Young, among whom a correspondence had been carried on, obtained a sort
of alphabet from the enchorial characters, which might aid them in
future researches. This result was published by Dr. Young in 1814. The
examination of another stone at Menoup, containing an inscription in
enchorial and in Greek characters, enabled Dr. Young to confirm the
accuracy of former discoveries, and to add several new characters to the
enchorial or demotic alphabet. Dr. Young next turned his attention to
the hieroglyphics; and, though not with equal success, yet so as to
demonstrate that they were phonetic or alphabetical, and to spell
several proper names. The difficulty here, indeed, was how to begin; but
his success opened a certain way to future progress; and it was upon Dr.
Young’s discovery that Champollion afterward engrafted his system, and
was enabled to carry his researches into Egyptian antiquities and
Egyptian hieroglyphics, to an extent which is now deeply engaging the
attention of the literary world.
Two practical ends appear to have been answered already by the
deciphering of the mystic monuments of Egypt. The first is, that the
inscriptions which have been read by Champollion, afford assistance in
settling some questions of ancient chronology; the other is, that
important collateral proof has been afforded of the historical accuracy
of the Old Testament, and the antiquity of its books. It is presumptive
in favour of the genuineness and antiquity of the writings of Moses,
that such proper Egyptian names as are found in no other ancient
writings beside his own, such as On, and Rameses, and Potipherah, and
Asenath, should now be read in hieroglyphic characters on monuments
still standing in the same country. But the confirmatory evidence goes
still farther. In one inscription the names of two of the Pharaohs,
Osorgon and Scheschonk, are exhibited. Of the characters which compose
this legend some are phonetic, some figurative, and some symbolic. The
whole reading in Coptic, is, “_Ouab an Amon-re soten annenoute Osorchon
pri_ (or _pre_) _ce_ or _ci an ouab an Amon-re Souten Scheschonk-re
Soten Nebto_, (_Amonmai Osorchon_,)” &c. The meaning of which is, “The
pure by Amon-re, king of the gods, Osorchon deceased, son of the pure,
by Amon-re, king of the gods, Scheschonk deceased, son of king of the
world, (beloved by Amon-re, Osorchon,) imparting life, like the sun, for
ever.” This Osorchon seems to have been the Zarah, or Zarach, the king
of Ethiopia, recorded in the Second Book of Chronicles, who, with a host
of a thousand thousand and three hundred chariots, came to make war
against Asa, the grandson of Jeroboam, and was defeated at Mareshah.
Although the Greek historians have never mentioned either the name or
exploits of Osorchon, this fact is attested by an hieroglyphical
manuscript, published by Denon. It is a funeral legend, loaded with
figures, on and round which there are several hieroglyphical
inscriptions. With respect to the other Pharaoh, Champollion, speaking
of the temple of Karnac, says, “In this marvellous place I saw the
portraits of most of the ancient Pharaohs, known by their great actions.
They are real portraits, represented a hundred times on the
basso-relievos of the outer and inner walls. Each of them has his
peculiar physiognomy, different from that of his predecessors and
successors. Thus, in colossal representations, the sculpture of which is
lively, grand, and heroic, more perfect than can be believed in Europe,
we see the Pharaoh Mandouei combating the nations hostile to Egypt, and
returning triumphant to his country. Farther on, the campaigns of
Rhamses Sesostris; elsewhere Sesonchis, or Shishak, dragging to the feet
of the Theban Trinity, Ammon, Mouth, and Khous, the chiefs of thirty
conquered nations, among which is found, written in letters at full
length, the word _Joudahamalek_, that is, the kingdom of the Jews, or
the kingdom of Judah. This is a commentary on the fourteenth chapter of
the First Book of Kings, which relates the arrival of Shishak at
Jerusalem, and his success there. Thus the identity between the Egyptian
Sheschonk, the Sesonchis of Manetho, and the Sesac, or Schischak of the
Bible, is confirmed in the most satisfactory manner.”
