CHAPTER XX.

LITERATURE AND SOCIAL PROGRESS.

The period which elapsed between the resignation of Pitt and the battle

of Waterloo was hardly less eventful in the history of British

civilisation than in the history of British empire. To some, the

boundary line between the society of the eighteenth and that of the

nineteenth century appears to be marked by the outbreak of the French

revolution, and the far-reaching effects of that catastrophe upon ideas,

manners, and politics in Great Britain, as well as upon the continent,

are too evident to be denied. But it is equally certain that, before the

French revolution, an intellectual and industrial movement was in

progress which must have given a most powerful impulse to civilisation,

even if the French revolution had never taken place. In this country,

especially, the great writers, philanthropists, scientific leaders,

inventors, engineers, and reformers of various types, who adorned the

latter part of George III.'s reign, largely drew their inspiration from

an age, just preceding the French revolution, which is sometimes

regarded as barren in originality.

When the nineteenth century opened, the classical authors of that

pre-revolutionary age had mostly passed away. Hume died in 1776, Johnson

in 1784, Adam Smith in 1790, Gibbon in 1794, Burns in 1796, Burke in

1797, Cowper in 1800. John Howard, the great pioneer of prison reform,

became a martyr to philanthropy in 1790. The most remarkable of those

manufacturing improvements and mechanical inventions upon which the

commercial supremacy of England is founded date from the same period,

and have been described in a previous volume. Steam navigation was still

untried, but preliminary experiments had already been made on both sides

of the Atlantic before 1789. The application of steam to locomotion by

land had scarcely been conceived, but the facilities of traffic and

travelling had been vastly developed in the first forty years of George

III.'s reign.

It may truly be said, however, that English literature in the early

party of the nineteenth century bears clear traces of the influence

exercised on receptive minds by the French revolution. Three of the

leading poets, Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Southey, were deeply infected

by its spirit, and indulged in their youth fantastic dreams of a social

millennium; Wordsworth, especially, who in his maturer years could be

justly described as the priest of nature-worship and the poet of rural

life, had imbibed violent republican ideas during a residence of more

than a year in France. These were passing off in 1798, when he

published, jointly with Coleridge, the volume of _Lyrical Ballads_

containing the latter's immortal tale of the _Ancient Mariner_. In the

following year he settled in the English lake-country, where Coleridge

established himself for a while, and Southey for life. Hence the popular

but very inaccurate title of the "Lake School," applied to a trio of

poets who, except as friends, had little in common with each other.

Indeed, after Wordsworth had developed his theory of poetical realism in

the preface to a volume published in 1800, Coleridge rejected and

criticised it as wholly untenable. All three, however, may be considered

as comrades in a revolt against the conventional diction of eighteenth

century poetry, from which Coleridge's "dreamy tenderness" and mystical

flights of fancy were as remote as Wordsworth's rusticity and almost

prosaic studies of humble life.

[Pageheading: _COLERIDGE AND SCOTT._]

Although Coleridge survived to 1834 and Wordsworth to 1850, both seem to

have lost at an early date that power of imagination, whether displayed

in sympathy or in creation, in which their greatness consisted.

Wordsworth wrote assiduously during the whole of this period; in 1807 he

published a volume of poems, including the famous _Ode on the

Intimations of Immortality_ and several of his finest sonnets; but of

his later work only an occasional lyric deserves to be ranked beside the

poems published in 1800 and 1807. Coleridge, indeed, published two of

his finest poems, _Christabel_ and _Kubla Khan_, in 1816, but they were

written long before, _Christabel_, partly in 1797 and partly in 1801,

and _Kubla Khan_ in 1798. Even the new metre of _Christabel_, which is

not the least of Coleridge's contributions to English poetry, had, as

early as 1805, been borrowed in the _Lay of the Last Minstrel_ by Scott,

to whom Coleridge had recited the poem. Nevertheless, Coleridge

continued to exercise a great influence, partly through the charm of his

conversation and partly through his prose works, in which he introduced

to a British public, as yet unused to German literature, a vision of

that mystical German thought which finds its father in Kant, and was

represented at that day by Hegel in philosophy and Goethe in poetry. It

is uncertain how far the general ignorance of German literature in

England was responsible for the influence exercised in their own day by

the few English or Scottish thinkers, such as Coleridge, Hamilton, and

Carlyle, who had either fallen under the spell or learned the secret of

the German mystics. The most important of Coleridge's prose works was

_Aids to Reflection_, which appeared in 1828, and whatever be its

literary value, it deserves the notice of the historian, as the least

unsystematic treatise of an author who gave the principal philosophical

impetus to the Oxford movement.

Two other poets, eminently the product of their age, though not the

offspring of the French revolution, Scott and Byron, were equally in

revolt against conventional diction. Scott elevated ballad-poetry to a

level which it had never before attained, and composed some of the most

beautiful songs in the English language. If it be remembered that he was

cramped by the drudgery of legal offices during the best years of his

life, that he was nearly thirty when he made his first literary venture,

that he was crippled by financial ruin and broken health during his

later years, that his anonymous contributions to periodicals would fill

volumes, and that he died at the age of sixty-one, his fertility of

production must ever be ranked as unique in the history of English

literature. Already known as the author of various lyrical pieces, and

the _Border Minstrelsy_, he published the _Lay of the Last Minstrel_ in

1805, _Marmion_ (with its fine stanzas on Pitt and Fox) in 1808, the

_Lady of the Lake_ in 1809, _Don Roderick_ in 1811, and _Rokeby_ in

1813, as well as minor poems of high merit. He is said to have abandoned

poetry in deference to Byron's rising star, and it is certain that he

now fills a higher place in the roll of English classics as a prose

writer than as a poet. His first novel, _Waverley_, appeared in 1814,

and was followed In the next four years by six of the greatest "Waverley

Novels," as the series came to be called--_Guy Mannering_, the

_Antiquary_, the _Black Dwarf_, _Old Mortality_, _Rob Roy_, and the

_Heart of Midlothian_. It is not too much to say that by these works,

both in poetry and in prose, he created the historical romance in Great

Britain. The legends of chivalry and the folk-lore of his native land

had deeply stirred his soul, and fired his imagination from childhood,

and though later "research" has far outstripped the range of his

antiquarian knowledge, no modern writer has ever done so much to awaken

a reverence for olden times in the hearts of his countrymen. The easy

flow of his style, the vivid energy of his thought, the graphic power of

his descriptions, his shrewd and robust sympathy with human nature, and

the evident simplicity of his own character, not unmingled with flashes

of true poetical insight, justly rendered him the most popular writer of

his time.

Byron was born in 1788, and first sprang into notice as the author of

_English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_, a fierce and bitter reply to

critics who had disparaged his first essay in poetry. This satire

appeared in 1809, when he was just of age, after which he travelled with

Hobhouse, and it was not until 1812 that he "woke to find himself

famous," on publishing the first two cantos of _Childe Harold_. During

the next three years, he poured forth a succession of characteristic

poems, including the _Giaour_, the _Bride of Abydos_, the _Corsair_,

_Lara_, and the _Siege of Corinth_. His later work was of a more

finished order, including the remaining cantos of _Childe Harold_,

_Manfred_, _Cain_, and _Mazeppa_, and when he died at Mesolongi in 1824,

he left unfinished what is, in some ways, the most remarkable of his

works, _Don Juan_. Long before his death he had become the prophet and

hero of a pseudo-romantic school, composed of young Englishmen dazzled

by his intellectual brilliancy, and attracted rather than repelled by a

certain Satanic taint in his moral sentiments. But he also won the

admiration of Goethe, and the reaction against his fame in a later

generation is as exaggerated as the idolatry of which he was the object

under the regency. His morbid egotism, his stormy rhetoric, and his

meretricious exaltation of passion, have lost their magical effect, but

his poetical gifts would have commanded homage in any age. The message

which he professed to deliver was a false message, but few poets have

surpassed him in daring vigour of imagination, in descriptive force, in

wit, or in pathos. His style was eminently such as to invite imitation,

yet no one has successfully imitated him. Had he been a better man, and

had his life been prolonged, he might perhaps have towered above his

literary contemporaries as Napoleon did among the generals and rulers of

Europe.

[Pageheading: _KEATS, SHELLEY, TENNYSON._]

Yet among these contemporaries were Keats and Shelley, whom some critics

of a younger generation would place above him in poetical originality.

Their chief merit lay neither in thought nor in strength, but in an

exquisite sweetness of expression, which in the case of Shelley at least

was quite independent of the subject-matter. Keats, though junior to

Shelley, has been described as his poetical father, but his chief poem,

_Endymion_, did not appear until several years after Shelley had formed

his own distinctive style. He died in 1821 at the age of twenty-six,

leaving a poetical inheritance of the highest quality, which, though

limited in quantity and unequal in workmanship, has gained an enduring

reputation. Nevertheless his work lent itself readily to imitation, and

he exercised a marked influence on the style of later poets, not only in

this period, but in the Victorian age as well. The rebellious spirit of

Shelley had already shown itself at an early age in his poetry, and

especially in _Queen Mab_, printed in 1812. His ethereal fancy, his

dreamy obscurity, and his witchery of language, designated him from the

first as a master of lyrical poetry; though he wrote longer pieces, his

fame rests on the numerous short poems which continued to appear till

his death in 1822.

Perhaps the greatest master of melody was one who was only coming to the

front at the close of this period, Alfred Tennyson, born in 1809,

contributed with two of his brothers to a collection of verses,

misleadingly entitled _Poems by Two Brothers_, which appeared in 1826.

At Cambridge his _Timbuctoo_ won the chancellor's prize, but the first

proof of his powers was given by a volume of short poems published in

1830, followed by a similar volume two years later. By far the greater

part of his work lies in the next period, but the volume of 1833 already

included some of his best known poems.

Among minor poets of this period the highest rank must perhaps be

assigned to Thomas Campbell and Thomas Moore as authors of some of the

most stirring and graceful lyrics in the English language. The former

had attained celebrity by the _Pleasures of Hope_, published before the

end of the eighteenth century, but his choicest poems, such as _Ye

Mariners of England_, the fine verses on Hohenlinden and Copenhagen, and

_Gertrude of Wyoming_, appeared between 1802 and 1809. The series of

Moore's Irish melodies, on which his poetical fame largely rests, was

begun in 1807, though not completed until long afterwards. They were

followed by other lyrical pieces of great merit, and by a series of

witty and malicious lampoons, collected in 1813 into a volume called the

_Twopenny Post Bag_. _Lalla Rookh_, his most ambitious effort, was not

published until 1817.

Two prose writers of the same epoch, Southey and Bentham, claim special

notice, though Southey may also be numbered among the poets. Having

established himself close to Keswick in 1804, he prosecuted a literary

career with the most untiring industry until his mental faculties at

last failed him some thirty-six years later. During this period he

produced above a hundred volumes in poetry and prose, besides numerous

scattered articles and other papers. Most of these were of merely

ephemeral interest, but the _Life of Nelson_, published in 1813, may be

said to have set a standard of simplicity, purity, and dignity in

English prose which has been of permanent value. Bentham's style, on the

contrary, was so wanting in beauty and perspicuity that one at least of

his chief works is best known to English readers in the admirable French

paraphrase of his friend Dumont. This is his famous _Introduction to the

Principles of Morals and Legislation_, in which the doctrines of the

utilitarian philosophy are rigorously applied to jurisprudence and the

regulation of human conduct. Several of his numerous treatises had been

planned, and others actually composed, before the end of the eighteenth

century, but his practical influence, ultimately so great, first made

itself felt in the early part of the nineteenth century. This influence

may be compared within the sphere of social reform to that of Adam Smith

within the sphere of economy. Many amendments of the law, an improved

system of prison discipline, and even the reform of the poor law, may

be directly traced to his counsels, and it was he who inspired the

leading radicals when radicalism was not so much a destructive creed as

a protest against real and gross abuses.

[Pageheading: _MALTHUS._]

Perhaps, next to Bentham, no writer of this period influenced educated

opinion so powerfully as Malthus, whose _Essay on Population_, first

published anonymously in 1798, attracted comparatively little attention

until 1803, when it was republished in a maturer form. No work has ever

been more persistently misrepresented. While he shows that population,

if unchecked, will surely increase in a ratio far outstripping any

possible increase in the means of subsistence, he also shows, by

elaborate proofs, that it will inevitably be checked by vice and misery,

whether or not they are aided by moral restraint. Later experience has

done little to weaken his reasoning, but it has proved that "moral

restraint" (in the most general sense) operates more widely than he

ventured to expect, and that larger tracts of the earth's surface than

he recognised could be brought under profitable cultivation. With these

modifications, his theory holds the field, and the people of Great

Britain only escape starvation by ever-growing importations of grain

from countries whose production--for the present--exceeds their

consumption.

Several other writers of eminence, such as Sheridan and Paley, who lived

in the latter days of George III. are more properly to be regarded as

survivors of eighteenth century literature. Horne Tooke was returned for

Old Sarum in 1801, and enjoyed a reputation in society until his death

in 1812, but his old-fashioned radicalism had long since been superseded

by a newer creed. Dugald Stewart continued to lecture on moral

philosophy until 1809, and was fortunate in numbering among his pupils

Palmerston, Lansdowne, and Russell. A younger student of philosophy was

Richard Whately, who was born in 1787, and elected to a fellowship at

Oriel College, Oxford, in 1811. He soon began to play an active part in

university life, and, after being principal of St. Alban Hall, was

removed to the archbishopric of Dublin in 1831. Though not a great

philosopher, he was an acute logician, and his _Logic_, published in

1826, entitled him to a high place among the thinkers of his generation.

But it was not merely as a teacher and writer that Whately promoted the

cause of philosophy in Oxford. He was one of the leaders in that

organisation of studies which made philosophy one of the principal

studies, if not the principal study, of the abler students in that

university, and gave elementary logic a place in the ordinary

"pass-man's" curriculum.

The best work of Maria Edgeworth and Jane Austen appeared in the early

part of the nineteenth century. Maria Edgeworth's novel, _Castle

Rackrent_, was published in 1800, and rapidly followed by other tales

descriptive of Irish life; four of Jane Austen's novels, _Sense and

Sensibility_, _Pride and Prejudice_, _Mansfield Park_, and _Emma_, were

published between 1811 and 1816, while _Northanger Abbey_ and

_Persuasion_ appeared after her death in 1817. All her work displays a

power of minute analysis of character shared by few, if any, of our

other novelists. Both authors deserve gratitude not only for having

inspired Scott with a new idea of novel-writing, but for having

exercised a purifying influence on the moral tone of English romance.

The most typical feature of English literature in the earlier years of

the nineteenth century was the extraordinary development of the

periodical and newspaper press. The eighteenth century was the golden

age of pamphlets. When the "governing classes" represented but a

fraction of the population, mostly concentrated in London, the practical

effect of such political appeals as those issued by Swift or Burke was

incredibly great, and not to be measured by their limited circulation.

The rise of journalism as a power in politics may be roughly dated from

the notoriety of Wilkes' _North Briton_, and of the letters of "Junius"

in the _Public Advertiser_. Thenceforward, newspapers, at first mere

chronicles of passing events, inevitably grew to be organs of political

opinion, and had now almost superseded pamphlets, as addressed to a far

larger circle of readers. Notwithstanding the heavy stamp duties, as

well as duties on paper and advertisements, six daily journals were

published in London, of which the _Times_ was already the greatest.

