GREAT TUNNELS OF THE WORLD
Primitive Tunneling--Hoosac Tunnel--Croton Aqueduct--Great Alpine
Tunnels--New York Subway--McAdoo Tunnels--How Tunnels are Built.
The art of tunnel construction ranks among the very oldest in the
world, if not the oldest, for almost from the beginning of his advent
on the earth man has been tunneling and boring and making holes in the
ground. Even in pre-historic time, the ages of which we have neither
record nor tradition, primitive man scooped out for himself hollows
in the sides of hills, and mountains, as is evidenced by geological
formations and by the fossils that have been unearthed. The forming
of these hollows and holes was no indication of a superior intelligence
but merely manifested the instincts of nature in seeking protection
from the fury of the elements and safety from hostile forces such as
the onslaughts of the wild and terrible beasts that then existed on
the earth.
The Cave Dwellers were real tunnelers, inasmuch as in construction of
their rude dwellings they divided them into several compartments and
in most cases chose the base of hills for their operations, boring
right through from side to side as recent discoveries have verified.
The ancient Egyptians built extensive tunnels for the tombs of their
dead as well as for the temples of the living. When a king of Thebes
ascended the throne he immediately gave orders for his tomb to be cut
out of the solid rock. A separate passage or gallery led to the tomb
along which he was to be borne in death to the final resting place.
Some of the tunnels leading to the mausoleums of the ancient Egyptian
kings were upwards of a thousand feet in length, hewn out of the hard
solid rock. A similar custom prevailed in Assyria, Mesopotamia, Persia
and India.
The early Assyrians built a tunnel under the Euphrates river which was
12 feet wide by 15 high. The course of the river was diverted until
the tunnel was built, then the waters were turned into their former
channel, therefore it was not really a subaqueous tunnel.
The sinking of tunnels under water was to be one of the triumphs of
modern science.
Unquestionably the Romans were the greatest engineers of ancient times.
Much of their masonry work has withstood the disintegrating hand of
time and is as solid and strong to-day as when first erected.
The "Fire-setting" method of tunneling was originated by them, and
they also developed the familiar principle of prosecuting the work at
several points at the same time by means of vertical shafts. They
heated the rock to be excavated by great fires built against the face
of it. When a very high temperature was reached they turned streams
of cold water on the heated stone with the result that great portions
were disintegrated and fell off under the action of the water. The
Romans being good chemists knew the effect of vinegar on lime, therefore
when they encountered calcareous rock instead of water they used vinegar
which very readily split up and disintegrated this kind of obstruction.
The work of tunneling was very severe on the laborers, but the Romans
did not care, for nearly all the workmen were slaves and regarded in
no better light than so many cattle. One of the most notable tunnels
constructed by the old Romans was that between Naples and Pozzuoli
through the Posilipo Hills. It was excavated through volcanic tufa and
was 3,000 feet long, 25 feet wide, and of the pointed arch style. The
longest of the Roman tunnels, 3-1/2 miles, was built to drain Lake
Fucino. It was driven through calcareous rock and is said to have cost
the labor of 30,000 men for 11 years.
Only hand labor was employed by the ancient people in their tunnel
work. In soft ground the tools used were picks, shovels and scoops,
but for rock work they had a greater variety. The ancient Egyptians
besides the hammer, chisel and wedges had tube drills and saws provided
with cutting edges of corundum or other hard gritty material.
For centuries there was no progress in the art of tunneling. On the
contrary there was a decline from the earlier construction until late
in the 17th century when gunpowder came into use as an explosive in
blasting rock. The first application of gunpowder was probably at
Malpas, France, 1679-1681, in the construction of the tunnel on the
line of the Languedoc Canal 510 feet long, 22 feet wide and 29 feet
high.
It was not until the beginning of the nineteenth century that the art
of tunnel construction, through sand, wet ground or under rivers was
undertaken so as to come rightly under the head of practical
engineering. In 1803 a tunnel was built through very soft soil for the
San Quentin Canal in France. Timbering or strutting was employed to
support the walls and roof of the excavation as fast as the earth was
removed and the masonry lining was built closely following it. From
the experience gained in this tunnel were developed the various systems
of soft ground subterranean tunneling in practice at the present day.