YEAR. The Hebrews had always years, of twelve months each. But at the
beginning, and in the time of Moses, these were solar years, of twelve
months; each having thirty days, except the twelfth which had
thirty-five. We see, by the reckoning that Moses gives us of the days of
the deluge, Gen. vii, that the Hebrew year consisted of three hundred
and sixty-five days. It is supposed that they had an intercalary month
at the end of one hundred and twenty years; at which time the beginning
of their year would be out of its place full thirty days. But it must be
owned, that no mention is made in Scripture of the thirteenth month, or
of any intercalation. It is not improbable that Moses retained the order
of the Egyptian year, since he himself came out of Egypt, was born in
that country, had been instructed and brought up there, and since the
people of Israel, whose chief he was, had been for a long time
accustomed to this kind of year. But the Egyptian year was solar, and
consisted of twelve months of thirty days each, and that for a very long
time before. After the time of Alexander the Great, and the reign of the
Grecians in Asia, the Jews reckoned by lunar months, chiefly in what
related to religion, and the order of the festivals. St. John, in his
Revelation, xi, 2, 3; xii, 6, 14; xiii, 5, assigns but twelve hundred
and sixty days to three years and a half, and consequently just thirty
days to every month, and just three hundred and sixty days to every
year. Maimonides tells us, that the years of the Jews were solar, and
their months lunar. Since the completing of the Talmud, they have made
use of years that are purely lunar, having alternately a full month of
thirty days, and then a defective month of twenty-nine days. And to
accommodate this lunar year to the course of the sun, at the end of
three years they intercalate a whole month after Adar; which
intercalated month they call Ve-adar, or the second Adar.
The beginning of the year was various among different nations: the
ancient Chaldeans, Babylonians, Medes, Persians, Armenians, and Syrians,
began their year about the vernal equinox; and the Chinese in the east,
and Latins and Romans in the west, originally followed the same usage.
The Egyptians, and from them the Jews, began their civil year about the
autumnal equinox. The Athenians and Greeks in general began theirs about
the summer solstice; and the Chinese, and the Romans after Numa’s
correction, about the winter solstice. At which of these the primeval
year, instituted at the creation, began, has been long contested among
astronomers and chronologers. Philo, Eusebius, Cyril, Augustine,
Abulfaragi, Kepler, Capellus, Simpson, Lange, and Jackson, contend for
the vernal equinox; and Josephus, Scaliger, Petavius, Usher, Bedford,
Kennedy, &c, for the autumnal. The weight of ancient authorities, and
also of argument, seems to preponderate in favour of the former opinion.
1. All the ancient nations, except the Egyptians, began their civil year
about the vernal equinox: but the deviation of the Egyptians from the
general usage may easily be accounted for, from a local circumstance
peculiar to their country; namely, that the annual inundation of the
Nile rises to its greatest height at the autumnal equinox. 2. Josephus,
the only ancient authority of any weight on the other side seems to be
inconsistent with himself, in supposing that the deluge began in the
second civil month, _Dius_, or _Marheshvan_, rather than in the second
sacred month; because Moses, throughout the Pentateuch, uniformly adopts
the sacred year; and fixes its first month by an indelible and
unequivocal character, calling it _Abib_, as ushering in the season of
green corn. And as Josephus calls the second month elsewhere
_Artemisius_, or _Iar_, in conformity with Scripture, there is no reason
why he should deviate from the same usage in the case of the deluge. 3.
To the authority of Josephus, we may oppose that of the great Jewish
antiquary, Philo, in the generation before him; who thus accounts for
the institution of the sacred year by Moses:--“This month, _Abib_, being
the seventh in number and order according to the sun’s course, or civil
year, reckoned from the autumnal equinox, is virtually the first, and is
therefore called ‘the first month’ in the sacred books. And the reason,
I think, is this: because the vernal equinox is the image and
representative of the original epoch of the creation of the world.
Thereby God notified the spring, in which all things bloom and blossom,
to be an annual memorial of the world’s creation. Wherefore this month
is properly called the first in the law, as being the image of the first
original month, stamped upon it, as it were, by that archetypal seal.”
4. The first sacrifice on record seems to decide the question. The time
of the sacrifice of Cain and Abel appears to have been spring; when
Cain, who was a “tiller of the ground,” brought the first fruits of his
tillage, or a sheaf of new corn; and Abel, who was “a feeder of sheep,”
“the firstlings of his flock,” lambs: and this was done “at the end of
days,” or “at the end of the year;” which is the correct meaning of the
phrase מקץ ימם, and not the indefinite expression, “in process of time,”
Gen. iv, 3. It is a remarkable proof of the accuracy of Moses, and a
confirmation of this expression, that he expresses the end of the civil
year, or “ingathering of the harvest,” by different phrases, בצאת השנה,
“at the going out of the year,” Exod. xxiii, 16; and תקופת השנה, “at the
revolution of the year,” Exod. xxxiv, 22; as those phrases may more
critically be rendered. But, in process of time, it was found that the
primeval year of three hundred and sixty days was shorter than the
tropical year; and the first discovery was, that it was deficient five
entire days, which therefore it was necessary to intercalate, in order
to keep up the correspondence of the civil year to the stated seasons of
the principal festivals. How early this discovery and intercalation was
made, is nowhere recorded. It might have been known and practised before
the deluge. The apocryphal book of Enoch, which probably was as old as
the Septuagint translation of the Pentateuch, stated that “the archangel
Ariel, president of the stars, discovered the nature of the month and of
the year to Enoch, in the one hundred and sixty-fifth year of his age,
and A. M. 1286.” And it is remarkable, that Enoch’s age at his
translation, three hundred and sixty-five years, expressed the number of
entire days in a tropical year. This knowledge might have been handed
down to Noah and his descendants; and that it was early communicated
indeed to the primitive Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Chinese, we learn from
ancient tradition.