Cobbett's _Weekly Political Register_, commenced in 1802, was diffusing

new ideas among the middle classes, but it was not yet committed to

radicalism, and did not win its way into cottages until its price was

greatly reduced in 1816. After Cobbett's death in 1835, it ceased to

appear. Still the ice was broken, and, as the educated public recovered

from the panic caused by the French revolution, the newspaper press

became a potent and independent rival of parliament and the platform.

[Pageheading: _EDINBURGH AND QUARTERLY REVIEWS._]

But the influence of the _Edinburgh_ and _Quarterly Reviews_ was perhaps

even greater among readers of the highest intelligence. The first of

these was founded in 1802 by Jeffrey, Brougham, Horner, and Sydney

Smith, but was supported at first by Scott and other able contributors.

So remarkable a body of writers must have commanded attention in any

age, but at a time when the only periodicals were annuals and

miscellanies, the literary vigour and range of knowledge displayed by

the new review carried all before it. For several years it had an unique

success, but, as it identified itself more and more with the whig party,

Canning, with the aid of Scott, determined to challenge its supremacy by

establishing a new review to be called the _Quarterly_. Scott was

finally estranged from the _Edinburgh_ by an article against the war of

independence in Spain, and the first number of the _Quarterly_ appeared

in February, 1809, with three articles by him. It was published by John

Murray, and edited by Gifford, on much the same lines as the

_Edinburgh_, but with a strong tory bias, and with somewhat less of

literary brilliancy. _Blackwood's Magazine_ followed a few years later,

and the almost classical dualism of the _Quarterly_ and _Edinburgh_ has

long since been invaded by a multitude of younger serials.

After the loss of its early monopoly of talent, the _Edinburgh Review_

still retained Jeffrey and Sydney Smith, and it was abundantly

compensated for the loss of Scott by the acquisition in 1825 of the

fluent pen of Macaulay. Born in 1800, the son of Zachary Macaulay, who

like many other philanthropists was on the tory side, he was early

converted to the whig party. He was well fitted to be a popular writer.

His thought, never deep, is always clear and vivid. None knew better how

to seize a dramatic incident or a picturesque simile, or to strike the

weak points in his adversary's armour. It has been said of him that he

always chose to storm a position by a cavalry charge, certainly the most

imposing if not the most effective method. Many of his contributions to

the _Edinburgh Review_ were afterwards republished as _Essays_, and

already in those earlier essays which appeared before 1837, we can see

him assuming the _rôle_ of the historical champion of the whigs. Widely

read and with a marvellous memory, he was generally accurate in his

facts, but his criticism of Gladstone applies with even greater force to

himself: "There is no want of light, but a great want of what Bacon

would have called dry light. Whatever Mr. Gladstone sees is refracted

and distorted by a false medium of passions and prejudices." The critic

is sunk in the advocate, and even a good cause is spoiled by a too

obvious reluctance to admit anything that comes from the other side.

Perhaps his happiest, though far from his greatest, work is to be found

in the stirring ballads of _Ivry_ and the _Armada_, the precursors of

the _Lays of Ancient Rome_. Deservedly popular and full of patriotic

fire, the class of literature to which they belong renders questions of

fairness or unfairness beside the point.

Another contributor to the _Edinburgh Review_, also famous as a

historian, was Thomas Carlyle. He was born in 1795 at Ecclefechan in

Dumfriesshire, and wrote for Brewster's _Encyclopædia_ and the _London

Magazine_ as well as the _Edinburgh_. In 1826 he married Jane Welsh, and

in 1828 he retired from journalism to live humbly on her means. It was

now that he began to produce his best work. _Sartor Resartus_ appeared

in 1833-34, and the _History of the French Revolution_ in 1837. Even in

the latter of these works he is as much a preacher as a historian.

Perhaps no other writer of the age exercised a greater direct influence,

and in his own country, which seems specially amenable to the preacher's

powers, his message has been as effective in favour of broader views as

the disruption of the Church of Scotland in 1843 was in favour of the

old orthodoxy. His teaching has its roots in a German soil, but it bears

the mark of his own strong personality. His style, with a wilful

ruggedness, displays the German taste for the humour of an incongruous

homeliness, where the subject seems to call for a more dignified

treatment. Perhaps this obvious falseness of expression only relieves

the weight of his stern earnestness of purpose and makes us the more

ready to join in his constant denunciation of everything hollow and

pretentious.

[Pageheading: _LAMB._]

Two new magazines appeared in or about 1817, _Blackwood's_ and the

_London_. Brilliant as the leading contributors to the former were, none

of them perhaps can claim a place in the front rank of English

literature. Of the contributors to the _London_ Lamb is doubtless

entitled to the first place. Born in 1775, he was employed as a clerk in

the East India House from 1792 to 1825. He was a schoolfellow of

Coleridge and contributed to his earlier volume of poems It is, however,

to the _Essays of Elia_ that he owes his fame. These appeared in the

_London Magazine_ and were published in a collected form after his death

in 1834. Few authors that have been so much admired have exercised so

little influence. The reason for this is not far to seek. His style

defies imitation, and he would have been the last man to endeavour to

win disciples to his opinions. Another essayist who belongs to the same

group of writers as Coleridge and Lamb is Thomas de Quincey. He wrote

both for _Blackwood's_ and for the _London Magazine_, in the latter of

which appeared in 1821 his best known work, the _Confessions of an

English Opium Eater_. He excelled in what was the dominant

characteristic of English prose of this period, in imagery, a quality

which is conspicuous in the light fancy of Coleridge's most famous

poems, and which gives life to an author so uniformly in dead earnest as

Macaulay. Viewed historically, this taste for imagery is the English

side of the romantic movement, which in Germany reacted against the

conventional, not only in works of the imagination, but in the heavier

form of new philosophical systems. But these systems, in spite of

Coleridge, never became native in England. The growth of the scientific

spirit has made such thought and such language seem unreal in serious

literature, and prevents a later generation from imitating, though not

from admiring, the brilliance of the early essayists.

Hazlitt's genius was of a heavier type. As an essayist his work breathes

the spirit of an earlier age; but as a literary critic he is a leader,

and displays an inwardness in his appreciation that makes him in a sense

the model of the new age in which criticism has so largely supplanted

creation. It may be doubted, however, whether the abnormal growth of

criticism, as a distinct branch of English letters, has been a benefit

on the whole to our literature. Certainly it has tended to substitute

the elaborate study of other men's thoughts for original production,

and, after all, the greatest critics have been those who, being more

than critics, have shown themselves capable of constructive efforts.

Two statesmen-novelists, Bulwer and Disraeli, are among the most

interesting literary characters of the end of this period. The former of

these, like his French contemporary Victor Hugo, had a remarkable gift

for expressing each successive phase of popular taste. He resembled

Disraeli in acquiring a pre-eminent position in letters in early youth,

which was followed by political success at a later age. Though neither

rose to cabinet rank before a time of life which must with literary men

rank as "middle age," Bulwer had, in the midst of an active

parliamentary career, been an active novelist, in fact the most popular

novelist of his day. Disraeli, on the other hand, only entered

parliament after the close of the period dealt with in this volume, and

it is to this period, while he was still unknown to politics, that the

greater part of his literary work belongs. One other resemblance between

these writers is perhaps not less interesting to the historian than to

the critic. Both made use of literature to establish for themselves a

reputation as "men of the world," an ambition which Bulwer's social

position might easily justify, and without which it would be impossible

to understand the career of Disraeli. Born in 1803 and 1804

respectively, both made their mark with their first novels in 1827,

Bulwer with _Falkland_, Disraeli with a work in which his own career has

been supposed to be foreshadowed--_Vivian Grey_. One other great

novelist had appeared before the close of the reign of William IV. In

1836 Charles Dickens produced _Sketches by Boz_ and began the _Pickwick

Papers_, but he belongs properly to the next reign.

Among the historians of this period the first place undoubtedly belongs

to Henry Hallam. Born in 1788, he produced his _View of the State of

Europe during the Middle Ages_ in 1818, and his _Constitutional History

of England_ in 1827, while his _Introduction to the Literature of

Europe_ began to appear in 1837. Like Macaulay he represents the whig

attitude towards politics, but does so less consciously and less

emphatically than his younger contemporary. There is a sense in which no

constitutional historian has adopted so strictly legal an attitude. It

is not merely that his interest centres on the legal side of the

constitution, but, lawyer-like, he judges every constitutional issue of

the past in the light of the legal system which the law of his own day

presupposes for the date in question. No one can deny the validity of

this principle in a court of justice, but no one gifted either with

historical imagination or with historical sympathy could wish to

introduce it into a historical work. Yet the very narrowness of his

outlook made it easier for him to adopt the impartiality of a judge; his

criterion of justice is too definite to allow him to indulge in special

pleading or to twist facts to suit his theories; and the student still

turns to Hallam with a sense of security which he does not feel in

reading Macaulay or Carlyle.

[Pageheading: _FINE ART._]

The fine arts cannot be said to have flourished in England during the

period of the great war, and architecture was certainly at a low ebb,

but several eminent names belong to this period. Sir Thomas Lawrence was

by far the foremost English portrait painter, and fitly represents the

elegance of the regency, while Raeburn enjoyed an equal reputation in

Scotland. Turner, however, was painting in his earlier manner and

showing originality even in his imitations of old masters. Constable,

too, was producing some of those quiet English landscapes which, though

little appreciated at the time, have since made him famous. Two other

English landscape painters, Callcott and the elder Crome, were also in

their prime, and Wilkie executed several of his best known masterpieces

at this time. David Cox and Prout did not earn celebrity till a little

later. The Water-Colour Society was founded in 1804. Soon afterwards

Flaxman was in the zenith of his fame, being elected professor of

sculpture by the Royal Academy in 1810, and Chantrey was beginning to

desert portrait painting for statuary.

Science, especially in its practical applications, made greater strides

than art in the early years of the nineteenth century. It was now that

Jenner's memorable discovery of vaccination, dating from 1796, was

generally adopted by the medical profession. In 1802 his claim to

priority was recognised by a parliamentary committee, with the result

that £10,000 were then voted to him, and a further grant of £20,000 was

made in 1807, when vaccination was established at the Small-pox

Hospital. In 1814, George Stephenson, after many preliminary

experiments, made a successful trial of his first locomotive engine. In

1812, Bell's steamboat, the _Comet_ made its first voyage on the Clyde,

and the development of steam navigation proceeded more rapidly than that

of steam locomotion by land. Sir Humphry Davy began his researches in

1800, and took part in that year, with Count Rumford and Sir Joseph

Banks, in founding the Royal Institution. His invention of the safety

lamp was not matured until 1815.

But if the principal contributions of England to physical science in the

early years of the century were mainly in the direction of practical

application, her contributions to pure theory under the regency and in

the reign of William IV. were no less distinguished. Sir John Herschel,

following in the footsteps of his father, began in 1824 his observations

on double stars and his researches upon the parallax of fixed stars,

while Sir George Airy published in 1826 his mathematical treatises on

lunar and planetary theory. In Michael Faraday England possessed at once

an eminent chemist and the greatest electrician of the age. The

discovery of benzine and the liquefaction of numerous gases were

followed by an investigation of electric currents, and in 1831 by the

crowning discovery of induction. Not less valuable perhaps than these

discoveries of his own were the fertile suggestions which he left to

others. William Smith, sometimes called the father of modern English

geology, vigorously followed up the work of James Hutton by publishing

in 1815 his great map of English _strata_ as identified by fossils.

Charles Lyell's _Principles of Geology_ marks a great advance in

geological science. In this book, which appeared in 1833, the author

advanced the view, now universally accepted, that the great geological

changes of the past are not to be explained as catastrophes, followed by

successive creations, but as the product of the continuous play of

forces still at work. This theory contained all that was vital in the

doctrine of evolution; but it was only at a later date, when the

doctrine had become the property of zoologists as well as geologists and

had been popularised by Darwin, that it came to exercise an influence

over non-scientific thought.

[Pageheading: _UNIVERSITY REFORM._]

A review of the literary and scientific progress of this period would be

incomplete without some notice of progress in higher education. The

universities of Oxford and Cambridge with their numerous colleges had in

the eighteenth century lapsed into that lethargic condition which seemed

to be the common fate of all corporations. They had to a certain extent

ceased to be seats of learning. At Oxford the limitations imposed upon

colleges by statute or custom in elections to fellowships and

scholarships ensured the mediocrity of the teachers and gave the

preference to mediocrities among the students. Where emoluments were not

so restricted they were generally awarded by interest rather than by

merit; and it was even the case that a scholarship at Winchester,

carrying with it the right to a fellowship at New College, was often

promised to an infant only a few days old. The Oxford examination system

had not been reformed since the time of Laud, and the degree

examinations had degenerated into mere formalities until the university

in 1800 adopted a new examination statute, mainly under the influence of

Dr. Eveleigh, provost of Oriel. The new statute, which came into

operation in 1802, granted honours to the better students of each year.

The number of candidates to whom honours were granted, at first very

small, rapidly increased till in 1837 about 130 received honours in a

single year. The attention which the examination system received from

the hebdomadal board, so often accused of sluggishness, is proved by the

frequent changes in the regulations, which among other things

differentiated between honours in "Literæ Humaniores" and in mathematics

in 1807, and separated the honours and pass examinations in 1830. The

same desire to encourage meritorious students showed itself in the

institution of competitive examinations for fellowships, in which Oriel

led the way. It was followed in 1817 by Balliol, which in 1827 threw

open its scholarships as well. It was not, however, till the reign of

Queen Victoria that the college statutes as a whole were so modified as

to make open competition possible in more than a very few instances.

Cambridge suffered less than Oxford from restrictions as to the choice

of fellows. In fact the majority of the fellowships, more especially of

those which carried with them a vote in the government of the colleges,

were, so far as the statutes went, open to all comers. Though the course

of study was still nominally regulated by statutes dating from the Tudor

period, which it would often have been ludicrous to enforce, an

effective stimulus was given to mathematical studies by the mathematical

tripos, which had existed from the middle of the eighteenth century,

and to which in 1824 a classical tripos was added. The ground covered by

these honour examinations was certainly narrower than that which lay

within the scope of the corresponding examinations at Oxford, but at

both places the studies of most undergraduates were still directed more

by the judgment of their tutors than by the regulations of the

university.

These two universities were, however, subject to two limitations, which

prevented them from providing a higher education for all aspiring

students. The expense of living at Oxford and Cambridge, and the close

connexion of both universities with the Church of England, rendered them

difficult of access to many. These limitations were emphasised by the

fact that Scotland possessed five universities which were the opposite

of the English in both respects, and not a few English students could

always be found at the Scottish seats of learning. The reform ministry

made a serious effort to remove or alleviate the grievances of

dissenters. Among other reforms mooted was the abolition of theological

tests for matriculation and graduation. In 1834 a bill, which proposed

to effect this change, but which left intact such tests as existed for

fellowships and professorships, passed its second reading in the commons

by a majority of 321 against 174, and its third reading by 164 against

75. It was, however, thrown out on the second reading in the lords by

187 votes against 85. Though in this particular case the demands of the

dissenters were moderate, they were themselves opposed to other measures

introduced for their benefit, and the question of tests at Oxford and

Cambridge was not unnaturally allowed to rest for another twenty years.