The first tunnel of any extent built in the United States was that
known as the Auburn Tunnel near Auburn, Pa., for the water
transportation of coal. It was several hundred feet long, 22 feet wide
and 15 feet high. The first railroad tunnel in America was also in
Pennsylvania on the Allegheny-Portage Railroad, built in 1818-1821.
It was 901 feet long, 25 feet wide and 21 feet high.
What may be called the epoch making tunnel, the construction of which
first introduced high explosives and power drills in this country, was
the Hoosac in Massachusetts commenced in 1854 and after many
interruptions brought to completion in 1876. It is a double-track
tunnel nearly 5 miles in length. It was quickly followed by the
commencement of the Erie tunnel through Bergen Hill near Hoboken, N.J.
This tunnel was commenced in 1855 and finished in 1861. It is 4,400
feet long, 28 feet wide and 21 feet high. Other remarkable engineering
feats of this kind in America are the Croton Aqueduct Tunnel, the
Hudson River Tunnel, and the New York Subway.
The great rock tunnels of Europe are the four Alpine cuts known as
Mont Cenis, St. Gothard, the Arlberg and the Simplon. The Mont Cenis
is probably the most famous because at the time of its construction
it was regarded as the greatest engineering achievement of the modern
world, yet it is only a simple tunnel 8 miles long, while the Simplon
is a double tunnel, each bore of which is 12-1/4 miles. The chief
engineer of the Mont Cenis tunnel was M. Sommeiler, the man who devised
the first power drill ever used in such work. In addition to the power
drill the building of this tunnel induced the invention of apparatus
to suck up foul air, the air compressor, the turbine and several other
contrivances and appliances in use at the present time.
Great strides in modern tunneling developed the "shield" and brought
metal lining into service. The shield was invented and first used by
Sir M. I. Brunel, a London engineer, in excavating the tunnel under
the River Thames, begun in 1825 and finished in 1841. In 1869 another
English engineer, Peter Barlow, used an iron lining in connection with
a shield in driving the second tunnel under the Thames at London. From
a use of the shield and metal lining has grown the present system of
tunneling which is now universally known as the shield system.
Great advancement has been made in the past few years in the nature
and composition of explosives as well as in the form of motive power
employed in blasting. Powerful chemical compositions, such as
nitroglycerine and its compounds, such as dynamite, etc., have
supplanted gunpowder, and electricity, is now almost invariably the
firing agent. It also serves many other purposes in the work,
illumination, supplying power for hoisting and excavating machinery,
driving rock drills, and operating ventilating fans, etc. In this
field, in fact, as everywhere else in the mechanical arts, the electric
current is playing a leading part.
To the English engineer, Peter Barlow, above mentioned, must be given
the credit of bringing into use the first really serviceable circular
shield for soft ground tunneling. In 1863 he took out a patent for
such a shield with a cylindrical cast iron lining for the completed
tunnel. Of course James Henry Greathead very materially improved the
shield, so much so indeed that the present system of tunneling by means
of circular shields is called the Greathead not the Barlow system.
Greathead and Barlow entered into a partnership in 1869. They
constructed the tunnel under the Tower of London 1,350 feet in length
and seven feet in diameter which penetrated compact clay and was
completed within a period of eleven months. This was a remarkable
record in tunnel building for the time and won for these eminent
engineers a world wide fame. From thenceforth their system came into
vogue in all soft soil and subaqueous tunneling. Except for the
development in steel apparatus and the introduction of electricity as
a motive agent, there has not been such a great improvement on the
Greathead shield as one would naturally expect in thirty years.
The method of excavating a tunnel depends altogether on the nature of
the obstruction to be removed for the passage. In the case of solid
rock the work is slow but simple; dry, hard, firm earth is much the
same as rock. The difficulties of tunneling lie in the soft ground,
subaqueous mud, silt, quicksand, or any treacherous soil of a shifting,
unsteady composition.