This article would be rendered too prolix were we to notice the various
inventions of eminent men in different ages to rectify the calendar by
adjusting the difference between lunar and tropical years; which at
length was effected by Gregory XIII. in 1583. This Gregorian, or
reformed Julian year, was not adopted in England until A. D. 1751, when,
the deficiency from the time of the council of Nice then amounting to
eleven days, this number was struck out of the month of September, by
act of parliament; and the third day was counted the fourteenth, in that
year of confusion. The next year, A. D. 1752, was the first of the new
style. Russia is the only country in Europe which retains the old style.
The civil year of the Hebrews has always begun at autumn, at the month
they now call Tisri, which answers to our September, and sometimes
enters into October, according as the lunations happen. But their sacred
years, by which the festivals, assemblies, and all other religious acts,
were regulated, begin in the spring, at the month Nisan, which answers
to March, and sometimes takes up a part of April, according to the
course of the moon. See MONTHS.
Nothing is more equivocal among the ancients, than the term year. It
always has been, and still is, a source of disputes among the learned,
whether on account of its duration, its beginning, or its end. Some
people heretofore made their year consist only of one month, others of
four, others of six, others of ten, and others of twelve. Some have
divided one of our years into two, and have made one year of winter,
another of summer. The beginning of the year was fixed sometimes at
autumn, sometimes at the spring, and sometimes at midwinter. Some people
have used lunar months, others solar. Even the days have been
differently divided: some people beginning them at evening, others at
morning, others at noon, and others at midnight. With some the hours
were equal, both in winter and summer; with others, they were unequal.
They counted twelve hours to the day, and as many to the night. In
summer the hours of the day were longer than those of the night; but, on
the contrary, in winter the hours of the night were longer than those of
the day.
While the Jews continued in the land of Canaan, the beginnings of their
months and years were not settled by any astronomical rules or
calculations, but by the phasis, or actual appearance of the new moon.
When they saw the new moon, they began the month. Persons were therefore
appointed to watch on the tops of the mountain for the first appearance
of the moon after the change. As soon as they saw it, they informed the
sanhedrim, and public notice was given by lighting beacons throughout
the land; though after they had been often deceived by the Samaritans,
who kindled false fires, they used, say the Mishnical rabbins, to
proclaim its appearance by sending messengers. Yet as they had no months
longer than thirty days, if they did not see the new moon the night
following the thirtieth day, they concluded the appearance was
obstructed by the clouds, and, without watching any longer, made the
next day the first of the following month. But after the Jews became
dispersed through all nations, where they had no opportunity of being
informed of the first appearance of the new moon, as they formerly had,
they were forced to make use of astronomical calculations and cycles for
fixing the beginning of their months and years. The first cycle they
made use of for this purpose was of eighty-four years. But that being
discovered to be faulty, they came afterward into the use of Meto’s
cycle of nineteen years, which was established by the authority of Rabbi
Hillel Hannasi, or prince of the sanhedrim, about A. D. 360. This they
still use, and say it is to be observed till the coming of the Messiah.
In the compass of this cycle there are twelve common years, consisting
of twelve months, and seven intercalary years, consisting of thirteen
months. We find the Jews and their ancestors computing their years from
different eras, in different parts of the Old Testament; as from the
birth of the patriarchs, for instance, of Noah, Gen. vii, 11; viii, 13;
afterward from their exit out of Egypt, Num. xxxiii, 38; 1 Kings vi, 1;
then from the building of Solomon’s temple, 2 Chron. viii, 1; and from
the reigns of the kings of Judah and Israel. In latter times the
Babylonish captivity furnished them with a new epocha, from whence they
computed their years, Ezek. xxxiii, 21; xl, 1. But since the times of
the Talmudical rabbins, they have constantly used the era of the
creation.