[Pageheading: _UNIVERSITY OF LONDON._]

It was only in the reign of George IV. that anything was done to provide

a university education for those who were unable to proceed to the

ancient seats of learning. But the movement, once started, progressed

rapidly. The oldest of the university colleges, as they are now called,

is St. David's College, Lampeter, which was founded in 1822, mainly

through the exertions of Dr. Thomas Burgess, Bishop of St. David's, who

was supported by many others among the Welsh clergy. The college was

opened in 1827, but at first it had no power of conferring degrees, and

contented itself with the education of candidates for holy orders. A

more important movement was initiated in 1825. In a public letter

written by the poet Campbell to Brougham, the project of founding a

university of London, which should be free from denominational

restrictions, was advocated. The scheme was warmly embraced by many

whose names are found associated with other movements of the times.

Among them were Hume, Grote, Zachary Macaulay, Dudley, and Russell. A

large proportion of the promoters of the new university had been

educated at Scottish universities, and had therefore a clear idea of the

type of university which they might establish, and the movement,

although started primarily in the interests of dissenters, received the

support of many who still valued the connexion of the universities with

the Church. The "London University," as it was called, was opened in

1828, when classes were formed in arts, law, and medicine, but not in

divinity. It was technically a joint-stock company, and the attempt of

the shareholders to obtain a charter of incorporation was successfully

resisted by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge.

Meanwhile some of the original supporters of the movement, regarding the

non-religious character of the new university with suspicion, had

decided to transfer their support to a new college, where the doctrine

and worship of the Church of England should be recognised. The Duke of

Wellington took a lively interest in this movement, and King George

IV.'s patronage gave the new institution the name of "King's College".

There seemed every reason to expect that the foundation would be on a

munificent scale, when Wellington's acceptance of catholic emancipation

offended many of the subscribers so deeply that they immediately

withdrew from the undertaking, and the college was in consequence left

almost entirely without endowment. State recognition, however, was given

it from the first. It was incorporated in 1829, and opened in 1831. In

1835 the demand of "London University" for a charter received the

support of the house of commons, and Lord Melbourne's government decided

to propose a compromise, by which the so-called "London University" was

to be converted into University College, and an examining body was to be

created under the title of the University of London, while the work of

teaching was to be performed by University College, King's College, and

other colleges, which might from time to time be named by the crown.

These terms were accepted by the existing "university," and charters

were given to the new university and to University College, London, in

1836. It was thus left open to students or their parents to select

either a denominational or an undenominational college, according to

their preference.

Meanwhile another university had been founded in the north of England.

The dean and chapter of Durham had determined to set aside a part of

their emoluments for the foundation of a university, and the bishop had

undertaken to assist them by attaching prebendal stalls in the cathedral

to some of the professorships. An act of parliament was obtained in

1832, authorising the establishment of the new university, which was

opened in October, 1833, and was incorporated by a royal charter on June

1, 1837. As an ecclesiastical foundation, the university of Durham was

of course in the closest connexion with the established Church.

None of these new foundations could compare in respect of endowments

with the old universities of Oxford and Cambridge, yet it was not

altogether without reason that the founders of University College,

London, hoped to give as good an education at a greatly reduced cost. It

must be remembered that only a small fraction of the endowments of the

old universities and their colleges was at this time applied to strictly

educational purposes, and, until they should either be reformed or

become more sensible of their opportunities, there was a fair field for

an energetic rival.

The beginning of the nineteenth century witnessed a marvellous expansion

of manufacturing industry, not so much caused by new discoveries as by

the energetic application of those made at the end of the last century,

by the growth of the factory-system, and, above all, by the monopoly of

English-made goods during the great war. The innovation of

machine-spinning and weaving by power-looms had an instant effect in

stimulating and cheapening the production of cottons, but that of

woollens, cramped by heavy duties on the raw material, languished for

some time longer under traditional methods of handspinning. When

stocking-frames and other forms of machinery penetrated at last into its

strongholds in the West Riding of Yorkshire and in the midland counties,

the demand for "hands" was inevitably reduced, and "frame-breaking"

riots ensued, which lasted for several years. From this period dates the

industrial revolution which gradually abolished domestic industries,

separated mill-owners and mill-hands into almost hostile classes,

undermined the system of apprenticeship, and brought about a large

migration of manufactures from centres with abundant water-power to

centres in close proximity to coal-fields.

[Pageheading: _PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE._]

The progress of British agriculture during the period under review was

almost as marked as that of British manufactures. Under the impulse of

war prices, and of the improvements adopted at the end of the eighteenth

century, the home-production of corn almost kept pace with the growing

consumption, and between 1801 and 1815 little more than 500,000 quarters

of imported corn were required annually to feed the population. No

doubt, when the price of bread might rise to famine-point, the

consumption of it fell to a minimum per head; still, the rural

population continued to multiply, though not so rapidly as the urban

population, and neither could have been maintained without a constant

increase in the production of the soil. This result was due to a

progressive extension of enclosure and drainage, as well as to wise

innovations in the practice of agriculture. Not the least important of

such innovations was the destruction of useless fences and straggling

hedge-rows, the multitude and irregular outlines of which had long been

a picturesque but wasteful feature of old-fashioned English farming.

This was the age, too, in which many a small farm vanished by

consolidation, and many an ancient pasture was recklessly broken up,

some of which, though once more covered with green sward, have never

recovered their original fertility. Happily, the use of crushed bones

for manure was introduced in 1800, and the efforts of the national board

of agriculture, aided by the discoveries of Sir Humphry Davy, brought

about a far more general application of chemical science to agriculture,

partly compensating for the exhaustion of the soil under successive

wheat crops. Not less remarkable was the effect of mechanical science in

the development of new agricultural implements, which, however, retained

a comparatively rude form of construction. The Highland Society of

Scotland took a leading part in encouraging these gradual experiments in

tillage, as well as in the breeding of sheep and cattle, with a special

regard to early maturity. Had the farmers of Great Britain during the

great war possessed no more skill than their grandfathers, it would have

been impossible for the soil of this island to have so nearly supported

its inhabitants before the ports were freely thrown open.

The great triumphs of engineering in the fifteen years before the battle

of Waterloo were mainly achieved in facilitating locomotion, and are

specially associated with the name of Telford. It was he who, following

in the footsteps of Brindley and Smeaton, constructed the Ellesmere and

Caledonian Canals; he far eclipsed the fame of General Wade by opening

out roads and bridges in the highlands, and first adopted sound

principles of road-making both in England and Wales, afterwards to be

applied with marvellous success by Macadam. It is some proof of the

impulse given to land-travelling by such improvements that 1,355 public

stage-coaches were assessed in 1812, and that a rate of speed little

short of ten miles an hour was attained by the lighter vehicles. But

Telford's labours were not confined to roads or bridges; they extended

also to harbours and to canals, which continued to be the great arteries

of heavy traffic until the development of railways. The new power

destined to supersede both coaches and barges was first recognised

practically when Bell's little steam vessel the _Comet_ was navigated

down the Clyde in 1812, to be followed not many years later by a

steamship capable of crossing the Atlantic Ocean. In a few years steam

packets were numerous, but it was not till well into the reign of

Victoria that steam navigation was used in the royal navy.

[Pageheading: _RAILWAYS._]

The most conspicuous improvement in the social and economic condition of

the country between 1815 and 1837 is undoubtedly the invention of the

steam locomotive engine. A few steam locomotives had been invented

before the former date, but they had met with little success and were as

yet more costly than horse traction. It was only in or about the year

1815 that George Stephenson, enginewright in Killingworth colliery,

succeeded in inventing a locomotive engine which was cheaper than

horse-power. The value of railways was by this time better understood.

Short railways worked by horses were common in the neighbourhood of

collieries, and a few existed elsewhere. In 1821 Edward Pease obtained

parliamentary powers to construct a railway between Stockton and

Darlington. A visit to Killingworth persuaded him to make use of

steam-power. In 1823 an act authorising the use of steam on the proposed

railway was carried, and in 1825 the railway was opened. In 1826 an act

was passed for the construction of a railway between Liverpool and

Manchester. Stephenson was employed as engineer to make the line, and

his success as a road-making engineer proved equal to his brilliance as

a mechanical inventor.

In 1829 the line was completed. The directors were at first strongly

opposed to the use of steam-locomotion, but were induced by Stephenson,

before finally rejecting the idea, to offer a reward of £500 for the

best locomotive that could be made. Of four engines which were entered

for the competition, Stephenson's _Rocket_ was the only one that would

move, and it proved able to travel at the rate of thirty-five miles an

hour. The opening of the railway in 1830, and the fatal accident to Mr.

Huskisson which attended it, have been noticed already. The accident did

more to attract attention to the power of the locomotive than to

discredit it. The opposition to railways was not, however, at an end. A

proposal for a railway between London and Birmingham was carried through

parliament, only after a struggle of some years' duration, but the

construction of the line was at length authorised in 1833. The English

railway system now developed with great rapidity, and by the end of the

reign of William IV. lines had been authorised which would when complete

form a system, joining London with Dover, Southampton, and Bristol, and

both London and Bristol with Birmingham, whence lines were to run to the

most important places in Yorkshire and Lancashire, and on to Darlington.

Numerous small lines served other portions of the country, partly in

connexion with these, but more often independently.

Among the more conspicuous metropolitan improvements of this age may be

mentioned the introduction of gas and the incipient construction of new

bridges over the Thames, in which the engineer Rennie took a leading

part. Before the end of the eighteenth century the workshops of Boulton

and Watt had been lit by gas, and Soho was illuminated by it to

celebrate the peace of Amiens. By 1807 it was used in Golden Lane, and

by 1809, if not earlier, it had reached Pall Mall, but it scarcely

became general in London until somewhat later. At the beginning of the

century the metropolis possessed but three bridges, old London bridge

and the old bridges at Blackfriars and Westminster. The first stone of

the Strand Bridge (afterwards to be called Waterloo Bridge) was laid on

October 11, 1811, and Southwark Bridge was commenced in 1814, but these

bridges were not completed till 1817 and 1819 respectively. The existing

London Bridge, designed by Rennie, but built after his death, was

completed in 1831. In 1812, the architect Nash was employed in laying

out the Regent's Park, and in 1813 an act was passed for the

construction of Regent Street, as a grand line of communication between

it and Carlton House, the residence of the regent.

The work of geographical discovery had been well commenced before the

end of the eighteenth century, and was inevitably checked during the

great war. The wonderful voyages of Cook had revealed Australia and New

Zealand; Flinders had carried on the survey of the Australian coast;

Vancouver had explored the great island which bears his name with the

adjacent shores; Rennell had produced his great map of India; Bruce had

published his celebrated travels in Abyssinia; and an association had

been formed to dispel the darkness that hung over the whole interior of

Africa. Among its first emissaries was Mungo Park, who afterwards was

employed by the British government, and died in the course of his second

expedition in 1805-6. The idea of Arctic discovery was revived early in

the nineteenth century, and was no longer confined to commercial aims,

such as the opening of a north-east or north-west passage, but was

rather directed to scientific objects, not without the hope of reaching

the North Pole itself. Meanwhile, the ordnance survey of Great Britain

itself was in full progress, and that of British India was commenced in

1802, while the hydrographical department of the admiralty, established

in 1795, was organising the system of marine-surveying which has since

yielded such valuable fruits.

The progress of philanthropy, based on religious sentiment was very

marked during the later years of the war. The institution of Sunday

schools between 1780 and 1790 had awakened a new sense of duty towards

children in the community, and the growing use of child-labour, keeping

pace with the constant increase of machinery, forced upon the public

the necessity of legislative restrictions, which have been noticed in an

earlier chapter. Banks of savings, the forerunners of savings banks

under parliamentary regulation, had been suggested by Jeremy Bentham,

and one at least was instituted in 1802. The idea of penitentiaries, for

the reformation as well as for the punishment of criminals, had

originated with the great philanthropist, John Howard. It was adopted

and popularised by Jeremy Bentham, and might have been further developed

but for the introduction of transportation, which promised the

well-conducted convict the prospect of a new life in a new country.

Meanwhile, prison reform became a favourite study of benevolent

theorists in an age when the criminal law was still a relic of

barbarism, when highway robbery was rife in the neighbourhood of London,

when sanitation was hardly in its infancy, when pauperism was fostered

by the poor law, and when the working classes in towns were huddled

together, without legal check or moral scruple, in undrained courts and

underground cellars. So capricious and shortsighted is the public

conscience in its treatment of social evils.

[Pageheading: _CANADA._]

At the opening of the nineteenth century the colonial empire of Great

Britain was in a transitional state. The secession of thirteen American

colonies had not only robbed the mother country of its proudest

inheritance, but had also shattered the old colonial system of

commercial monopoly for the supposed benefit of British interests. Its

immediate effect was to annul the navigation act as affecting American

trade, which became free to all the world, and by which Great Britain

itself profited largely. Canada at once gained a new importance, and a

new sense of nationality, which Pitt recognised by dividing it into two

provinces, and giving each a considerable measure of independence, both

political and commercial. It was troubled by the presence of a conquered

race of white colonists side by side with new colonists of English

blood, who were, however, united in their resistance to the revolted

colonies in the war of 1812-14. After the war a steady stream of

immigration poured into Canada. In 1816 the population was estimated at

450,000; between 1819 and 1829 Canada received 126,000 immigrants from

England, and during the next ten years 320,000. The result was that the

French element ceased to be preponderant, except in Lower Canada. The

French Canadians felt that they did not enjoy their share of the

confidence of government; the home government, ready enough to grant any

favour that home opinion would permit, was trammelled by a public

opinion, which suspected all who were of a French origin of a desire to

restore the supremacy of the Roman Catholic religion and to assert

political independence. A vacillating policy was the result, which only

increased suspicions, and led in the first year of the reign of Victoria

to a civil war.

In the Mauritius and the West Indies the one event of importance in this

period is the abolition of slavery. It was found impossible to obtain

from free negroes as much work as had been obtained from slaves, and

their place had to be supplied by Indian coolies in the Mauritius, and

by Chinese in Jamaica. At the same time the West Indies had begun to

suffer from the competition of the United States.

The colony of the Cape of Good Hope was still peopled almost entirely by

blacks or by the descendants of Dutch settlers, known as _boers_, or

peasants. Four thousand British colonists went out in 1820 to Algoa Bay,

but these were a mere handful compared with the Dutch. Unfortunately the

government adopted a line of policy which produced great irritation in

the Dutch population. They were granted no self-government, and in 1826

English judicial forms were introduced, and English was declared the

sole official language. The reform administration made matters worse by

defending the blacks against the boers. In 1834 it set free the slaves,

offering £1,200,000, payable in London, very little of which ever

reached the boers, as compensation for slaves valued at £3,000,000. A

Kaffir war in 1834 had led to the conquest of Kaffraria, but in 1835 the

home government restored the independence of the Kaffirs, and appointed

a lieutenant-governor to defend their rights. After this the boers

considered their position intolerable, and in 1835 began their first

"trek" into the country now known as Natal.

