important than the changes effected in the infantry rifle; for upon
the quality of the infantry depends, more than upon anything else, the
efficiency of an army. There are many kinds of rifles now in use in the
different armies of the world, but in their essential principles they
are very similar. All use smokeless powder, and all are provided with
a magazine which admits of firing a number of shots without reloading.
The Springfield rifle formerly in use in the United States army has
been replaced by the Krag-Jorgensen, which has a magazine holding live
cartridges, and is provided with a cut-off which enables the piece to
be used as a single-shooter. When an emergency demands rapid fire,
the opening of the cut-off enables the cartridges in the magazine to
be fired in rapid succession. The range of the Krag-Jorgensen is 4066
yards, being practically equal to that of the Mauser, which, in the
hands of the Spaniards, inflicted casualties upon our men when they
were more than two miles from the hostile position. The difference in
the penetrating power of the Krag-Jorgensen and the Springfield is
shown in the accompanying illustration, taken from the report of the
chief of ordnance for 1893. The Springfield lead bullet was fired with
69 grains of black powder, and penetrated 3.3 inches of poorly seasoned
oak, the bullet being badly deformed. With a bullet covered with a
German silver jacket the penetration was 5.3 inches, the bullet being
again deformed. The Krag-Jorgensen used a bullet consisting of a lead
core and a cupronickeled jacket, which was fired with 37 grains of
smokeless powder. The bullet penetrated well-seasoned oak to a distance
of 24.2 inches and was taken out in perfect condition. The new rifle,
at short ranges, has an almost explosive effect and produces a shocking
wound; but at ordinary ranges the wounds inflicted by it may be almost
characterized as merciful, for the bullet makes a clean puncture, and
unless a vital organ is struck the wound heals easily and quickly. The
old expression of “forty rounds,” so familiar to veterans of the Civil
War, is now obsolete; for no soldier now thinks of going into action
with less than 150 cartridges on his person. Not only is the firing
more rapid than was formerly the case, but the lighter weight of the
cartridge enables a greater number to be carried.
[Illustration: SPRINGFIELD, CAL. 45 (LEAD BULLET).
SPRINGFIELD, CAL. 45 (GERMAN SILVER JACKET).
KRAG-JORGENSEN, CAL. 30 (NICKEL STEEL BULLET).]
From the rifle to the Gatling gun is only a step, for the latter is
essentially a collection of rifle barrels fired by machinery. It
consists of a number—generally ten—of rifle barrels grouped around,
and parallel to, a central shaft, each barrel being provided with a
lock. By turning a crank at the breech, the barrels and locks are made
to revolve together around the shaft, the locks having also a forward
and backward motion, the first of which inserts the cartridge into
the barrel and closes the breech at the time of the discharge, while
the latter extracts the cartridge after firing. Upon the gun, near
the breech, is a hopper which receives the cartridges from the feed
case. The cartridge falls from the hopper into the breech-block of
the uppermost barrel, and in the course of the first half-revolution
of the barrel it is inserted, the hammer is drawn back, and at the
lowest point of the revolution the breech is closed and the cartridge
is fired. As the barrel comes up in the second half-revolution the
cartridge shell is extracted, and when the barrel reaches the top it
receives another cartridge. The Gatling gun can be fired at the rate of
1000 to 1500 shots a minute. It generally uses the same cartridge as
the infantry rifle; but some patterns of the gun fire a projectile an
inch in diameter, and approximate closely in their effect to a field
gun. The gun is mounted either on a carriage similar to that of a
field-piece or on a tripod. Gatling guns were very successfully used by
the British in the Zulu War and in the Soudan, and by our own troops in
the battles around Santiago.
[Illustration: GATLING GUN.]
The Gardner is a lighter machine gun than the Gatling. It consists of
two parallel rifle barrels, and is operated by means of mechanism at
the breech, which, as in the case of the Gatling, is worked with a
crank. It can fire 500 shots a minute without danger of overheating,
as the breeches are enclosed in a metallic water-jacket. Its extreme
portability makes it a most valuable weapon, though its firing capacity
is not equal to that of the Gatling.