There is not a more prolific source of confusion and embarrassment in
ancient chronology, than the substitution of the cardinal numbers, one,
two, three, for the ordinals, first, second, third, &c, which frequently
occurs in the sacred and profane historians. Thus Noah was six hundred
years old when the deluge began, Gen. vii, 6; and presently after, in
his six hundredth year: confounding complete and current years. And the
dispute whether A. D. 1800, or A. D. 1801, was the first of the
nineteenth century, should be decided in favour of the latter; the
former being in reality the last of the eighteenth century; which is
usually, but improperly, called the year one thousand eight hundred,
complete; whereas it is really the one thousandth, eight hundredth; as
in Latin we say, _Anno Domini millesimo octingentesimo_. There is also
another and a prevailing error, arising from mistranslation of the
current phrases, μεθ’ ἡμέρας ὀκτὼ, μετὰ τρεῖς ἡμέρας, &c, usually
rendered, “after eight days,” “after three days,” &c; but which ought to
be rendered “eight days after,” “three days after,” as in other places,
μετὰ τινὰς ἡμέρας, μετ’ οὐ πολλὰς ἡμέρας, which are correctly rendered
“some days after,” “not many days after,” in our English Bible, Acts xv,
36; Luke xv, 13, the extreme days being included. Such phrases seem to
be elliptical, and the ellipsis is supplied, Luke ix, 28, speaking of
our Lord’s transfiguration, μετὰ τοὺς λόγους τούτους, ὡσεὶ ἡμέραι ὀκτὼ:
“After these sayings, about eight days,” or rather about the eighth day,
counted inclusively; for in the parallel passages, Matt. xvii, 1, Mark
ix, 2, there are only “six days,” counted exclusively, or omitting the
extremes. Thus, circumcision is prescribed, Gen. xvii, 11, when the
child is “eight days old;” but in Lev. xii, 3, “on the eighth day.” And
Jesus accordingly was circumcised, ὅτε ἐπλήσθησαν ἡμέραι ὀκτὼ, “when
eight days were accomplished,” Luke ii, 21; whereas John the Baptist, τῇ
ογδοῃ ἡμέρᾳ, “on the eighth day.” The last, which was the constant
usage, explains the meaning of the former. This critically reconciles
our Lord’s resurrection, μετὰ τρεῖς ἡμέρας, “three days after,”
according to Matt. xxvii, 63; Mark viii, 31; with his resurrection, τῇ
τρίτη hήμερᾳ, “on the third day,” according to Matt. xvi, 21; Luke ix,
22; and according to fact: for our Lord was crucified on Good Friday,
about the third hour; and he arose before sunrise, πρωΐ, “early,” on
Sunday; so that the interval, though extending through three calendar
days current, did not in reality amount to two entire days, or
forty-eight hours. This phraseology is frequent among the most correct
classic writers. Some learned commentators, Beza, Grotius, Campbell,
Newcome, render such phrases, “within eight days,” “within three days;”
which certainly conveys the meaning, but not the literal translation, of
the preposition μετὰ, “after.” In memory of the primeval week of
creation, revived among the Jews, after their departure from Egypt,
their principal festivals, the passover, pentecost, and tabernacles,
lasted a week each. They had weeks of seven years a piece, at the term
of which was the sabbatical year; as also weeks of seven times seven
years, that were terminated by the year of jubilee; and finally weeks of
seven days. And it is remarkable that, from the earliest times,
sacrifices were offered by sevens. Thus, in the patriarch Job’s days,
“seven bullocks and seven rams were offered up for a burnt offering” of
atonement, by the divine command, Job xiii, 8. The Chaldean diviner,
Balaam, built seven altars, and prepared seven bullocks and seven rams,
Num. xxiii, 1. And the Cumæan sibyl, who came from Chaldea, or
Babylonia, gives the same directions to Æneas, that Balaam did to Balak:
_Nunc grege de intacto septem mactare juvencos
Præstiterit, totidem lectas, de more, bidentes._
“Seven bullocks, yet unyoked, for Phœbus choose,
And for Diana seven unspotted ewes.”
DRYDEN.
And when the ark was brought home by David, the Levites offered seven
bullocks and seven rams, 1 Chronicles xv, 26. And hence we may account
for the peculiar sanctity of the seventh day, among the older Heathen
writers, even after the institution of the Sabbath fell into disuse, and
was lost among them.