[Pageheading: _AUSTRALIA._]

Meanwhile, the great discoveries of Captain Cook, and the first

settlement of New South Wales, brought within view a possible extension

of our colonial dominion, which might go far to compensate for its

losses on the North American continent. Governor Phillip had been sent

out by Pitt to Botany Bay in 1787-88, but it was many years before the

earliest of Australian colonies outgrew the character of a penal refuge

for English convicts. The first convict establishments were at Sydney

and Norfolk Island, but another settlement was founded on Van Diemen's

Land in 1805, and in 1807, after this island had been circumnavigated by

Flinders and Bass, it became the headquarters of that convict system,

whose horrors are not yet forgotten. Between 1810 and 1822 the resources

of New South Wales were vastly developed by the energetic policy of

Governor Macquarie. While his efforts to utilise convict labour, and to

educate convicts into free men, may have retarded the influx of genuine

colonists, he prepared the way for settlement by constructing roads,

promoting exploration, and raising public buildings, so that when he

returned home the population of New South Wales had increased fourfold,

and its settled territory in a much greater proportion. This territory

comprised all English settlements on the east coast, and included large

tracts of what is now known as Queensland, which did not become a

separate colony until 1859.

The early history of Australia, it has been said, is chiefly a tale of

convict settlements, bush-ranging, and expeditions of discovery. There

is much truth in this saying, but the real basis of Australian

prosperity was the introduction of sheep-farming on a large scale, after

the merino-breed had been imported and acclimatised by Macarthur at the

beginning of the century. Long before the region stretching northward

from the later Port Phillip grew into the colony of Victoria,

sheep-owners were spreading over the vast pastures of the interior,

though many years elapsed before the explorer Sturt opened out the great

provinces further westward.

The development of Australia made rapid progress during the generation

following the great war. Though Australia itself and Van Diemen's Land,

now called Tasmania, were still in the main convict settlements, free

settlers had been arriving at Sydney for some time, and in 1817 they

began to arrive in moderate numbers in Van Diemen's Land. In 1825 that

island had sufficiently progressed to be recognised as a separate

colony. The attempt to found a colony in western Australia in 1829 was,

on the other hand, an almost complete failure. But in 1824 a new centre

of colonisation in New South Wales had been established at Port

Phillip. Meanwhile a sharp cleavage of parties had arisen. The convicts

and poorer colonists were opposed to the large sheep-owners, who were

endeavouring to form an aristocracy. Governor Macquarie favoured the

convicts, and Governor Darling (1825-31) the sheep-owners. In 1823 a

legislative council, consisting of seven officials, had been instituted;

in 1828 it was developed into one of fifteen members, chosen entirely

from among the wealthiest colonists.

Gibbon Wakefield's _Letter from Sydney_, published in 1829, marks an

epoch in the history of Australian colonisation. In this work he

proposed that the land should be sold in small lots at a fairly high

price to settlers, and that the proceeds of the sales should be used to

pay the passage of emigrants going out as labourers. This idea had

hardly been published when it was adopted by the home government, and

five shillings an acre was fixed as the minimum price of land. The

number of emigrants increased rapidly, but the new system threatened

ruin to the owners of sheep-runs. Unable to pay the stipulated price,

they only moved further into the interior and occupied fresh land

without seeking government permission, an unlicensed occupation which

has left its mark upon the language in the word "squatter". At last in

1837 a compromise was arranged, by which the squatters were to pay a

small rent for their runs, the crown retaining the freehold with the

right to sell it to others at some future date. In 1834 the British

government sanctioned the formation of a new colony, that of South

Australia. It was to be settled from the outset on the Wakefield system,

and no convicts were ever sent to it. The first lots were sold as high

as twelve shillings an acre, and in 1836 a company of emigrants went out

and founded Adelaide.

APPENDICES.

I. ON AUTHORITIES.

II. ADMINISTRATIONS, 1801-1837.

APPENDIX I.

ON AUTHORITIES.[141]

(1) General histories of England for the period 1801-1837: MASSEY,

_History of England during the Reign of George the Third_ (4 vols., 2nd

ed., 1865), closes with the treaty of Amiens in 1802, and therefore

barely touches this period. There is still room for a general history of

England on an adequate scale between 1802 and 1815. After that date we

have HARRIET MARTINEAU, _History of England during the Thirty Years'

Peace_ (1816-1846, 2 vols., 1849, 1850). This was begun by Charles

Knight, the publisher, who brought it down to 1819. From 1820 onwards it

is Miss Martineau's own work. It is too nearly contemporary to depend on

any authorities except such as were published at the time, and it

represents in the main the popular view of public events and public men

held by liberals at the time. Sir SPENCER WALPOLE'S _History of England

from the Conclusion of the Great War in 1815_ (6 vols., revised ed.,

1890), a work of high quality and thoroughly trustworthy, full of

references to the best published authorities, sympathises with the whigs

and more liberal tories. Reference is sometimes made in this volume to

GOLDWIN SMITH, _The United Kingdom, a Political History_ (2 vols.,

1899), but the work is too slight to be regarded as an authority. Sir T.

E. MAY'S (Lord Farnborough) _Constitutional History of England from 1760

to 1860_ (3 vols., 10th ed., 1891) is also useful.

(2) The _Annual Register_ is probably the most useful authority for this

period. In addition to more general information, it contains a very full

report of the more important parliamentary debates and the text of the

principal public treaties and of numerous other state papers. The

narrative is not often coloured by the political partisanship of the

writer, but allowance must be made for the strong tory bias of the

volumes dealing with the reign of William IV. The _Parliamentary

History_ closes in 1803, at which date Cobbett's _Parliamentary

Debates_ had begun to appear. After 1812 Cobbett ceased to superintend

the work and his name was dropped, and in 1813 and afterwards the

title-page acknowledged that the work was "published under the

superintendence of T. C. Hansard," who had also been the publisher of

Cobbett's series and of the _Parliamentary History_.

[Pageheading: _MEMOIRS AND CORRESPONDENCE._]

(3) Political and other memoirs and printed correspondence. The

following have been noticed among the authorities for volume x.: PELLEW,

_Life and Correspondence of H. Addington, Viscount Sidmouth_ (3 vols.,

1847), very full wherever Sidmouth was directly concerned, written with

a strong bias in favour of the subject of the biography. Lord STANHOPE,

_Life of Pitt_ (4 vols., 3rd ed., 1867). The appendix to the last volume

contains Pitt's correspondence with the king in the years 1804-1806.

Lord ROSEBERY, _Pitt_ (Twelve English Statesmen Series, 1891), brilliant

but not always sound. Lord JOHN (Earl) RUSSELL, _Memorials and

Correspondence of C. J. Fox_ (4 vols., 1853-1854), and _Life and Times

of C. J. Fox, 1859-1866_. _Memoirs of the Courts and Cabinets of George

III._ (4 vols., 1853-1855; 1801 falls in vol. iii.), continued in

_Memoirs of the Court of England during the Regency_ (2 vols., 1856),

_Memoirs of the Court of George IV._ (2 vols., 1859), and _Memoirs of

the Courts and Cabinets of William IV. and Victoria_ (2 vols., 1861;

1837 is reached in vol. i.); these volumes, edited by the Duke of

Buckingham, contain the correspondence of the Grenville family. The

first series alone, which contains many important letters of Lord

Grenville, is of first-rate importance. The editing is often inaccurate.

_Diaries and Correspondence of the First Earl of Malmesbury_ (4 vols.,

1844), edited by the third earl (vol. iv. extends from February, 1801,

to July, 1809), authoritative and useful, especially for the crisis of

1807. _Correspondence of Marquis Cornwallis_ (3 vols., 1859), edited by

C. Ross, valuable for the negotiations at Amiens and for Cornwallis's

brief second governor-generalship of India. The notes are full of useful

biographical material concerning the persons mentioned in the

correspondence. _Diaries and Correspondence of George Rose_ (2 vols.,

1860), edited by L. V. Harcourt. _The Diary and Correspondence of

Charles Abbot, Lord Colchester_, edited by his son (3 vols., 1861,

extending from 1795 to 1829), with interesting notices of Perceval, and

generally useful from 1802-1817, when Abbot was Speaker. Lord HOLLAND,

_Memoirs of the Whig Party_ (2 vols., 1852), edited by his son, Lord

Holland. These memoirs do not extend beyond the year 1807. Volume ii.,

which covers the period during which Holland was a member of the

Grenville cabinet, is of special importance. His memory is not always

accurate, and he writes with a whig bias which makes him a harsh judge

of George III. Holland's _Further Memoirs of the Whig Party, 1807-1821_,

edited by Lord Stavordale, the present Lord Ilchester (1905),

interesting, and, like the earlier volumes, full of personal detail, but

of less value, since Holland was not in office again till 1830.

Similar in character to the above, but only of importance after 1801 are

the following: _Life of Perceval_ (2 vols., 1874), by his grandson, Sir

Spencer Walpole, written largely from the Perceval papers, especially

valuable for the ministerial crisis of 1809. The _Memoirs and

Correspondence of Viscount Castlereagh_ (12 vols., 1850-1853), edited by

his brother the third Marquis of Londonderry, consisting mainly of

military and diplomatic correspondence. Sir ARCHIBALD ALISON, _Lives of

Lord Castlereagh and Sir Charles Stewart, the Second and Third

Marquesses of Londonderry_ (3 vols., 1861), much more political than

biographical; valuable and appreciative, but not rich in documents. _The

Dispatches of the Duke of Wellington during his various Campaigns in

India, Denmark [etc.], from 1799 to 1818_ (12 vols., 1834-1838),

compiled by Lieut.-Colonel GURWOOD (really extending to 1815 only);

_Supplementary Despatches and Memoranda of the Duke of Wellington_ (15

vols., 1858-1872), edited by his son, the second Duke of Wellington,

extending from 1797 to 1818; _Despatches, Correspondence, and Memoranda

of the Duke of Wellington_ (8 vols., 1867-1880), by the same editor,

extending from 1819 to 1832. The second and third of these series

contain not only the duke's despatches, but the vast mass of political

correspondence which passed through his hands. In spite of the great

size of the collection, very little that can be considered trivial is

included. It is our most important authority for all foreign relations

between 1815 and 1827, and between 1828 and 1830. Sir HERBERT MAXWELL,

_The Life of Wellington_ (2 vols., 1899). HORACE TWISS, _Life of Eldon_

(3 vols., 1844). C. PHIPPS, _Memoir of R. Plumer Ward_ (2 vols., 1850),

containing important political correspondence from 1801 onward, and

Ward's diary from 1809 to 1820. Ward held numerous minor offices in the

government and was on terms of intimacy with Perceval and Mulgrave.

MOORE, _Life of Sheridan_ (2 vols., 1826), valuable for the crisis of

1811. _The Greville Memoirs; a Journal of the Reigns of King George IV.

and King William IV._ (3 vols.), edited by Henry Reeve. References are

to the first edition, 1874. New edition, also including 1837-1860 in 8

vols. (1888). Greville was clerk to the privy council from 1821 to 1859,

and as such possessed exceptional opportunities for making himself

acquainted with secret political transactions and with the personal

qualities of successive statesmen. _The Creevey Papers_ (2 vols., 1903),

edited by Sir Herbert Maxwell, not of first-rate historical importance,

full of gossip and scandal. Creevey was a whig member of parliament,

1802-1818, 1820-1828 and 1831-1832, and treasurer of the ordnance,

1830-1834. STAPLETON, _The Political Life of George Canning (from

September 1822 to August 1827)_ (3 vols., 1831), very full and valuable,

especially for foreign relations; strikingly deficient in documents and

dates. _George Canning and His Times_ (1859), by the same author,

largely written from memory and therefore untrustworthy. YONGE, _Life

and Administration of Lord Liverpool_ (3 vols., 1868). _Memoirs of Sir

Robert Peel_ (2 vols., 1856-1857), prepared by Peel himself, and dealing

with the Roman Catholic question, the administration of 1834-1835, and

the repeal of the corn laws. The memoirs, which are of the highest

importance, consist mainly of correspondence and are studiously fair.

PARKER, _Sir Robert Peel_ (3 vols., 1891-1899), a large collection of

Peel's correspondence with a brief connecting narrative by the editor,

of great value even for the periods covered by the _Memoirs_. _The

Correspondence of King William IV. and Earl Grey, from November 1830 to

June 1832_ (2 vols., 1867), edited by Henry, Earl Grey, valuable for the

history of the reform. _The Melbourne Papers_ (1889), edited by Sanders,

throw light on Melbourne's relations with William IV. and with Brougham.

TORRENS, _Memoirs of Melbourne_ (2 vols., 1878), polemical, and sadly

deficient in documents. Lord HATHERTON, _Memoir and Correspondence

relating to June and July, 1834_ (published 1872), edited by H. Reeve,

on events connected with the fall of Grey's ministry. _The Croker

Papers_ (3 vols., 1884), edited by L. J. Jennings. Croker was secretary

to the admiralty from 1809 to 1830. The papers, which are very full from

1809 onwards, consist of correspondence and selections from Croker's

journals and correspondence. L. HORNER, _Memoir of Francis Horner_

(1843). E. HERRIES, _Public Life of J. C. Herries_ (1880), a defence of

Herries against the sneers of whig writers. Lord DUDLEY, _Letters to the

Bishop of Llandaff_ (Copleston), (1840), and _Letters to Ivy_ (1905,

edited by Romilly), interesting and often vivacious, but not of

first-rate importance. Sir HENRY BULWER (Lord Dalling), _Life of

Palmerston_ (2 vols., 1870), extending to 1840. The first chapter of a

third volume, edited by Evelyn Ashley (1874) makes good a few omissions

belonging to this period. The work consists mainly of correspondence and

extracts from Palmerston's journal. _Memoirs of Baron Stockmar_ (2

vols., 1872-1873), by his son Baron E. von Stockmar, edited by F. Max

Müller. Stockmar was a confidential agent of Leopold, King of the

Belgians. The memoirs contain a narrative by William IV. of the

political history of his reign to 1835, including the circumstances of

Melbourne's resignation in 1834. CAMPBELL, _Lives of the Chancellors_ (8

vols., 1848-1869). The last volume contains excellent sketches of

Lyndhurst and Brougham, based largely on personal knowledge.

_Correspondence of Princess Lieven and Earl Grey, 1824-1834_, edited by

G. le Strange (1890). _Letters of Dorothea, Princess Lieven during Her

Residence in London, 1812-1834_, edited by L. G. Robinson (1902).

_Letters of Harriet, Countess Granville, 1810-1845_ (2 vols., 1894).

(4) Miscellaneous books. Sir G. C. LEWIS, _Administrations of Great

Britain (1783-1830)_, edited by Sir E. Head, 1864, has been mentioned

among the authorities for volume x. It is a valuable history of the

inner political life of England, but suffers from a strong whig bias.

LECKY, _History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century_ (5 vols., 1892),

though nominally closing at the union, throws light on Irish history at

the beginning of the nineteenth century. A. V. DICEY, _Lectures on the

Relation between Law and Public Opinion in England during the Nineteenth

Century_ (1905), is very suggestive. HALÉVY, _La formation du

radicalisme philosophique_ (3 vols., 1901-1904), and Sir L. STEPHEN,

_The English Utilitarians_, vols. i., ii. (1900), are valuable for the

history of the radical party. C. CREIGHTON, _History of Epidemics in

Britain_ (2 vols., 1894), contains an excellent account of the cholera

epidemic.

[Pageheading: _ON THE GREAT WAR._]

(5) Books dealing with the great war are numerous. The following have

been already noticed among the authorities for volume x.: Dr. HOLLAND

ROSE, _Life of Napoleon I._ (2 vols., 1904), our most trustworthy guide

for the career of the French emperor. The book has gained not a little

from its author's independent researches at the British Foreign Office.