When the rock is to be removed it is customary to begin the work in
sections of which there may be seven or eight. First one section is
excavated, then another and so on to completion. The order of the
sections depends upon the kind of rock and upon the time allotted for
the job and several other circumstances known to the engineer. If the
first section attacked be at the top immediately beneath the arch of
the proposed tunnel, next to the overlying matter, it is called a
heading, but if the first cutting takes place at the bottom of the
rock to form the base of the tunnel it is called a drift.
Driving a heading is the most difficult operation of rock tunneling.
Sometimes a heading is driven a couple of thousand feet ahead of the
other sections. In soft rock it is often necessary to use timber props
as the work proceeds and follow up the excavating by lining roof and
sides with brick, stone or concrete.
The rock is dislodged by blasting, the holes being drilled with
compressed air, water force or electricity, and, as has been said,
powerful explosives are used, nitroglycerine or some nitro-compound
being the most common. Many charges can be electrically fired at the
same time. If the tunnel is to be long, shafts are sunk at intervals
in order to attack the work at several places at once. Sometimes these
shafts are lined and left open when the tunnel is completed for purposes
of ventilation.
In soft ground and subaqueous soil the "shield" is the chief apparatus
used in tunneling. The most up-to-date appliance of this kind was that
used in constructing the tunnels connecting New York City with New
Jersey under the Hudson River. It consisted of a cylindrical shell of
steel of the diameter of the excavation to be made. This was provided
with a cutting edge of cast steel made up of assembled segments. Within
the shell was arranged a vertical bulkhead provided with a number of
doors to permit the passage of workmen, tools and explosives. The shell
extended to the rear of the bulkhead forming what was known as the
"tail." The lining was erected within this tail and consisted of steel
plates lined with masonry. The whole arrangement was in effect a
gigantic circular biscuit cutter which was forced through the earth.
The tail thus continually enveloped the last constructed portion of
this permanent lining. The actual excavation took place in advance of
the cutting edge. The method of accomplishing this, varied with
conditions. At times the material would be rock for a few feet from
the bottom, overlaid with soft earth. In such case the latter would
be first excavated and then the roof would be supported by temporary
timbers, after which the rock portion would be attacked. When the
workmen had excavated the material in front of the shield it was passed
through the heavy steel plate diaphragm in center of the shell out to
the rear and the shield was then moved forward so as to bring its front
again up to the face of the excavation. As the shell was very unwieldy,
weighing about eighty tons, and, moreover, as the friction or pressure
of the surrounding material on its side had to be overcome it was a
very difficult matter to move it forward and a great force had to be
expended to do so. This force was exerted by means of hydraulic jacks
so devised and placed around the circumference of the diaphragm as to
push against the completed steel plate lining of the tunnel. There
were sixteen of these jacks employed with cylinders eight inches in
diameter and they exerted a pressure of from one thousand to four
thousand pounds per square inch. By such means the shield was pushed
ahead as soon as room was made in front for another move.
The purpose of the shield is to prevent the inrush of water and soft
material while excavating is going on; the diaphragm of the shields
acts as a bulkhead and the openings in it are so devised as to be
quickly closed if necessary. The extension of the shield in front of
the diaphragm is designed to prevent the falling or flowing in of the
exposed face of the new excavation.
The extension of the shell back from the diaphragm is for the purpose
of affording opportunity to put in place the finished tunnel lining
whatever it may be, masonry, cast-iron, cast-iron and masonry, or steel
plates and masonry. Where the material is saturated with water as is
the case in all subaqueous tunneling it is necessary to use compressed
air in connection with the shield. The intensity of air pressure is
determined by the depth of the tunnel below the surface of the water
above it. The tunnelers work in what are called caissons to which they
have access through an air lock. In many cases quick transition from
the compressed air in the caisson to the open air at the surface results
fatally to the workers. The caisson disease is popularly called "the
bends" a kind of paralysis which is more or less baffling to medical
science. Some men are able to bear a greater pressure than others. It
depends on the natural stamina of the worker and his state of health.