THE FALLOW OR SABBATIC YEAR. Agricultural labour among the Jews ceased
every seventh year. Nothing was sown and nothing reaped; the vines and
the olives were not pruned; there was no vintage and no gathering of
fruits, even of what grew wild; but whatever spontaneous productions
there were, were left to the poor, the traveller, and the wild beast,
Lev. xxv, 1–7; Deut. xv, 1–10. The object of this regulation seems to
have been, among others, to let the ground recover its strength, and to
teach the Hebrews to be provident of their income and to look out for
the future. It is true, that extraordinary fruitfulness was promised on
the sixth year, but in such a way as not to exclude care and foresight,
Lev. xxv, 20–24. We are not to suppose, however, that the Hebrews spent
the seventh year in absolute idleness: they could fish, hunt, take care
of their bees and flocks, repair their buildings and furniture,
manufacture cloths of wool, linen, and of the hair of goats and camels,
and carry on commerce. Finally, they were obliged to remain longer in
the tabernacle or temple this year, during which the whole Mosaic law
was read, in order to be instructed in religious and moral duties, and
the history of their nation, and the wonderful works and blessings of
God, Deut. xxxi, 10–13. This seventh year’s rest, as Moses predicted,
Lev. xxvi, 34, 35, was for a long time neglected, 2 Chron. xxxvi, 21;
after the captivity it was more scrupulously observed.
As a period of seven days was every week completed by the Sabbath, so
was a period of seven years completed by the sabbatic year. It seems to
have been the design of this institution, to afford a longer opportunity
than would otherwise have been enjoyed for impressing on the memory the
great truth, that God the Creator is alone to be worshipped. The
commencement of this year was on the first day of the seventh month
Tishri, or October. During the continuance of the feast of tabernacles
this year, the law was to be publicly read for eight days together,
either in the tabernacle or temple, Deut. xxxi, 10–13. Debts, on account
of there being no income from the soil, were not collected, Deut. xv, 1,
2; they were not, however, cancelled, as was imagined by the Talmudists,
for we find in Deut. xv, 9, that the Hebrews are admonished not to deny
money to the poor on account of the approach of the sabbatical year,
during which it could not be exacted; but nothing farther than this can
be educed from that passage. Nor were servants manumitted on this year,
but on the seventh year of their service, Exodus xxi, 2; Deut. xv, 12;
Jer. xxxiv, 14.
THE YEAR OF JUBILEE followed seven sabbatic years; it was on the
fiftieth year, Lev. xxv, 8–11. To this statement agree the Jews
generally, their rabbins, and the Caraites; and say farther, that the
argument of those who maintain that it was on the forty-ninth, for the
reason that the omission to till the ground for two years in succession,
namely, the forty-ninth and fiftieth, would produce a famine, is not to
be attended to. It is not to be attended to, simply because these years
of rest being known long beforehand, the people would of course lay up
provision for them. It may be remarked farther in reference to this
point, that certain trees produced their fruits spontaneously,
particularly the fig and sycamore, which yield half the year round, and
that those fruits could be preserved for some months; which explains at
once how a considerable number of the people might have obtained no
inconsiderable portion of their support. The return of the year of
jubilee was announced on the tenth day of the seventh month, or Tishri,
October, being the day of propitiation or atonement, by the sound of
trumpet, Lev. xxv, 8–13; xxvii, 24; Num. xxxvi, 4; Isa. lxi, 1, 2.
Beside the regulations which obtained on the sabbatic year, there were
others which concerned the year of jubilee exclusively: 1. All the
servants of Hebrew origin on the year of jubilee obtained their freedom,
Lev. xxv, 39–46; Jer. xxxiv, 7, &c. 2. All the fields throughout the
country, and the houses in the cities and villages of the Levites and
priests which had been sold on the preceding years, were returned on the
year of jubilee to the sellers, with the exception of those which had
been consecrated to God, and had not been redeemed before the return of
the said year, Lev. xxv, 10, 13–17, 24–28; xxvii, 16–21. 3. Debtors, for
the most part, pledged or mortgaged their lands to the creditor, and
left it to his use till the time of payment, so that it was in effect
sold to the creditor, and was, accordingly, restored to the debtor on
the year of jubilee. In other words, the debts for which land was
pledged were cancelled; the same as those of persons who had recovered
their freedom after having been sold into slavery, on account of not
being able to pay. Hence it usually happened in the later periods of
Jewish history, as we learn from Josephus, that, at the return of
jubilee, there was a general cancelling of debts.