Captain MAHAN, _Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and

Empire_ (2 vols., 1893), and _Life of Nelson_ (2 vols., 1897), valuable

for their general view of the naval warfare and commercial policy of the

period. JAMES, _Naval History of Great Britain, 1793-1820_ (6 vols., ed.

1826; vols. iii.-vi. extend from 1801-1820), very full and accurate,

largely used in this volume for the American war. Sir JOHN LAUGHTON,

_Nelson_ (English Men of Action Series, 1895), and articles in the

_Dictionary of National Biography_.

To these must be added ALISON'S _History of Europe from the Commencement

of the French Revolution in 1789 to the Restoration of the Bourbons in

1815_ (20 vols., 1847, 1848), an uncritical but still a standard work.

The reaction against Alison is probably due in large measure to

political causes. In addition to the European history which gives its

title to the book, it contains a narrative of the American war of

1812-1814. The classical though far from trustworthy narrative on the

French side is THIERS, _Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire_ (21 vols.,

1845-1869), translated into English by Campbell and Stebbing (12 vols.,

1893-1894). See also LANFREY'S incomplete _History of Napoleon I._,

English translation (4 vols., 1871-1879), bitterly anti-Napoleonic. The

negotiations precedent to the outbreak of war in 1803 are to be found in

Mr. O. BROWNING'S _England and Napoleon in 1803_, containing despatches

of Whitworth and others, published in 1887, and in P. COQUELLE,

_Napoleon and England, 1803-1813_, translated by G. D. KNOX (1904),

based on the reports of Andréossy, the French ambassador at London. Sir

H. BUNBURY'S _Narrative of Certain Passages, etc._ (1853) is of the

highest value for the war in the Mediterranean. The _Times_ of September

16, 19, 22, 26, 28, 30, and October 19, 1905, contains an excellent

series of articles on Nelson's tactics at Trafalgar. For the Moscow

campaign, the Marquis DE CHAMBRAY'S _Histoire de l'Expédition de Russie_

(3 vols., 1839) is perhaps the most reliable of contemporary narratives.

There is a good account of the campaign in the Rev. H. B. GEORGE'S

_Napoleon's Invasion of Russia_ (1899). For the Peninsular war, W.

NAPIER'S _History of the War in the Peninsula and in the South of

France_ (6 vols.; vols. i.-iii., ed. 1835-1840; iv.-vi., 1834-1840) is

of the highest literary as well as historical value. C. OMAN'S _History

of the Peninsular War_ (in progress, vols. i., ii., 1902-1903, extending

at present to September, 1809) makes good use of Spanish sources of

information. The _Wellington Dispatches_ have been noticed already in

section 3. The _Diary of Sir John Moore_, edited by Sir J. F. Maurice (2

vols., 1904), is of value for the campaign of 1808-1809. For Waterloo,

in addition to Maxwell's _Life of Wellington_, and Rose's _Life of

Napoleon I._, Chesney's _Waterloo Lectures_, 1868; W. O'CONNOR MORRIS,

_The Campaign of 1815_ (1900), and J. C. ROPES, _The Campaign of

Waterloo_, may be studied with profit. Morris's work must, however, be

discounted for his extravagant admiration of Napoleon's genius and his

faith in the Grouchy legend. For the disputes with the United States and

war of 1812-1814, see chapters in the _Cambridge Modern History_ (vol.

vii., 1903); BOURINOT, _Canada_ (Story of the Nations), (1897); J.

SCHOULER, _History of the United States of America under the

Constitution_ (6 vols., 1880-1889); and MAHAN, _Sea Power in Its

Relations to the War of 1812_ (2 vols., 1905).

[Pageheading: _ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS._]

(6) For European politics and foreign relations generally, in addition

to some of the books mentioned in the last section, we have C. A.

FYFFE'S _History of Modern Europe, 1792-1878_ (ed. 1895), a very

readable book, which includes the results of some original study, and

SEIGNOBOS, _Political History of Contemporary Europe_, English

translation (2 vols., 1901), an useful but not always accurate book. The

great French work, _Histoire générale du IVe Siècle à nos jours_ (vols.

ix., x., 1897-1898), by numerous authors, edited by MM. Lavisse and

Rambaud, is naturally of varying merit; the chapters on France and

Russia are the best, and there is a very full bibliography at the close

of each chapter. The _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. ix., _Napoleon_

(1906), is a similar compilation by English writers. ALFRED STERN'S

_Geschichte Europas seit den Verträgen von 1815_ (3 vols., 1894-1901, to

be continued to 1871) is perhaps the best general history of the period

following the great war. _The Memoirs of Prince Metternich_ (5 vols.,

English translation, 1881-1882, edited by Prince Richard Metternich,

extending to 1835) contain much that is valuable for diplomatic history.

For French history see DUVERGIER DE HAURANNE, _Histoire du gouvernement

parlementaire en France_ (1814-1848, 10 vols., 1857-1872), which, in

spite of the title, does not extend beyond 1830. For the Greek revolt,

vols. vi. and vii. of G. FINLAY'S _History of Greece_ (7 vols., ed.

1877) are important. American policy is treated by J. W. FOSTER, _A

Century of American Diplomacy_ (1901). Sir EDWARD HERTSLET'S _Map of

Europe by Treaty_ (4 vols., 1875-1891), while professedly confined to

the treaties dealing with boundaries, contains the majority of those of

general historical interest. It covers the period 1815-1891. LE COMTE DE

GARDEN, _Histoire générale des traités de paix_ (14 vols., 1848-1888,

vols. vi.-xv., extending to 1814), and F. DE MARTENS, _Recueil des

traités et conventions, conclus par la Russie_ (tomes xi., xii.

(Angleterre), 1895-1898), contain the principal treaties belonging to

the period. The _Castlereagh_ and _Wellington_ _Despatches_ have been

noticed under section 3.

(7) For Indian history: JAMES MILL and WILSON, _History of British

India_ (10 vols., 1858), vols. vi.-ix., noticed as an authority for

volume x., ends in 1835; Sir ALFRED C. LYALL'S _Rise and Expansion of

the British Dominion in India_ (1894) contains a brief and masterly

sketch of the subject. See also _A Selection from the Despatches,

Treaties and Other Papers of the Marquess Wellesley_ (1877), well edited

by S. J. Owen; the first two series of the _Wellington Dispatches_,

noticed under section 3; and the vast mass of information collected in

Sir W. W. HUNTER'S _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (14 vols., 1885-1887).

(8) For social and economic history: Dr. W. CUNNINGHAM'S _The Growth of

English Industry and Commerce in Modern Times_, vol. iii., _Laissez

Faire_ (1903), extending from 1776 to 1850, is now the standard work.

Reference has also been made to G. R. PORTER, _Progress of the Nation_

(1847), a work abounding more in statistics than in narrative, and to

Sir GEORGE NICHOLLS, _History of the English Poor Law_ (2 vols., 1854).

Nicholls took an active interest in social and economic questions from

1816 till his death in 1857. He probably understood the working of the

poor-law better than any other man of that date, and the poor-law

legislation of 1834 and 1838 was largely founded on his suggestions. He

was one of the poor-law commissioners of 1834, and was permanent

secretary to the poor-law board from 1847 to 1851. Sir G. C. LEWIS, _The

Government of Dependencies_ (1891), edited by C. P. Lucas, and LUCAS,

_Historical Geography of the British Colonies_, vols. i.-v. (1888-1901),

are of value. For literary history, SAINTSBURY'S _History of Nineteenth

Century Literature, 1780-1895_, (1896), is an excellent guide. For

educational progress at Oxford University reference may be made to the

_Report of H.M.'s Commissioners appointed to inquire into the State,

etc., of the University and Colleges of Oxford_ (1852), which contains a

good historical summary. The report of the similar commission appointed

for Cambridge hardly touches the progress of studies, and is therefore

of less value to the historical student.

FOOTNOTES:

[141] The dates given are, as far as possible, those of the editions

used by the authors of this volume.

APPENDIX II.

ADMINISTRATIONS, 1801-1837.

1. ADDINGTON, MARCH, 1801.

_First lord of treasury } H. Addington.

and chanc. exchequer_ }

{ _home_ Duke of Portland.

{ Lord Pelham, _succeeded_ July, 1801.

_Secretaries of { C. P. Yorke, _succeeded_ Aug., 1803.

state_ { _foreign_ Lord Hawkesbury.

{ _war and } Lord Hobart.

{ colonies_ }

_Lord president_ Earl of Chatham.

Duke of Portland, _succeeded_ July, 1801.

_Lord chancellor_ Lord Eldon.

_Lord privy seal_ Earl of Westmorland.

_Admiralty_ Earl St. Vincent.

_Ordnance_ Earl of Chatham, _appointed_ June, 1801.

_Board of trade_ Lord Auckland.

_Board of control_ Viscount Lewisham (July, 1801, Earl of

Dartmouth), _in cabinet_.

Viscount Castlereagh, _succeeded_ July,

1802, _admitted to cabinet_ Oct., 1802.

_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Earl of Hardwicke, _not in cabinet_.

_Secretary at war_ C. P. Yorke, _not in cabinet_.

C. Bragge, _succeeded_ Aug., 1803, _not in

cabinet_.

2. PITT, MAY, 1804.

_First lord of treasury } W. Pitt

and chanc. exchequer_ }

{ _home_ Lord Hawkesbury.

_Secretaries of { _foreign_ Lord Harrowby.

state_ { Lord Mulgrave, _succeeded_ Jan., 1805.

{ _war and } Earl Camden.

{ colonies_ } Viscount Castlereagh, _succeeded_ July,

1805.

_Lord president_ Duke of Portland (after Jan., 1805,

_without office in cabinet_).

Viscount Sidmouth (_before_ H. Addington),

_succeeded_ Jan., 1805.

Earl Camden, _succeeded_ July, 1805.

_Lord chancellor_ Lord Eldon.

_Lord privy seal_ Earl of Westmorland.

_Admiralty_ Viscount Melville (_before_ H. Dundas).

Lord Barham, _succeeded_ May, 1805.

_Ordnance_ Earl of Chatham.

_Board of trade_ Duke of Montrose.

_Board of control_ Viscount Castlereagh.

_Duchy of Lancaster_ Lord Mulgrave, _in cabinet_.

Earl of Buckinghamshire (_before_ Lord

Hobart), _succeeded_ Jan., 1805, _in

cabinet_.

Lord Harrowby, _succeeded_ July, 1805, _in

cabinet_.

_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Earl of Hardwicke, _not in cabinet_.

Earl Powis, _succeeded_ Nov., 1805, _not

in cabinet_.

_Secretary at war_ W. Dundas, _not in cabinet_.

3. GRENVILLE, FEBRUARY, 1806.

_First lord of treasury_ Lord Grenville.

{ _home_ Earl Spencer.

_Secretaries of { _foreign_ C. J. Fox.

state_ { Viscount Howick, _succeeded_ Sept.

{ _war and } W. Windham

{ colonies_ }

_Lord president_ Earl Fitzwilliam (after Oct., _without

office in cabinet_).

Viscount Sidmouth, _succeeded_ Oct.

_Lord chancellor_ Lord Erskine.

_Lord privy seal_ Viscount Sidmouth.

Lord Holland, _succeeded_ Oct.

_Chancellor of exchequer_ Lord H. Petty.

_Admiralty_ C. Grey (April, Viscount Howick).

T. Grenville, _succeeded_ Sept.

_Ordnance_ Earl of Moira.

_Chief justice, King's bench_ Lord Ellenborough, _in cabinet_.

_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Duke of Bedford, _not in cabinet_.

_Secretary at war_ R. Fitzpatrick, _not in cabinet_.

4. PORTLAND, MARCH, 1807.

_First lord of treasury_ Duke of Portland.

{ _home_ Lord Hawkesbury (1808 Earl of Liverpool).

_Secretaries of { _foreign_ G. Canning.

state_ { _war and } Viscount Castlereagh.

{ colonies_ }

_Lord president_ Earl Camden.

_Lord chancellor_ Lord Eldon.

_Lord privy seal_ Earl of Westmorland.

_Chanc. exchequer and } S. Perceval.

duchy of Lancaster_ }

_Admiralty_ Lord Mulgrave.

_Ordnance_ Earl of Chatham.

_Board of trade_ Earl Bathurst, _in cabinet_.

_Board of control_ R. S. Dundas, _not in cabinet_.

Earl of (_before_ Lord) Harrowby,

_succeeded_ July, 1809, _in cabinet_.

_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Duke of Richmond, _not in cabinet_.

_Secretary at war_ Sir J. Pulteney, _not in cabinet_.

Lord G. Leveson Gower, _succeeded_ June,

1809, _in cabinet_.

5. PERCEVAL, OCTOBER, 1809.

_First lord of treasury, }

chanc. exchequer and } S. Perceval.

duchy of Lancaster_[142] }

{ _home_ R. Ryder.

{ _foreign_ Earl Bathurst.

_Secretaries of { Marquis Wellesley, _succeeded_ Dec., 1809.

state_ { Viscount Castlereagh, _succeeded_ March,

{ 1812.

{ _war and } Earl of Liverpool.

{ colonies_ }

_Lord president_ Earl Camden (after April, 1812, _without

office in cabinet_).

Viscount Sidmouth, _succeeded_ April,

1812.

_Lord chancellor_ Lord Eldon.

_Lord privy seal_ Earl of Westmorland.

_Admiralty_ Lord Mulgrave.

C. P. Yorke, _succeeded_ May, 1810.

_Ordnance_ Earl of Chatham.

Lord Mulgrave, _succeeded_ May, 1810.

_Board of trade_ Earl Bathurst.

_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Duke of Richmond, _not in cabinet_.

_Secretary at war_ Viscount Palmerston, _not in cabinet_.

6. LIVERPOOL, JUNE, 1812

_First lord of treasury_ Earl of Liverpool.

{ _home_ Viscount Sidmouth (after Jan., 1822,

{ _without office in cabinet_).

{ R. Peel, _succeeded_ Jan., 1822.

_Secretaries of { _foreign_ Viscount Castlereagh (1821 Marquis of.

state_ { Londonderry).

{ G. Canning, _succeeded_ Sept., 1822.

{ _war and } Earl Bathurst.

{ colonies_ }

_Lord president_ Earl of Harrowby.

_Lord chancellor_ Lord Eldon (1821 Earl of Eldon).

_Lord privy seal_ Earl of Westmorland.

_Chancellor of exchequer_ N. Vansittart.

F. J. Robinson, _succeeded_ Jan., 1823.

_Admiralty_ Viscount Melville (_before_ R. S. Dundas).

_Ordnance_ Lord Mulgrave (Sept., 1812, Earl of

Mulgrave), (from 1818-May, 1820,

_without office in cabinet_).

Duke of Wellington, _succeeded_ Jan.,

1819.

_Board of trade_ Earl of Clancarty, _not in cabinet_.

F. J. Robinson,[143] _succeeded_ Jan.,

1818, _in cabinet_.

W. Huskisson,[143] _succeeded_ Jan., 1823,

_in cabinet_.

_Board of control_ Earl of Buckinghamshire, _in cabinet_.

G. Canning, _succeeded_ June, 1816, _in

cabinet_.