[Illustration: NORDENFELT RAPID FIRE GUN.]
There are several other types of machine guns, but the most ingenious,
and perhaps the most effective, is the Maxim automatic gun. This has
a single barrel, about two thirds of which, from the muzzle towards
the breech, is surrounded by a water-jacket into which water is
automatically injected at each discharge, thus rendering overheating
impossible. The mechanism for operating the gun is at the breech,
covering the remaining third of the barrel. All that is necessary is to
draw back the trigger to fire the first shot; the recoil of the piece
again cocks it, and the gun is then automatically fired, the process
being kept up until the cartridges in the feed-belt are all expended.
The cartridges are fed to the piece by means of belts holding 333
rounds, two or more of the belts being joined together if desired. The
Maxim gun can easily fire ten shots a second, and if every man at the
piece were killed the moment the first shot was fired the gun would
keep on until it fired at least 332 more shots.
The Gatling, Gardner, Maxim, and similar guns are known as machine
guns. Of the same general family, so to speak, are rapid-fire guns,
which are, however, distinguished from machine guns by having a larger
calibre, loading by hand, having only one barrel, and being provided
with artificial means of checking recoil and returning the piece to
the firing position. They use metallic ammunition, and have a breech
mechanism which cocks the firing pin and extracts the empty case by the
same motion which opens the breech for reloading.
Rapid-firing guns were first designed as a means of naval defense
against torpedo boats. They deliver a rapid and easily aimed fire,
and use projectiles of sufficient power to penetrate the plates of
the boats. In the naval service the gun is mounted on a spring return
carriage fixed to the vessel, so that the piece, when discharged, is
brought back to the firing position without any derangement of aim. On
land a rigid carriage is used. This carriage has a spade at the end
of the trail, which is forced into the ground by the recoil and holds
the gun and carriage in place. The principal rapid-fire guns are the
Hotchkiss, Driggs-Schroeder, Nordenfelt, Krupp, Canet, and Armstrong,
which fire from five to ten shots a minute, and use either shell or
shrapnel. Experiments are now being made in different armies with a
view to adopting rapid-fire guns for field artillery.
The principle of rapid fire, or “quick fire,” has been successfully
applied to guns having a caliber as great as six inches. The metallic
cartridge used in rapid-fire guns is, in appearance, simply a “big
brother” of the cartridge used in the infantry rifle.
Closely allied with guns, both in coast defense and in naval warfare,
are torpedoes. The crude weapons of this type, used in the War of
Secession, have been developed into formidable engines of war, before
whose destructive power the strongest vessels are helpless. For their
classification and description _see_ “The Century’s Naval Progress,”
pages 84, 85.
The destructive power of torpedoes is so well known as to give them
a great moral weight as a means of defense. The fact that the German
harbors on the Baltic were known to be protected by torpedoes saved
them from an attack by the French navy in 1870–71, and Cervera’s fleet
in the harbor of Santiago, in 1898, was safe from our squadron so long
as the mouth of the channel was closed with Spanish torpedoes.
Though necessarily brief, the foregoing sketch will show that in the
course of the nineteenth century armies have increased enormously in
size, and in the power of rapid movement and certainty of supply.
Infantry has increased in relative numbers and in importance. Extended
order fighting, in which the individuality of the soldier comes into
play, has taken the place of the old rigid shoulder-to-shoulder line
of battle. The private soldier’s vocation has risen, in many branches
of the military service, from a trade to a profession, and now, more
than ever before, is extensive training and a high order of intellect
necessary for the command of armies. Wars have become shorter, sharper,
more decisive and more terrible; and increased emphasis has been placed
upon the warning, “In time of peace prepare for war.”
THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURE
BY WALDO F. BROWN,
_Agricultural Editor “Cincinnati Gazette.”_
I. VICISSITUDES OF EARLY FARMING.
If the thought enters the mind of the reader that a youth (?) of
sixty-seven is not competent to write upon agricultural improvement for
the entire century, the answer is that such improvement can scarcely be
said to have begun until near the middle of the century; that the early
forties saw the writer at work on a farm; that he has ever since lived
on a farm; and that he, therefore, writes from personal experience of
the improvements which have transformed agriculture from a simple art
to a profound science.
To realize the progress agriculture has made, we must understand its
condition in the first half of the century, and the causes which
prevented improvement at that time. The soil was rich with the
accumulations of centuries, and the farmer was at no expense to either
maintain or restore fertility, for with but indifferent cultivation
large crops could be raised. When a field became impoverished, with axe
and torch a new field was soon cleared from the forest. The implements
in use were of the crudest and mostly manufactured by the nearest
blacksmith, and it cost but a few dollars to equip a farm; still they
were sufficient for the wants of the farmer of that date. So it will be
seen that the difficulty was not in the farm nor with the farmer; for
he could grow not only all that was necessary for family use, but more
than enough to supply the demand for such market as he had. Perhaps
the greatest difficulty in the way of agricultural progress was the
want of transportation facilities; for a market was of little use to
a farmer if he was separated from it by a hundred miles or more of
roads which, through almost the entire winter, were so deep with mud
that modern farmers would think them utterly impassable, with streams
unbridged and hills ungraded. The first step toward relieving the
farmer of this trouble was John Quincy Adams’ message to Congress in
1827, when he recommended the construction of the National Road, the
eastern terminus of which was to be in Maryland and the western at St.
Louis, Mo. This road was constructed within a few years. It was the
first outlet for the crops of the great West, and over it, across the
Alleghany Mountains, a procession of covered wagons passed during the
entire year, carrying the products of the farms to the Eastern markets
and bringing back manufactured goods. One other avenue was opened for
the interchange of products between these two sections, the Erie Canal
being completed in 1825, and enlarged and improved many years later.
During the thirties, just preceding the era of railroads, there was
almost a craze on the subject of canal building, and scores of miles
of canals were begun which were never completed, as with the beginning
of the fourth decade of the century the railroad idea had taken
possession of the minds of the people. In some cases the tow-path of
the canal formed the roadbed for the railroad which superseded it, and
probably more lines of canal were abandoned than were completed. The
era of railroads—that wonderful factor which was to revolutionize
farming—dates from about 1830. The first locomotive in the United
States was imported from England and placed upon the rails in 1829, and
in 1830 the first American locomotive was built. It was, however, very
near the middle of the century before the system of railroads had been
completed so as to materially improve the condition of agriculture; and
although the fact may sound strange to some, the first railroad train
ran into Chicago in 1852. During these years of depressed agriculture,
however, the population of the country was rapidly increasing.
While the railroad system of the country was developing, turnpikes were
being built radiating from the principal markets and railroad stations.
With the beginning of the second half of the century the farmers
awoke to the fact that the United States was a large and populous
nation, requiring an immense amount of supplies, and that improvements
for transportation had been furnished so that the markets were
easily accessible. Before passing, however, from the discouragements
and difficulties of agriculture in the early days, some practical
illustrations of the difficulties met with seem necessary to give a
clear understanding of the condition. What would the farmer of to-day
think were he obliged to start with a load of wheat in midwinter over
roads which crossed unbridged streams and wound over clay hills, not
a rod of which was macadamized and all of which were poorly graded,
spending ten days with a four-horse team to make a round trip of one
hundred miles with thirty-five bushels of wheat, and sell it in the
market for 35 cents a bushel? Yet such was the fact which the writer
had from the lips of a farmer who had been through this experience. Two
thoughts may occur to the reader—first, that thirty-five bushels was a
light load for a four-horse team, and, second, that hotel bills would
more than absorb the money received from such a load of wheat. But both
of these are explained by saying that one cause of the lightness of the
load was that the farmer must carry feed for his team for the entire
trip, and another, the uncertainty of the condition of the roads; for
though he might start with the roads frozen solid and possibly worn
smooth by the teams which had preceded him, he was liable on the trip
to meet with a sudden thaw which reduced the roadbed to mortar, so that
the wheels would sink almost to the axle, and in many cases the load
would be found too heavy for his team. It was no uncommon sight to see
a score of places to the mile where the fences had been torn down and
rails carried into the middle of the road to be used in prying the
wagons out of the mud when hopelessly mired. The reason the hotel bills
did not consume the proceeds of the load was that there were none; for
the farmer carried his camp kettle, bedding, and provisions with him,
and slept in the wagon during his entire trip. The same farmer referred
to, in telling his story, said that all the money spent on the ten
days’ trip was three “fips” (18¾ cents), and that, presumably, was for
three “nips” of whiskey.
