearing lest the United States should join England in opposing
him, found it his best policy to conclude a peace. The brilliant
achievements of the newly organized navy, under Commodore Truxton, not
only illuminated these early pages of our history, but established a
prestige never yet forfeited; for the history of this branch of our
service is unparalleled from the first effort, during the Revolution,
of Esek Hopkins, to that of George Dewey at Manila, and Sampson and
Schley at Santiago.
WAR WITH BARBARY STATES.—In 1803 the United States determined to end
the piracy of the Barbary States, and an expedition under Commodore
Preble was sent to the Mediterranean. The Philadelphia, while pursuing
a pirate, was grounded off the coast of Tripoli, and captured by the
Tripolitans, who made slaves of the crew and prisoners of the officers.
In February, 1804, Captain Decatur, with seventy-six men from his ship,
the Intrepid, boarded the Philadelphia, killed or drove off the Moors,
fired the vessel, and returned without the loss of a man, although
fiercely attacked by the shore batteries. In July, Commodore Preble,
with his squadron, laid siege to Tripoli, but his bombardment was
ineffective. General Eaton, consul to Tunis, induced Hamet, the brother
of Yusef, who had usurped the sovereignty of Tripoli, to furnish him a
troop of Arab cavalry and a company of Greeks. With these, and a band
of Tripolitan rebels and a force of American sailors, he crossed the
Barcan Desert, stormed and captured Derne, an eastern seaport of Yusef.
The latter was glad to make peace, and a treaty was signed June 4, 1805.
INDIAN WARS.—From 1809 to 1811 fighting with the Indians in the South
and Northwest was constant. General Harrison and the celebrated Indian
chief Tecumseh were the principal actors.
WAR OF 1812.—The contest between England and France for the dominion
of the seas was the cause of the war of 1812. England declared the
German and French coast to be in a state of blockade. Napoleon, in
1806, made the same declaration regarding British ports. In 1807,
England prohibited trade with the coast of France. American commerce
was injured and almost destroyed by the combined action of the two
powers. Four years were consumed in negotiations, with constant
aggressions on the part of England, and on June 19, 1812, Congress
declared war. The great error of the campaign was the attempted
invasion of Canada. Had the war been made entirely upon the seas, an
early peace might have ensued.
The war began on the Lakes, and, repulsed in the effort to make a stand
on the Canada shore, and falling back, Hull surrendered Detroit, August
5. Again, at Queenstown, October 13, the Americans were defeated with
the loss of a thousand men. Altogether the first year of the war was a
disastrous one on land.
[Illustration: COMMODORE STEPHEN DECATUR.]
At sea, the navy, consisting of not more than a half-dozen frigates,
with its magnificently disciplined officers, had been eminently
successful. On August 13, the Essex, Captain Porter, captured the
British sloop Alert; on August 19, Captain Hull, commanding the
Constitution, destroyed the Guerriere off the Gulf of St. Lawrence;
October 18, the Wasp, Captain Jones, captured the Frolic, but later in
the day both the Frolic and the Wasp fell into the hands of the British
ship Poictiers. October 25, Captain Decatur, with the frigate United
States, captured the Macedonian off the Azores; on December 29, after a
desperate fight in the South Atlantic, Captain Bainbridge, commanding
the Constitution, defeated the British ship Java.
The campaign of 1813 opened on the Canadian frontier with the several
divisions in command of Generals Harrison, Dearborn, and Hampton. On
June 8, General Winchester, with eight hundred Kentuckians, drove the
British and Indians, under Proctor, from Frenchtown, on the River
Raisin, but returning with a force of fifteen hundred, they obliged
Winchester to surrender, which he only consented to do under Proctor’s
promise to protect the Americans from the Indians; which promise
Proctor treacherously disregarded, and marched away, leaving the sick
and wounded Kentuckians to be massacred. Henceforth the Kentucky war
cry was, “Remember the River Raisin,” and many were the British and
Indians who had cause to dread that slogan. May 5, General Harrison,
reinforced by General Green Clay and his Kentucky troops, repulsed the
British and their dusky allies under Tecumseh. July 21, they returned
four thousand strong, but were again repulsed.
[Illustration: COMMODORE PERRY AT BATTLE OF LAKE ERIE.]
The Americans, by wonderful exertion and hard work, built and equipped,
at Erie, a squadron of nine ships with fifty-five guns, the command
of which was given to Commodore Perry. September 10, Perry won his
grand victory on Lake Erie, over the English squadron of six ships and
sixty-three guns. This was the turning point of the war, and Perry’s
name goes down to posterity with the immortal names that never die.
On October 5, General Harrison, conveyed by Perry’s ships, landed his
forces in Canada and completely destroyed Proctor’s army, Tecumseh
being among the slain. So ended the war in the Northwest.
In the meantime, General Dearborn was fighting with varying success
in Upper Canada. Jackson, in the South, was avenging the Fort Mimms
massacre, finally crushing the Creeks early in the next year. The
British, under the odious Admiral Cochrane, plundered and ravaged and
burned everything in reach, from Lewistown to the Carolina coast,
seizing the negroes and selling them in the West Indies. During this
year the American navy continued to be successful, meeting few losses,
though the fighting was even more desperate.
July 5, 1814, the Americans defeated the British at Chippewa; and
on the 25th was fought the battle of Lundy’s Lane, where Generals
Brown and Scott were wounded. In this desperate battle, eight hundred
men were lost on either side; and though the battle was undecisive,
it had the effect of a victory for the Americans. August 14, five
thousand troops, under General Ross, were landed on the Patuxent, and,
defeating General Winder, who made a stand with a handful of men near
Bladensburg, proceeded to the city of Washington. After burning the
capitol and White House, and other buildings, they hastily withdrew.
The attempt to take Baltimore proved abortive, and on September 14
the British reëmbarked. It was at this time that Key wrote the “Star
Spangled Banner.” August 15, the enemy were repulsed at Fort Erie
with the loss of one thousand men, and a month later were finally
driven back. The whole British squadron on Lake Champlain surrendered
to Commodore MacDonough after a terrific fight for several hours, on
September 17, and on the same day the British army of twelve thousand
was forced to retreat from Plattsburg by General Macomb’s force of
forty-five hundred.
In Florida the Spaniards had allowed, if not encouraged, the English to
use their territory to fit out expeditions against the United States.
Jackson, with two thousand men, took possession of Pensacola on the 7th
of November, driving out the British.
December the 28th the British opened fire on New Orleans; again, on
January 1, 1815; and on January 8 Packenham, with twelve thousand men,
made his supreme effort. Jackson’s force was now about six thousand.
The British were driven to their ships after losing two thousand killed
and wounded, their general being among the slain. The American loss was
seven killed and six wounded. The war was kept up on the ocean until
March, the last capture being that of the British brig Penguin by the
American sloop-of-war Hornet, in the South Atlantic.