C. B. Bathurst, _succeeded_ Jan., 1821,

_in cabinet_.

C. W. Wynn, _succeeded_ Feb., 1822, _in

cabinet_.

_Master of the mint_ Earl of Clancarty, _not in cabinet_.

W. W. Pole (1821 Lord Maryborough),

_succeeded_ Sept., 1814, _in cabinet_.

T. Wallace, _succeeded_ Oct., 1823, _not

in cabinet_.

_Duchy of Lancaster_ C. B. Bathurst (_before_ C. Bragge).

N. Vansittart (March, 1823, Lord Bexley),

_succeeded_ Feb., 1823.

_Without office_ Earl Camden (Sept., 1812, Marquis Camden),

_in cabinet_.

_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Duke of Richmond, _not in cabinet_.

Viscount Whitworth (1815 Earl Whitworth),

_succeeded_ Aug., 1813, _not in

cabinet_.

Earl Talbot, _succeeded_ Oct., 1817, _not

in cabinet_.

Marquis Wellesley, _succeeded_ Dec., 1821,

_not in cabinet_.

_Secretary at war_ Viscount Palmerston, _not in cabinet_.

7. CANNING, APRIL, 1827.

_First lord of treasury } G. Canning.

and chanc. exchequer_ }

{ _home_ W. S. Bourne.

{ Marquis of Lansdowne (_before_ Lord H.

_Secretaries of { Petty), _succeeded_ July.

state_ { _foreign_ Viscount Dudley.

{ _war and } Viscount Goderich (_before_ F. J.

{ colonies_ } Robinson).

_Lord president_ Earl of Harrowby.

_Lord chancellor_ Lord Lyndhurst.

_Lord privy seal_ Duke of Portland (_after_ July, _without

office in cabinet_).

Earl of Carlisle, _succeeded_ July.

_Lord high admiral_ Duke of Clarence, _not in cabinet_.

_Board of trade and } W. Huskisson.

treasurer of navy_ }

_Board of control_ C. W. Wynn.

_Master of the mint_ T. Wallace, _not in cabinet_.

G. Tierney, _succeeded_ May, _in cabinet_.

{ C. Arbuthnot, _not in cabinet_.

_First commissioner of { Earl of Carlisle _succeeded_ May, _in

woods and forests_ { cabinet_.

{ W. S. Bourne, _succeeded_ July, _in

{ cabinet_.

_Duchy of Lancaster_ Lord Bexley.

_Without office_ Marquis of Lansdowne, May-July, _in

cabinet_.

_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Marquis Wellesley, _not in cabinet_.

_Secretary at war_ Viscount Palmerston, _in cabinet_.

8. GODERICH, SEPTEMBER, 1827.

_First lord of treasury_ Viscount Goderich.

{ _home_ Marquis of Lansdowne.

_Secretaries of { _foreign_ Earl (_before_ Viscount) Dudley.

state_ { _war and } W. Huskisson.

{ colonies_ }

_Lord president_ Duke of Portland.

_Lord chancellor_ Lord Lyndhurst.

_Lord privy seal_ Earl of Carlisle.

_Chancellor of exchequer_ J. C. Herries.

_Lord high admiral_ Duke of Clarence, _not in cabinet_.

_Ordnance_ Marquis of Anglesey, _in cabinet_.

_Board of trade and } C. Grant.

treasurer of navy_ }

_Board of control_ C. W. Wynn.

_Master of the mint_ G. Tierney.

_First commissioner of } W. S. Bourne.

woods and forests_ }

_Duchy of Lancaster_ Lord Bexley.

_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Marquis Wellesley, _not in cabinet_.

_Secretary at war_ Viscount Palmerston.

9. WELLINGTON, JANUARY, 1828.

_First lord of treasury_ Duke of Wellington.

{ _home_ R. (May, 1830, Sir R.) Peel.

_Secretaries of { _foreign_ Earl Dudley.

state_ { Earl of Aberdeen, _succeeded_ June, 1828.

{ _war and } W. Huskisson.

{ colonies_ } Sir G. Murray, _succeeded_ May, 1828.

_Lord president_ Earl Bathurst.

_Lord chancellor_ Lord Lyndhurst.

_Lord privy seal_ Lord Ellenborough.

Earl of Rosslyn, _succeeded_ June, 1829.

_Chancellor of exchequer_ H. Goulburn.

_Admiralty_ Duke of Clarence (_lord high admiral_),

_not in cabinet_.

Viscount Melville, _succeeded_ Sept.,

1828, _in cabinet_.

_Board of trade and } C. Grant.

treasurer of navy_ } W. V. Fitzgerald, _succeeded_ June, 1828.

_Board of control_ Viscount Melville.

Lord Ellenborough, _succeeded_ Sept.,

1828.

_Master of the mint_ J. C. Herries.

_Duchy of Lancaster_ Earl of Aberdeen, _in cabinet_.

C. Arbuthnot, _succeeded_ June, 1828, _not

in cabinet_.

_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Marquis of Anglesey, Feb., 1828, _not in

cabinet_.

Duke of Northumberland, _succeeded_ Feb.,

1829, _not in cabinet_.

_Secretary at war_ Viscount Palmerston, _in cabinet_.

Sir H. Hardinge, _succeeded_ May, 1828,

_not in cabinet_.

10. GREY, NOVEMBER, 1830.

_First lord of treasury_ Earl Grey (_before_ Viscount Howick).

{ _home_ Viscount Melbourne.

_Secretaries of { _foreign_ Viscount Palmerston.

state_ { _war and { Viscount Goderich.

{ colonies_ { E. G. Stanley, _succeeded_ March, 1833.

{ { T. S. Rice, _succeeded_ June, 1834.

_Lord president_ Marquis of Lansdowne.

_Lord chancellor_ Lord Brougham.

_Lord privy seal_ Lord Durham.

Earl of Ripon (_before_ Viscount Goderich)

_succeeded_ April, 1833.

Earl of Carlisle, _succeeded_ June, 1834.

_Chancellor of exchequer_ Viscount Althorp.

_Admiralty_ Sir J. R. Graham.

Lord Auckland, _succeeded_ June, 1834.

_Board of trade_ Lord Auckland, _not in cabinet_.

C. P. Thomson, _succeeded_ June, 1834.

_Board of control_ C. Grant.

_Master of mint_ Lord Auckland, _not in cabinet_.

J. Abercromby, _succeeded_ June, 1834, _in

cabinet_.

_Duchy of Lancaster_ Lord Holland, _in cabinet_.

_Postmaster-general_ Duke of Richmond, _in cabinet_.

Marquis of Conyngham, _succeeded_ June,

1834, _not in cabinet_.

_Paymaster of forces_ Lord J. Russell, _admitted to cabinet_

June, 1831.

_Without office_ Earl of Carlisle (to June, 1834).

_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Marquis of Anglesey, _not in cabinet_.

Marquis Wellesley, _succeeded_ Sept.,

1833, _not in cabinet_.

_Chief secretary for Ireland_ E. G. Stanley, _admitted to cabinet_ June,

1831.

Sir J. C. Hobhouse, _succeeded_ March,

1833, _not in cabinet_.

E. J. Littleton, _succeeded_ May, 1833,

_not in cabinet_.

_Secretary at war_ C. W. Wynn, _not in cabinet_.

Sir H. Parnell, _succeeded_ April, 1831,

_not in cabinet_.

Sir J. Hobhouse, _succeeded_ Feb., 1832,

_not in cabinet_.

E. Ellice, _succeeded_ April, 1833,

_admitted to cabinet_ June, 1834.

11. MELBOURNE, JULY, 1834.

_First lord of treasury_ Viscount Melbourne.

{ _home_ Viscount Duncannon.

_Secretaries of { _foreign_ Viscount Palmerston.

state_ { _war and } T. S. Rice.

{ colonies_ }

_Lord president_ Marquis of Lansdowne.

_Lord chancellor_ Lord Brougham.

_Lord privy seal_ Earl of Mulgrave.

_Chancellor of exchequer_ Viscount Althorp.

_Admiralty_ Lord Auckland.

_Board of trade and } C. P. Thompson.

treasurer of navy_ }

_Board of control_ C. Grant.

_Master of mint_ J. Abercromby.

_First commissioner of } Sir J. C. Hobhouse, _in cabinet_.

woods and forests_ }

_Duchy of Lancaster_ Lord Holland.

_Paymaster of forces_ Lord J. Russell.

_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Marquis Wellesley, _not in cabinet_.

_Secretary at war_ E. Ellice.

PROVISIONAL ADMINISTRATION, NOVEMBER, 1834.

_First lord of treasury_ Duke of Wellington.

{ _home_ Duke of Wellington.

_Secretaries of { _foreign_ Duke of Wellington.

state_ { _war and } Duke of Wellington.

{ colonies_ }

_Lord chancellor_ Lord Lyndhurst.

_Chancellor of exchequer_ Lord Denman.

12. PEEL, DECEMBER, 1834.

_First lord of treasury } Sir R. Peel.

and chanc. exchequer_ }

{ _home_ H. Goulburn.

_Secretaries of { _foreign_ Duke of Wellington.

state_ { _war and } Earl of Aberdeen.

{ colonies_ }

_Lord president_ Earl of Rosslyn.

_Lord chancellor_ Lord Lyndhurst.

_Lord privy seal_ Lord Wharncliffe.

_Admiralty_ Earl de Grey.

_Ordnance_ Sir G. Murray, _in cabinet_.

_Board of trade and } A. Baring.

master of the mint_ }

_Board of control_ Lord Ellenborough.

_Paymaster of forces_ Sir E. Knatchbull.

_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Earl of Haddington, _not in cabinet_.

_Secretary at war_ J. C. Herries.

13. MELBOURNE, APRIL, 1835.

_First lord of treasury_ Viscount Melbourne.

{ _home_ Lord J. Russell.

_Secretaries of { _foreign_ Viscount Palmerston.

state_ { _war and } C. Grant (May, 1835, Lord Glenelg).

{ colonies_ }

_Lord president_ Marquis of Lansdowne.

_Lord chancellor_ Great seal in commission.

Lord Cottenham, _appointed_ Jan., 1836.

_Lord privy seal_ Viscount Duncannon.

_Chancellor of exchequer_ T. S. Rice.

_Admiralty_ Lord Auckland.

Earl of Minto, _succeeded_ Sept., 1835.

_Board of trade_ C. P. Thompson.

_Board of control_ Sir J. C. Hobhouse.

_Duchy of Lancaster_ Lord Holland, _in cabinet_.

_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Earl of Mulgrave, _not in cabinet_.

_Secretary at war_ Viscount Howick.

FOOTNOTES:

[142] On May 23, 1812, after Perceval's death, the Earl of

Buckinghamshire was appointed chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster.

[143] Also treasurer of the navy.

INDEX.

Abbot, Charles (afterwards Lord Colchester), speaker, 36, 61, 72, 85, 238.

Abdallah, Pasha of Acre, 393.

Abercromby, James (afterwards Lord Dunfermline), master of the mint, 346;

speaker, 354.

Abercromby, Sir Ralph, general, 6, 346.

Aberdeen, 306, 348.

Aberdeen, Earl of (Gordon), 138;

chancellor of the duchy, 231;

foreign secretary, 236, 263, 264, 268, 352, 376, 380;

secretary for war and colonies, 352.

Åbo, treaty of, 123.

Abolition of slavery, acts for the, 46-48, 325-327, 438.

Abolition of slave trade, 48, 143, 151, 152, 167, 188, 274, 279, 358, 438.

Abrantes, 98.

Abyssinia, 436.

Academy, Royal. See London.

Acarnania, 266.

Acre, 393, 394.

_Acte Additionnel_, the, 155.

Adams, John Quincy, 128.

Addington, Henry (afterwards Viscount Sidmouth), 25, 39, 50, 54, 68, 200,

202, 346;

first lord of treasury and chancellor of exchequer, 1, 2, 11, 15, 16, 27,

34;

relations with Pitt, 2, 24-29;

attacked by Pitt, 30, 31;

resignation, 31, 32;

his adherents, 34, 36, 68, 81;

becomes Viscount Sidmouth and lord president of the council, 35;

resignation, 37;

lord privy seal, 45;

lord president of the council, 49;

resignation, 49;

lord president of the council, 76, 82;

home secretary, 81, 83, 172, 177, 179, 180, 183;

in cabinet without office, 199;

retirement, 227.

Addington, John Hiley, M.P., 28, 36.

Adelaide, 440.

Adelaide, Princess of Saxe-Meiningen (afterwards queen of William IV.),

184, 273, 277, 351, 375.

Adige, river, 138.

Adour, river, 115, 117.

Adrianople, peace of, 267, 268.

Ægean islands, the, 263;

sea, 224, 394.

Ætolia, 266.

Afghánistán, 397, 402, 403, 412-414;

treaty with East India Company, 403;

first Afghán war, 403, 414.

Africa, interior of, 436.

Agra, 399, 409.

Agriculture, condition of, 84, 433, 434.

Ahmadnagar, 398.

Airy, Sir George, 428.

Aix, island, 69.

Aix-la-Chapelle, conference of, 189-191, 377.

Akkerman, treaty of, 260.

Alava, Spanish admiral, 40.

Albuera, battle, 103, 104.

Albuquerque, Duke of, 100.

Alcantara, 99.

Alemtejo, province, 255.

Alessandria, 213.

Alexander the Great, 401, 413.

Alexander I., Tsar of Russia, 5, 7, 23, 37, 52, 59, 66, 78, 80, 81, 92,

104, 105, 124, 144-148, 151-153, 168, 189-191, 210-212, 214, 216-218,

224, 225, 232.

Alexandria, 261, 264, 265, 393, 413;

battle and capitulation of, 6;

retention by England, 19;

expeditions to, 52, 57, 264;

convention of, 264, 265.

Algarve, province, 389.

Algeciras, 8.

Algiers, Dey of, 187, 188;

bombardment of, 188;

conquest of, 269.

Algoa bay, 438.

Alliance, La Belle, 164.

"All the Talents" ministry. See ministries, Grenville's.

Almaraz, 106.

Almeida, 100, 102, 103.

Almora, treaty of, 405.

Alps, the, 138.

Alsace, 143, 168.

Alten, Count, 162.

Althorp, Viscount (afterwards third Earl Spencer), 230, 234;

chancellor of the exchequer, 279, 280, 283, 286, 291, 297, 321-323, 328,

330, 334, 335, 343-345;

resignation, 346;

chancellor of the exchequer, 347, 349, 350, 373.

Amager, island, 4.

Amascoas, battle, 390.

_Ambigu, L'_, newspaper, 12.

Amelia, Princess (daughter of George III.), 74.

America, British North, 85, 225.

See also Canada.

America, South, 205, 226.

See also Spain and Portugal.

Amherst, Earl, governor-general of Bengal, 408, 409.

Amherstburg, 141.

Amiens, 10;

treaty of, 16, 17, 19, 20, 208, 398;

negotiations, 7-12;

preliminary treaty, 9, 13, 14;

definitive treaty, 12, 13, 435.

Amír Khán, Pindárí leader, 407.

Andalusia, 94, 100, 102, 106, 107.

Anglesey, Marquis of. See Paget, Lord.

Angoulême, Duke of. See Louis Antoine, dauphin.

Ansbach, 43.

Anti-Duelling Association, 251.

Antioch, 393.