An interesting personal experience in the winter of 1846–47 was in
driving hogs from Anderson, Ind., to Cincinnati, Ohio, a distance of
about 150 miles. The drove was started with the mercury at zero, and
the first difficulty met was in getting them across White River, as
there was no bridge and the stream must be forded. The hogs absolutely
refused to enter the icy water, but the pioneer of that day was equal
to any emergency. The drove was soon huddled on the bank, rails were
carried from an adjoining field, and a close pen was built around them;
then two plucky frontiersmen, with thick leggings reaching from ankle
to hips, towed them by the ears to frozen shoal water in the centre of
the river, and pushed them across the ice, when they were obliged to go
ashore on the other side. Two days later a sudden and unexpected thaw
set in, when for one hundred weary miles the drivers urged the hogs
through mud which reached from fence to fence, and which was so fluid
that not a trace was left behind, as it flowed in to fill not only the
track of the hogs but the footsteps of the drivers. When after days
of urging the hogs began to lose strength and fall by the way, they
settled down into the ooze, from which the men must lift them into
wagons which accompanied the drove or were hired from farmers along
the road. When Cincinnati was reached it seemed that the worst trouble
of the journey was over; but not so, for the climax of disaster with
this drove was reached at the slaughter-house, when for two weeks the
weather was so warm that no slaughtering could be done, and the price
of pork declined day by day, until the entire drove was finally sold
at one and three quarters cents per pound dressed weight—and during
the entire time, both on the road and in the pens, the hogs had been
losing rapidly in weight every day. This was the lowest price recalled
for hogs; but it was very common to have a glut in the market of
some staple which reduced the price so low that it scarcely paid for
transportation, and in some cases made it actually unsalable.
[Illustration: SOIL PULVERIZER.]
A neighbor relates that when he was a boy, needing some money, his
father made him the offer that he might have all the corn that he would
shell, take to mill, and market the meal in Cincinnati, forty miles
distant. He went to work with a will, prepared a two-horse load, and
reached Cincinnati with it safely, only to find the market glutted so
that he could not get an offer on it. A part of it was finally sold at
10 cents per bushel, and the remainder was taken home.
During the closing years of the fifth decade the prices of stock
were at the lowest, good dairy cows bringing from $7 to $9 per
head; yearling calves from $1 to $2; the very best horses, $40, and
stock hogs selling for $1 or $2 each. At the same time many of the
necessities of life were sold at exorbitant prices, and an examination
of an old account book shows the following figures: Salt, $4 per
barrel; nails, 6 to 8 cents per pound; calico, 12½ cents per yard;
drilling, 25 cents per yard; clocks, $40 each (the value of the best
horses!).
Some other facts must be taken into consideration to understand why
the farmers did not attempt improved methods. One was the condition
of the currency. The United States Bank, which it would seem should
have afforded security and stability to the currency, had been wrecked
by the action of Andrew Jackson in vetoing its rechartering and
withdrawing the United States funds (at that date about $43,000,000)
from it; and private banks had been established over the entire
west and south, a system of what was then known as “wild cat” banks
supplying the people with currency. The man who was trading needed to
carry in his pocket at all times a “bank detector,” to which he might
refer to ascertain how many cents on the dollar the issue of each bank
was worth.