The further down the greater the pressure. The normal atmospheric
pressure at the surface is about fourteen pounds to the square inch.
Men in normal health should be able to stand a pressure of seventy-six
pounds to the square inch and this would call for a depth of 178 feet
under water surface, which far exceeds any depth worked under compressed
air. For a long time one hundred feet were regarded as a maximum depth
and at that depth men were not permitted to work more than an hour in
one shift. The ordinary subaqueous tunnel pressure is about forty-five
pounds and this corresponds to a head of 104 feet. In working in the
Hudson Tunnels the pressure was scarcely ever above thirty-three pounds,
yet many suffered from the "bends."
What is called a freezing method is now proposed to overcome the water
in soft earth tunneling. Its chief feature is the excavating first of
a small central tunnel to be used as a refrigerating chamber or ice
box in freezing the surrounding material solid so that it can be dug
out or blasted out in chunks the same as rock. It is very doubtful
however, if such a plan is feasible.
The greatest partly subaqueous tunnels in the world are now to be found
in the vicinity of New York. The first to be opened to the public is
known as the Subway and extends from the northern limits of the City
in Westchester County to Brooklyn. The oldest, however, of the New
York tunnels counting from its origin is the "McAdoo" tunnel from
Christopher Street, in Manhattan Borough, under the Hudson to Hoboken.
This was begun in 1880 and continued at intervals as funds could be
obtained until 1890, when the work was abandoned after about two
thousand feet had been constructed. For a number of years the tunnel
remained full of water until it was finally acquired by the Hudson
Companies who completed and opened it to the public in 1908. Another
tunnel to the foot of Cortlandt Street was constructed by the same
concern and opened in 1909. Both tunnels consist of parallel but
separate tubes. The railway tunnels to carry the Pennsylvania R. R.
under the Hudson into New York and thence under the East River to Long
Island have been finished and are great triumphs of engineering skill
besides making New York the most perfectly equipped city in the world
as far as transit is concerned.
The greatest proposed subaqueous tunnel is that intended to connect
England with France under the English Channel a distance of twenty-one
miles. Time and again the British Parliament has rejected proposals
through fear that such a tunnel would afford a ready means of invasion
from a foreign enemy. However, it is almost sure to be built. Another
projected British tunnel is one which will link Ireland and Scotland
under the Irish Sea. If this is carried out then indeed the Emerald
Isle will be one with Britain in spite of her unwillingness for such
a close association.
England already possesses a famous subaqueous tunnel in that known as
the Severn tunnel under the river of that name. It is four and a half
miles long, although it was built largely through rock. Water gave
much trouble in its construction which occupied thirteen years from
1873 to 1886. Pumps were employed to raise the water through a side
heading connecting with a shaft twenty-nine feet in diameter. The
greatest amount of water raised concurrently was twenty-seven million
gallons in twenty-four hours but the pumps had a capacity of sixty-six
million gallons for the same time.
The greatest tunnel in Europe is the Simplon which connects Switzerland
with Italy under the Simplon Pass in the Alps. It has two bores twelve
and one-fourth miles each and at places it is one and one-half miles
below the surface. The St. Gothard also connecting Switzerland and
Italy under the lofty peak of the Col de St. Gothard is nine and
one-fourth miles in length. The third great Alpine tunnel, the Arlberg,
which is six and one-half miles long, forms a part of the Austrian
railway between Innsbruck and Bluedenz in the Tyrol and connects
westward with the Swiss railroads and southward with those of Italy.
Two great tunnels at the present time are being constructed in the
United States, one of these which is piercing the backbone of the
Rockies is on the Atlantic and Pacific railway. It begins near
Georgetown, will pass under Gray's peak and come out near Decatur,
Colorado, in all a length of twelve miles. The other American
undertaking is a tunnel under the famous Pike's Peak in Colorado which
when completed will be twenty miles long.
It can clearly be seen that in the way of tunnel engineering Uncle Sam
is not a whit behind his European competitors.