Antwerp, 43, 64, 65, 200, 378, 380, 382, 386.

Apsley House. See London.

Aragon, 100.

Arakan, 408, 409.

Aranjuez, 87, 92, 93;

treaty of, 6.

Arapiles hills, the, 107.

Archangel, 310.

Archipelago, the, 261.

Arcis-sur-Aube, battle, 145.

Arcot, 400.

Arden, Lord (Perceval), 50.

Argáum, battle, 399.

Argentine, the (La Plata), 190.

_Argus_, the, American ship, 141.

Arkwright, Sir Richard, 83.

Arta, gulf of, 266, 392.

Artois, Count of. See Charles X. of France.

Ascot races, 148.

Ashley, Lord (Ashley-Cooper), afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury, 327, 328.

Asia Minor, 394, 413.

Aspern, 63.

Aspropotamo, river, 268.

Assam, 408, 409.

Assaye, battle, 399.

Astorga, 93-95.

Attwood, Thomas, M.P., 335.

Auchmuty, Sir Samuel, 56, 81.

Auckland, first Lord (Eden), president of the board of trade, 34, 346.

Auckland, second Lord (Eden), afterwards Earl of, first lord of the

admiralty, 346, 357;

governor-general of India, 363, 412.

Auerstädt, battle, 47.

Augusta, Princess of Hesse, 184.

Augusta, Princess (daughter of George III.), 184 n.

Austen, Jane, 422.

Austerlitz, battle, 42, 43, 51, 60.

Australia, 436, 438-440;

New South Wales, 438, 439;

Queensland, 439;

South Australia, 440;

Victoria, 439;

West Australia, 439.

Austria, 17, 54, 58, 59, 62, 78, 80, 124, 214, 215, 220, 264, 267, 391;

guarantees independence of Malta, 13;

treaty with France, 14;

third coalition, 37, 38, 41;

Ulm and peace of Pressburg, 42;

struggle with France, 61-64;

treaty with England, 63;

war with Bavaria, 63;

piece of Vienna, 64, 66;

national bankruptcy, 81;

treaty with France, 122;

attacks North Italy, 133;

diplomacy, 132, 134-137, 144, 187-189, 217;

truce with Russia, 135;

treaty of Ried, 137;

treaty of Teplitz, 137;

war with France, 137, 142;

alliance with Murat, 143;

campaign of 1814, 118, 143-145;

treaty of Chaumont, 144, 145, 168, 186, 191, 377;

treaty of Fontainebleau, 145, 146;

first treaty of Paris, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167, 378;

congress of Vienna, 149, 151-153, 166, 167, 186, 188-190, 376, 379, 381,

388;

secret treaty of Vienna, 153;

acquires Venetia and Lombardy, 166;

second treaty of Paris, 167, 168, 376;

holy alliance, 168;

treaties with the Two Sicilies, Tuscany, Modena and Parma, 187;

conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, 189-191;

congress of Troppau, 211-214, 395, 396;

congress of Laibach, 212, 223;

army in Italy, 212, 213, 216;

congress of Verona, 216-219, 222, 223, 392;

conference at London, 222;

conference at St. Petersburg, 224;

joins conference of London, 379-386, 392;

secret convention at Münchengrätz, 395, 396;

convention at Berlin, 396.

Ava. See Burma.

Azores, islands, 259, 388.

Azzara, Chevalier, 21.

Bacon, Lord, 424.

Badajoz, 99, 102-106, 108, 113, 147;

treaty of, 6.

Baden, 34, 189.

Baghdad, 413.

Bailey, Old. See London.

Baird, David (afterwards Sir David), general, 6, 47, 93-95.

Balkans, the, 263, 266, 267.

Baltic, the, 52, 78, 90, 199, 310.

Baltic, battle of the, 4, 5, 420.

Baltimore, 146.

Banda Oriental. See Uruguay.

Bank charter acts, 325, 326, 330, 331.

Bank of England, 183, 205, 206, 303;

notes made legal tender, 182.

Bank restriction act, 16.

Bankes, Henry, M.P., 157.

Banks, Sir Joseph, 428.

Barcelona, 88, 110, 220.

Barclay, Commander, 139.

Barham, Lord (Sir Charles Middleton), first lord of the admiralty, 36.

Baring, Alexander (afterwards Lord Ashburton), 304;

president of board of trade and master of the mint, 352.

Baring, Francis (afterwards Lord Northbrook), 346.

Barlow, Sir George, governor-general of Bengal, 401.

Barnstaple, 193.

Baroda, Gáekwár of, 405, 406.

Barrosa, 102.

Basque provinces, 390, 391.

Basque roads, 69.

Bass, George, 439.

Bassein, treaty of, 398, 399, 405.

Batavian republic. See Holland.

Bath, 43, 362.

Bath (Holland), 65.

Bathurst, Charles Bragge-. See Bragge, Charles.

Bathurst, Earl, president of the board of trade, 50, 68;

secretary for war and colonies, 82, 109, 112;

resignation, 227;

lord president of the council, 231.

Battersea Fields. See London.

Bautzen, battle, 135.

Bavaria, 41, 42, 66, 136, 152, 153, 166, 189, 392;

war with Austria, 63;

treaty of Ried, 137.

Baylen, 58, 88, 89, 92.

Bayonne, 88, 89, 92, 112, 115-117, 119;

road to, 111.

Beachy Head, 8.

Beauharnais, Auguste, Duke of Leuchtenberg, 382.

Beauharnais, Eugène, viceroy of Italy, 138.

Bedford, Duke of (Russell), lord lieutenant of Ireland, 49.

Beilan, pass, 393.

Beira, province, 255, 257.

Belgium, 143, 144, 150, 158, 159, 161, 162, 200, 377;

Prince of Orange proclaimed, 138;

troops, 156;

Waterloo campaign, 157-164;

united to Holland, 166;

revolution, 276, 376-382;

elects Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg king, 383;

war with Holland, 384-386, 393;

convention with Holland, 387.

Belgrade, 80.

Bell, Henry, 427, 434.

Belleisle, 388.

_Bellerophon_, the, British ship, 165, 168, 169.

Belliard, French general, 383, 384.

Bellingham, John, 76.

Benevente, 94, 95.

Bengal, 310, 330, 400, 404, 408, 410.

Bentham, Jeremy, 338, 341, 420, 421, 437.

Bentinck, Lord William, 114, 143;

governor-general of India, 410-412.

Berár, 399.

See Nágpur.

Berbice, 9.

Beresford, Lord George, 242.

Beresford, William (afterwards Lord and later Viscount), 47, 96, 103, 109,

118, 119, 211, 222.

Berezina, river, 125.

Berkeley, Vice-admiral, 127.

Berkshire, 281, 341.

Berlin, 53, 81, 134, 310;

convention at, 396.

Berlin decree, the, 55, 403.

Bernadotte, Marshal (afterwards Charles XIV. of Sweden), 54, 80, 136, 137,

143, 150.

Berry, Duke of, 210.

Bessarabia, 123.

Bessborough, Earl of (Ponsonby), 287.

Bessières, Marshal, 88, 92.

Betanzos, 95.

Bexley, Lord. See Vansittart, Nicholas.

Bhartpur, 399, 403, 408, 409.

Bickersteth, Henry (afterwards Lord Langdale), 363.

Bidassoa, river, 112, 114, 115.

Bilbao, 111, 391.

Birmingham, 178, 236, 272, 285, 295, 297, 304, 335, 435.

Biscay, province, 109, 389, 391.

Bishopp, British officer, 130.

Blackburn, Francis, attorney-general for Ireland, 313, 314.

Blackfriars. See London.

Blackheath. See London.

_Blackwood's Magazine_, 423-425.

Bladensburg, battle, 146.

Blake, Spanish general, 88.

Blandford, Marquis of (Churchill), afterwards Duke of Marlborough, 271,

284.

Blanketeers, the, 176.

Blomfield, bishop of London, 324, 341, 373.

Blücher, Marshal, 138, 143-145, 148;

Waterloo campaign, 156-161, 163-164.

Bohemia, 64, 137.

Bombay, 310, 398.

Bona, 188.

Bonaparte, Joseph, 10-12, 21;

King of Naples, 47, 53;

King of Spain, 59, 88, 89, 92, 98, 104, 106, 107, 109-111, 122, 123, 190.

Bonaparte, Josephine (wife of Napoleon), 382.

Bonaparte, Louis, King of Holland, 46, 53, 78.

Bonaparte, Napoleon, 6, 19, 39, 41, 42, 51, 53-56, 58, 62, 64-66, 78,

80-82, 87-89, 91, 92, 95, 96, 99-102, 104, 105, 109-112, 114, 115,

117, 119, 120-126, 128, 143, 145, 148, 150, 168, 171, 186, 199, 382;

concordat with the pope, 7;

refuses overtures of peace, 8;

meets Cornwallis, 10;

elected president of the Italian republic, 12, 17;

plans for the invasion of England, 8, 35, 38, 41, 71;

attacked by French exiles in London, 12, 17;

consul for life, 15, 17;

Fox presented to him, 15, 16;

annexes Piedmont, 17;

mediates in Switzerland and Germany, 17;

schemes of colonial expansion, 18;

Whitworth, 20-22;

declared emperor, 33, 34;

plots against his life, 33, 34;

coronations, 35, 37, 38;

Ulm and Austerlitz, 42, 64;

Jena and Auerstädt, 47, 55, 64;

Eylau, 51, 56;

Friedland, 52, 122, 401;

meets Alexander, 52;

"continental system," 53, 55-58, 78-80, 83, 87, 105, 171, 403;

manifesto, 57;

at Erfurt, 59;

Eckmühl and Wagram, 60, 63;

Borodino, 63, 124;

Leipzig, 63, 114, 118, 133, 137, 138;

marriage with Maria Louisa, 78;

fiscal policy, 79;

first abdication, 82, 118, 145;

in Spain, 92, 94;

war with Russia, 121-126, 402;

campaign of 1813, 132-138;

Lützen and Bautzen, 135;

Dresden, 137;

campaign of 1814, 143-145;

La Rothière, 144;

Arcis-sur-Aube, 145;

treaty of Fontainebleau, 145, 146;

Elba, 145, 146, 153, 201;

"The Hundred Days," 151, 153-165;

Ligny, 158, 159;

Quatre Bras, 159;

Waterloo, 160-165;

second abdication, 165;

St. Helena, 166, 167, 169, 170, 402;

designs on India, 401-403.

Bond, Nathaniel, M.P., 36.

Bonnymuir, 193.

Bordeaux, 118, 154;

road to, 117.

Bordeaux, Henry, Duke of. See Chambord, Count of.

Borisov, battle, 125.

Borodino, battle, 63, 124, 164.

Bosphorus, the, 267, 394.

Boston (United States), 142.

Botany Bay, 438.

Boulogne, 8, 35, 38.

Boulton, Matthew, 435.

Bourbon, island, 69, 403.

Bourbon, Duke of, 154.

Bourne, W. Sturges, 341;

home secretary, 227;

first commissioner of woods and forests, 228, 229.

Braga, 258.

Bragge, Charles (afterwards Bragge-Bathurst), 28, 68, 202;

chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, 81, 82, 174;

president of the board of control, 199.

Brahmaputra, the, 408, 409.

Braine l'Alleud, Belgian village, 162.

Brand, M.P., 284.

Brazil, 89, 190, 211, 221, 222, 253, 254, 259, 388;

commercial treaty with England, 222.

Brereton, Colonel, 298.

Breslau, 134, 135.

Brest, 39, 55.

Brewster's _Encyclopædia_, 424.

_Bridgwater Treatises_, the, 338.

Brienne, 143.

Brighton, 350.

Brindley, James, 434.

Bristol, 175, 297, 298, 302, 309, 435.

British Association, the, 338.

Brittany, 154.

Brock, Major-general, 129, 130.

Broke, Captain, 142.

Brooks's club. See London.

Brougham, Henry (afterwards Lord Brougham and Vaux), 48, 172, 173, 182,

193-196, 207, 228, 234, 241, 242, 274, 277, 278, 280, 357-359, 363,

423, 431;

lord chancellor, 281, 282, 287, 295, 325, 338, 343, 345, 346, 348, 351;

legal reforms, 332, 333, 358, 359, 361.

Broussa, 393.

Brown, American commander, 146.

Bruce, Michael, 436.

Brünn, 42.

Brunswick, 196.

Brunswick (Charles), Duke of, 184 n.

Brunswick (Frederick William), Duke of, 159.

Brunswick, troops, 158.

Brunswick clubs, 243.

Brussels, 158-161, 378, 379, 381, 383, 384, 387.

_Bucentaure_, the, French ship, 40.

Bucharest, treaty of, 123.

Buckingham, Marquis of (Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville),

afterwards Duke of, 199, 295.

Buckingham palace. See London.

Buckinghamshire, 281.

Buckinghamshire, third Earl of (Hobart), 1.

Buckinghamshire, fourth Earl of. See Hobart, Lord.

Buckland, William, Dean of Westminster, 340.

Buenos Ayres, 47, 56, 57, 205, 216, 223.

Bukowina, 224.

Bulgaria, 263, 267.

Bull-baiting, 15.

"Bullion committee," the, 73.

Bülow, Frederick William von, General, afterwards Count, 143, 145, 163,

164.

Bulwer, Edward Lytton (afterwards Lord Lytton), 426.

Burdett, Sir Francis, M.P., 51, 72, 175, 226, 240-242, 284, 285, 298, 374.

Burgess, Thomas, bishop of St. Davids, 430.

Burgos, 92, 108, 110.

Burgundy, 154.

Burke, Edmund, 308, 415, 422.

Burlington Heights, 139, 140.

Burma, first Burmese war, 408, 409;

treaty with East India Company, 409.

Burnes, Sir Alexander, 413, 414.

Burns, Robert, 415.

Burrard, Sir Harry, general, 90, 91, 93.

Bussaco, 101, 113.

Butrinto, 188.

Buxton, Thomas Fowell, M.P., 326, 327.

Bylandt, Dutch general, 162.

Byron, Lord, 233, 417-419.

Cachar, 411.

Cadiz, 8, 39-41, 89, 96, 100, 102-104, 109, 256.

Cadoudal, Georges, 33.

Cairo, capture of, 6.

Calabria, 47.

Calcott, Sir Augustus, 427.

Calcutta, 398, 402, 408, 412.

Calder, Sir Robert, 39.

Caledonian canal, 434.

Cambridge. See Universities.

Cambridge (Adolphus), Duke of (son of George III.), 184, 185.

Cambridgeshire, 175 n.

Camden, Earl (Pratt), afterwards Marquis Camden, secretary for war and

colonies, 34, 37;

lord president of the council, 37, 50, 66, 67;

in cabinet without office, 76, 82.

Camelford, 193.

Campbell, Lord, 361, 363.

Campbell, Sir Archibald, 409.

Campbell, Sir Neil, 153.

Campbell, Thomas, 420, 431.

Canada, 128, 147, 157, 225, 312, 437, 438;

attacked by the United States, 129, 130, 139-141, 146.

Candia. See Crete.

Cannes, 153.