Looking back at the condition of affairs as described, remembering how
few the markets, how easily glutted, how unstable the currency, and all
the uncertainties connected with the disposal of the farmer’s products,
what was there to stimulate him to improve his methods or increase his
products? If, as was occasionally the case, the farmer determined to
improve his stock, he must import from England or buy at high prices
from an importer, and there being no express companies to deliver his
stock, he must either go in person or trust to private individuals to
drive them over the mountains or, if small stock, to bring them in
wagons the entire distance.
He could not afford to carry on a wide correspondence, for each
individual letter cost twenty-five cents postage, if the distance
was over three hundred miles. It was not until 1845 that postage was
reduced to ten cents, and ten years later it was reduced to three cents
for letters of half an ounce.
If any one is inclined to throw the blame upon the farmers for not
having done their part to improve agriculture and bring prosperity,
he should consider the conditions under which they had lived for a
generation; the uncertain markets; the low prices of products; that
they must construct roads and bridges, build schoolhouses and churches,
clear the farms, nearly all of which were covered with heavy timber;
and the fact that all this work was done with the crudest implements.
It will be seen that the farmers had been accomplishing wonders and
were worthy of the highest praise rather than blame.
With the beginning of the last half of the century, the farmers
suddenly awoke to the fact that the conditions had become wonderfully
favorable. Towns and cities were growing up on every hand, offering
new markets. Railroads and other means of transportation were opening
to them. Inventive genius had taken up the improvement of implements
of agriculture, and, best of all, prices had advanced greatly for all
the leading products. The improvements of methods in farming, which
have not been less than those in manufacturing and other callings,
date from this time, and will be described under the following heads:
Improvements in implements; in stock; in drainage and tillage; in
the maintaining and increasing of fertility; in care and feeding of
stock; in and around the farmer’s home; and education, which includes
agricultural literature, farmer’s organizations, and schools.
II. IMPROVEMENTS IN FARM IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY.
[Illustration: THE COLUMBIA HARVESTER AND BINDER.]
In writing on the improvements in agriculture one can scarcely fail
to be impressed with the fact that whenever the human race comes to
the point that it must have help and make a demand upon nature, she
always honors the draft; and as the steps are portrayed by which
the agricultural products of this continent have been increased a
hundred fold, while the power of the individual worker has increased
wonderfully, and the labor has been lightened by machinery, we can see
that these inventions and improvements came just as fast as they were
needed, and no faster. God has given to the human mind such power, and
to the hands such skill, that whatever is necessary is soon provided
when the want is made known. Perhaps there is no better way in which
this can be traced than in the appliances by which the farmer feeds the
world. It is an interesting study to note the successive steps in the
improvement of implements for the work of the farm. In the beginning
of the century the sickle and flail were all that were needed to cut
and thresh the grain; and it was by a series of steps that the steam
thresher and the combined mower and binder were evolved. The sickle was
all that was needed until population increased and markets were made
accessible; then the cradle was invented. With the former, an expert
could cut an acre a day, and with the latter four or more acres; but
all the work was done by human muscle. The man using a sickle must
work with bended back all day. The cradle enabled him to work erect,
and lightened the labor; but when the “Reaper sickle” was invented
the labor was transferred to brute muscle. The first machines were
clumsy and heavy to draw, requiring as much, or more, power to cut the
grain as to cut and bind it with the light running modern binder. Now,
the man who sweltered with bended back ten or twelve hours to cut an
acre of grain with the sickle “drives his team afield,” and by simply
guiding it cuts and binds ten or fifteen acres a day, and carries the
bundles to the shock row.
[Illustration: IMPROVED THRESHER WITH BLOWER AND SELF-FEEDER.]