Canning, George, 2, 24, 68, 76, 84, 85, 172, 209, 231, 232, 238, 240, 245,

279, 284, 285, 319, 339, 358, 423;

_jeux d'esprit_, 26, 28;

foreign secretary, 50, 52-54, 59, 66, 92;

resignation, 67;

president of the board of control, 174, 176, 185, 199, 201, 406;

foreign secretary, 197, 199-201, 207, 208, 216, 218-226, 232-235, 241,

242, 255-257, 259, 260, 390, 392, 408;

first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, 227, 228,

273, 380;

death, 228, 229.

Canning, Sir Stratford (afterwards Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe), 225,

266.

Canterac, Spanish general, 223.

Canterbury, archbishop of (Howley), 299, 337, 373.

Cape Finisterre, 39.

Cape Formoso, 151.

Cape of Good Hope, 9, 47, 167, 398, 403, 438.

Cape St. Vincent, battle, 389.

Cape Trafalgar, battle, 40, 43, 69.

Capodistrias, Greek president, 267, 268, 392.

Carcassonne, road to, 119.

Carinthia, 66.

Carlile, agitator, 282.

Carlisle, sixth Earl of (Howard), first commissioner of woods and forests,

228, 357;

lord privy seal, 228;

in cabinet without office, 280;

lord privy seal, 346, 347.

Carlos, Don. 389-391.

Carlsbad, 189.

Carlton House. See London.

Carlyle, Jane Welsh, 424.

Carlyle, Thomas, 417, 434, 427.

Carnot, French statesman, 155, 165.

Caroline of Brunswick, Princess of Wales (afterwards queen of George IV.),

48, 85, 86, 183, 184, 192-197, 200.

Carr, R. J., bishop of Worcester, 299.

Cartwright, Edmund, 83.

Cartwright, Major, 175.

Casimir-Perier, French premier, 387.

Caspian Sea, 310.

Castalla, 109, 114.

Castaños, Francisco Xavier de, 93.

Castlereagh, Viscount (Stewart), afterwards second Marquis of Londonderry,

2, 68, 71, 73, 100, 201, 202, 208, 209, 228, 238;

president of the board of control, 15, 34;

secretary for war and colonies, 37, 50, 52, 59, 61, 62, 64, 65-67, 90,

92, 200;

resignation, 67;

foreign secretary, 76, 82, 85, 123, 144-147, 153, 156, 169, 171-173, 183,

189, 191, 195, 199, 210-212, 214, 217, 260, 387;

death, 199-201, 216, 408.

Catalonia, 88, 92, 112, 114, 115, 118.

Cathcart, Lord (afterwards Viscount, later Earl of), 43, 54, 123, 134, 136.

Catholic Apostolic Church, 339.

Catholic Association, 240, 241, 244-246.

Catholic emancipation, 49, 76, 200, 207, 226, 230, 236-249, 431;

abandoned, 2, 34;

opposition to, 32, 34, 45, 50, 208, 227;

carried, 249.

Cato Street conspiracy, 192, 193.

Cattaro, 142.

Caulaincourt, French diplomatist, 144.

Cawnpur, 399.

Census, 300, 311, 312.

Ceylon, 9, 167.

Chadwick, Edwin, 341.

Chambéry, 149.

Chambord, Count de, 210, 376.

Chambray, Marquis de, 125.

Champagne, 143, 144.

Champlain, lake, 140, 146.

Chandos, Marquis of (Brydges-Chandos-Temple-Grenville), afterwards second

Duke of Buckingham, 295, 299;

"Chandos clause," 295.

Chantrey, Sir Francis Legatt, 427.

Charity Commission, 182.

Charleroi, 158, 161.

Charles, Count of Artois (afterwards Charles X. of France), 34, 116, 154,

224, 376.

Charles IV., King of Spain, 87, 88.

Charles XII., King of Sweden, 54.

Charles XIII., King of Sweden and Norway, 54, 150.

Charles, Archduke, 63.

Charles Albert, Prince, of Carignano (afterwards King of Sardinia), 213.

Charles Emmanuel II., King of Sardinia, 10.

Charles Felix, King of Sardinia, 213.

Charlotte, Princess (daughter of the Prince Regent), 86, 174, 183-185, 194,

195, 268.

Charlotte, Queen-dowager of Würtemburg (daughter of George III.), 184 n.

Charlotte, queen of George III., 74, 184, 185.

Charlotte, queen of John VI. of Portugal, 253, 254.

Chartism, 308.

Chassé, D. H., Dutch general, 162.

Chateauguay, battle of river, 141.

Chatham, Earl of (John Pitt), lord president of the council, 1;

master-general of the ordnance, 1, 24, 50, 64, 65, 71;

resignation, 72.

Châtillon-sur-Seine, congress at, 118, 144.

Chaumont, treaty of, 144, 145;

extended at Paris, 168, 186, 191, 377.

Chauncey, Commodore, 140.

Cherbourg, 376.

Chesapeake Bay, 146;

estuary, 141.

_Chesapeake_, the, American frigate, 127, 142, 147.

Chesney, Francis Rawdon, colonel, 413.

Chester, bishop of (Sumner), 341.

Chichagov, Russian general, 125.

Chichester, first Earl of (Pelham), 1.

Chile, 190, 221.

China, 86, 310, 325, 328, 329;

coolies, 438.

Chios, island, 261, 263.

Chippewa, 130, 146.

Chiswick, 228.

Chittagong, 408.

Chítu, Pindárí leader, 406, 407.

Cholera, 299, 309, 311, 407.

Christian, Prince (afterwards Christian VIII. of Denmark), 143, 150.

Chrystler's Farm, battle, 141.

Church, Sir Richard, general, 262, 266.

Church, Irish, temporalities act, 321-325.

Church rates, 373, 374.

Church, Scottish, 360 n., 424.

Church, states of the. See Papal states.

Cilicia, 394.

Cinque Ports, 23.

Cintra, convention of, 60, 91.

Cisalpine republic (Italian republic), 9, 12, 17, 38.

Ciudad Real, 96.

Ciudad Rodrigo, 100, 102-108.

Civil list, 15, 173, 174, 192, 278, 282, 283, 290.

Clancarty, Earl of (Le Poer-Trench), 61, 68.

Clare election, 236, 237, 243, 245, 250, 251, 313.

Clare, Earl of (Fitzgibbon), 3.

Clarence (William), Duke of. See William IV.

Clarke, Mrs., 60, 61.

Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist, 48.

Clausel, General, 107, 108, 111-113.

Cleves, 43.

Clinton, Sir Henry, general, 162.

Clive, Lord, 396.

Clyde, the, 428, 434.

Coa, river, 110.

Cobbett, William, 177, 207, 282, 318, 335, 343, 423;

_Weekly Register_, 72, 175, 204, 422, 423.

Coblenz, 138.

Cochrane, Lord (afterwards Earl of Dundonald), 51, 69, 72, 88, 175, 190,

221, 222, 233.

Codrington, Admiral, 230, 233, 234, 264.

Coercion acts (Irish), 330-322, 324, 325, 346, 347.

Coimbra, 98, 101.

Colchester, Lord. See Abbot, Charles.

Cole, General (afterwards Sir) G. L. 103.

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 416, 417, 425.

Colle, La, Mill, 146.

Collingwood, Admiral, 39, 40, 41, 57, 69, 88.

_Collingwood, the Lord_, British ship, 216.

Cologne, 43.

Colombia, 216, 223.

Combermere, Lord (Cotton), afterwards Viscount, 409.

Combination laws, 204, 207.

_Comet_, the, steamboat, 427, 434.

Concordat, the, 7.

Congreve rockets, 117.

"Conservative," origin of name, 319.

Constable, John, 427.

Constantinople, 57, 214, 216, 233, 259, 261, 267, 387, 393, 394.

_Constitution_, the, American frigate, 131, 132.

Continental system, the, 33, 55-58, 66, 78-80, 83, 87, 105, 126, 128, 171,

403.

Convention act (Irish), 240.

Conyngham, Marquis of, 346.

Cook, Captain, 436, 438.

Cooke, General, 162.

Coorg, 411.

Copenhagen, 3-5, 54, 55, 57.

See Baltic, battle of the.

Copley, Sir John (afterwards Lord Lyndhurst), 226, 242, 281, 295, 302-304,

359, 361-363, 365, 369-372;

lord chancellor, 227, 231, 243, 246, 249, 352.

Corn, price of, 7 n., 84, 85, 172, 174, 203, 370.

Corn laws, 85, 173, 204, 207, 243, 306.

Cornwall, 288.

Cornwall (Canada), 141.

Cornwall, revenues of duchy of, 15, 278.

Cornwallis, Admiral, 39.

Cornwallis, Marquis, 239;

master-general of ordnance, 1;

negotiates treaty of Amiens, 10-12;

warns England, 17;

governor-general of Bengal, 400, 401.

Corporation act, 229, 334, 235, 242.

Corporation act (Irish), 372.

Coruña, 39, 90, 92, 93;

battle, 95, 96, 108.

Cottenham, Lord. See Pepys, Sir Charles.

Countries, the Low. See Belgium and Holland.

Cowper, William, 415.

Cox, David, 427.

Cracow, 153, 166.

Cradock, Sir John, 96.

Craig, Sir James, 42;

governor of Canada, 128, 129.

Craufurd, Robert, general, 105.

Crete, 261, 263, 266, 268.

Criminal law, reform of, 51, 77, 194, 201, 369.

Croker, John Wilson, 274, 303, 318.

Crome, John, the elder, 427.

Cronstadt fleet, 123.

Cuba, 222.

Cuesta, Spanish general, 88, 98, 99.

Cumberland (Ernest), Duke of (son of George III.), 184, 185, 197, 231, 235,

246, 274, 324, 367, 368.

Curtis, Roman Catholic archbishop of Dublin, 243, 244.

Curwen, John Christian, M.P., 181, 182, 284.

Cuttack, 399.

Czartoryski, Prince Adam, 80.

Czernowitz, 224.

Dakáiti, 401.

Dalmatia, 42, 142;

Duke of. See Soult, Marshal.

Dalrymple, Sir Hew, general, 90, 91.

Danube, the, 41, 63, 77, 94, 124, 263, 310.

Danubian principalities. See Moldavia and Wallachia.

Danzig, surrender of, 52.

Dardanelles, the, 55, 57, 188, 214, 215, 260, 265, 267, 394, 395.

Darling, Governor, 440.

Darlington, 435.

Darnley, Earl of (Bligh), 54.

Dartmouth, Earl of. See Lewisham, Viscount.

Darwin, Charles, 428.

Daulat Ráo Sindhia. See Sindhia.

Davoût, Marshal, 81, 136, 137.

Davy, Sir Humphry, 428, 433.

Dawson, George, M.P., 243, 246.

"Days, the Hundred." See Bonaparte, Napoleon.

Dearborn, American general, 130, 140.

Decaen, French general, 18.

Deccan, the, 407.

Delaborde, French officer, 90.

Delaware, estuary, 141.

Delhi, 397-399, 406.

Demerara, 9.

Denman, Thomas (afterwards Lord Denman), 195.

Denmark, 3-5, 53-55, 59, 69, 136, 190;

treaties of Kiel, 143, 189;

loses Norway, 166.

Dennewitz, battle, 137.

De Quincey, Thomas, 425.

Derby, 296.

Derby, twelfth Earl of (Smith-Stanley), 277.

Derbyshire, 83.

Derry, 243.

Desnoëttes, General Lefebvre-, 88.

Despard, Edward Marcus, colonel, 16.

Detroit, 129, 138.

Devonshire, 359.

Devonshire, Duke of (Cavendish), 228.

D'Eyncourt. See Tennyson, Charles.

Dickens, Charles, 426.

Diebitsch, Russian general, 266, 267, 310.

Dijon, 145.

Disraeli, Benjamin (afterwards Earl of Beaconsfield), 426.

Dissenters, 306;

disabilities of, 85, 234, 235, 353, 355, 430.

Donauwörth, 41, 63.

Dost Muhammad, Amír of Kábul, 414.

Douro, the, 94, 98, 99, 110.

Dover, 148, 195, 351, 435.

Downs, the, 64.

Drake, British envoy, 33.

Dresden, 112, 114, 135;

battle, 137.

Dropmore, seat of Lord Grenville, 24.

Drummond, Sir Gordon, 146.

Dublin, 19, 77, 197, 240, 317, 371;

castle, 23;

police bill, 362;

archbishop of (Whately), 317, 421, 422;

Roman Catholic archbishop of (Curtis), 243, 244.

Duckworth, Sir John, admiral, 57.

Dudley, Viscount and Earl of. See Ward, J. W.

Duhesme, French general, 88.

Dumont, Pierre Étienne Louis, 420.

Duncannon, Viscount (Ponsonby), afterwards Earl of Bessborough, 287;

home secretary, 347;

lord privy seal, 357.

Duncombe, Thomas S., M.P., 374.

Dundas, Sir David, commander-in-chief, 61, 62.

Dundas, Henry (afterwards first Viscount Melville), 3, 24, 25, 30, 32, 68;

first lord of the admiralty, 34;

impeachment, 36.

Dundas, Robert S. (afterwards second Viscount Melville), president of board

of control, 68;

first lord of the admiralty, 82;

resignation, 227;

president of board of control, 231;

first lord of the admiralty, 243.

Dundee, 306.

Dupont, General, 88.

Durham. See Universities.

Durham, Lord (Lambton), afterwards Earl of, 345, 348;

lord privy seal, 280, 287, 291;

resignation, 325.

East India Company. See India.

East Retford, 235, 236.

Ebrington, Viscount (Fortescue), afterwards second Earl Fortescue, 206,

303.

Ebro, the, 89, 92, 110, 114.

Ecclefechan, 424.

Ecclesiastical commission, 355, 373.

Eckmühl, battle, 63.

Edgeworth, Maria, 422.

Edgware Road. See London.

Edinburgh, 306, 348.

_Edinburgh Review_, the, 358, 423, 424.

Education, national, 49, 51, 182, 193, 194, 358;

Irish, 316, 317.

Edwards, George, informer, 192.

Egmont, Earl of (Perceval), 50.

Egypt, 6, 9, 18, 57, 224, 225, 233, 262, 264, 265, 269, 396, 413;

convention of Alexandria, 264, 265;

peace of Kiutayeh, 394.

Elba, island, 145, 146, 151, 153, 169, 201.

Elbe, the, 55, 62, 133, 135, 137.

Eldon, Lord (Scott), afterwards Earl of Eldon, 232, 234, 235, 238, 239,

244, 248, 249, 296, 319, 333, 353, 358, 362;

lord chancellor, 1, 29, 30, 31, 49, 50, 51, 60, 67 n., 74-76, 82, 85,

169, 172, 179, 180, 194-196, 202, 209;

resignation, 227.

Elections, general. See Parliament.

Eliot, Lord (afterwards Earl of St. Germans), 390.

Elizabeth, Princess (daughter of George III.), 184 n., 185.

Ellenborough, first Lord (Law), lord chief justice, 45, 49, 169, 177.

Ellenborough, second Lord, afterwards Earl (Law), 328, 329;

lord privy seal, 231;

president of the board of control, 243, 271, 352.

Ellesmere canal, 434.

Ellice, Edward, secretary at war, 346.

Elphinstone, Mountstuart, 403.

Elsinore, 4.

Elvas, 93, 103.

Embargo act (United States), 128.

Emmet, Robert, 18, 23, 240.

Empire, Holy Roman, dissolved, 46;

treaty of Lunéville, 6, 17.

Enghien, Duke of, murder of, 34, 35, 37.