and fertilizing of some kinds of stubborn soil, yet, according to the
observations of Pliny, “all places in which salt is found are barren and
produce nothing.” The effect of salt, where it abounds, on vegetation,
is described by burning, in Deut. xxix, 23, “The whole land thereof is
brimstone, and salt of burning.” Thus Volney, speaking of the borders of
the Asphaltic lake, or Dead Sea, says, “The true cause of the absence of
vegetables and animals is the acrid saltness of its waters, which is
infinitely greater than that of the sea. The land surrounding the lake,
being equally impregnated with that saltness, refuses to produce plants;
the air itself, which is by evaporation loaded with it, and which
moreover receives vapours of sulphur and bitumen, cannot suit
vegetation; whence that dead appearance which reigns around the lake.”
So a salt land, Jer. xvii, 6, is the same as the “parched places of the
wilderness,” and is descriptive of barrenness, as saltness also is, Job
xxxix, 6; Psalm cvii, 34; Ezek. xlvii, 11; Zech. ii, 9. Hence the
ancient custom of sowing an enemy’s city, when taken,with salt, in token
of perpetual desolation, Judges iv, 45; and thus in after times the city
of Milan was burned, razed, sown with salt, and ploughed by the
exasperated emperor, Frederic Barbarossa. The salt used by the ancients
was what we call rock or fossil salt; and also that left by the
evaporation of salt lakes. Both these kinds were impure, being mixed
with earth, sand, &c, and lost their strength by deliquescence.
Maundrell, describing the valley of salt, says, “On the side toward
Gibul there is a small precipice, occasioned by the continual taking
away of the salt; and in this you may see how the veins of it lie. I
broke a piece of it, of which that part that was exposed to the sun,
rain, and air, though it had the sparks and particles of salt, yet it
had perfectly lost its savour; the inner part, which was connected with
the rock, retained its savour, as I found by proof.” Christ reminds his
disciples, Matt. v, 13, “Ye are the salt of the earth; but if the salt
have lost its savour, wherewith shall it be salted? It is thenceforth
good for nothing but to be cast out, and to be trodden under foot of
men.” This is spoken of the mineral salt as mentioned by Maundrell, a
great deal of which was made use of in offerings at the temple; such of
it as had become insipid was thrown out to repair the road. The
existence of such a salt, and its application to such a use,
Schoetgenius has largely proved in his “_Horæ Hebraicæ_.” The salt unfit
for the land, Luke xvi, 34, Le Clerc conjectures to be that made of wood
ashes, which easily loses its savour, and becomes no longer serviceable.
_Effœtos cinerem immundum jactare per agros._
VIRGIL. Georg. i, 81.
“But blush not fattening dung to cast around,
Or sordid ashes o’er th’ exhausted ground.”
WARTON.
SALUTATIONS at meeting are not less common in the east than in the
countries of Europe, but are generally confined to those of their own
nation or religious party. When the Arabs salute each other, it is
generally in these terms: _Salum aleikum_, “Peace be with you;” laying,
as they utter the words, the right hand on the heart. The answer is,
_Aleikum essalum_, “With you be peace;” to which aged people are
inclined to add, “and the mercy and blessing of God.” The Mohammedans of
Egypt and Syria never salute a Christian in these terms: they content
themselves with saying to them, “Good day to you;” or, “Friend, how do
you do?” Niebuhr’s statement is confirmed by Mr. Bruce, who says that
some Arabs, to whom he gave the _salam_, or salutation of peace, either
made no reply, or expressed their astonishment at his impudence in using
such freedom. Thus it appears that the orientals have two kinds of
salutations; one for strangers, and the other for their own countrymen,
or persons of their own religious profession. The Jews in the days of
our Lord seem to have generally observed the same custom; they would not
address the usual compliment of, “Peace be with you,” to either Heathens
or publicans; the publicans of the Jewish nation would use it to their
countrymen who were publicans, but not to Heathens, though the more
rigid Jews refused to do it either to publicans or Heathens. Our Lord
required his disciples to lay aside the moroseness of Jews, and cherish
a benevolent disposition toward all around them: “If ye salute your
brethren only, what do ye more than others? Do not even the publicans
so?” They were bound by the same authority to embrace their brethren in
Christ with a special affection, yet they were to look upon every man as
a brother, to feel a sincere and cordial interest in his welfare, and at
meeting to express their benevolence, in language corresponding with the
feelings of their hearts. This precept is not inconsistent with the
charge which the Prophet Elisha gave to his servant Gehazi, not to
salute any man he met, nor return his salutation; for he wished him to
make all the haste in his power to restore the child of the Shunamite,
who had laid him under so many obligations. The manners of the country
rendered Elisha’s precautions particularly proper and necessary, as the
salutations of the east often take up a long time. For a similar reason
our Lord himself commanded his disciples on one occasion to salute no
man by the way: it is not to be supposed that he would require his
followers to violate or neglect an innocent custom, still less one of
his own precepts; he only directed them to make the best use of their
time in executing his work. This precaution was rendered necessary by
the length of time which their tedious forms of salutation required.
They begin their salutations at a considerable distance, by bringing the
hand down to the knees, and then carrying it to the stomach. They
express their devotedness to a person by holding down the hand, as they
do their affection by raising it afterward to the heart. When they come
close together, they take each other by the hand in token of friendship.
The country people at meeting clap each other’s hands very smartly
twenty or thirty times together, without saying any thing more than,
“How do ye do? I wish you good health.” After this first compliment,
many other friendly questions about the health of the family, mentioning
each of the children distinctly, whose names they know. To avoid this
useless waste of time, our Lord commanded them to avoid the customary
salutations of those whom they might happen to meet by the way. All the
forms of salutation now observed appear to have been in general use in
the days of our Lord; for he represents a servant as falling down at the
feet of his master, when he had a favour to ask; and an inferior
servant, as paying the same compliment to the first, who belonged, it
would seem, to a higher class; “The servant, therefore, fell down and
worshipped him, saying, Lord, have patience with me, and I will pay thee
all. And his fellow servant fell down at his feet, and besought him,
saying, Have patience with me, and I will pay thee all,” Matt. xviii,
26, 29. When Jairus solicited the Saviour to go and heal his daughter,
he fell down at his feet: the Apostle Peter, on another occasion, seems
to have fallen down at his knees, in the same manner as the modern Arabs
fall down at the knees of a superior. The woman who was afflicted with
an issue of blood touched the hem of his garment, and the Syro-Phenician
woman fell down at his feet. In Persia, the salutation among intimate
friends is made by inclining the neck over each other’s neck, and then
inclining cheek to cheek; which Mr. Morier thinks is most likely the
falling upon the neck and kissing, so frequently mentioned in Scripture,
Gen. xxxiii, 4; xlv, 14; Luke xv, 20.
SALVATION imports, in general, some great deliverance from any evil or
danger. Thus, the conducting the Israelites through the Red Sea, and
delivering them out of the hands of the Egyptians, is called a great
salvation. But salvation by way of eminence, is applied to that
wonderful deliverance which our blessed Saviour procured for mankind, by
saving them from the punishment of their sins; and in the New Testament
is the same as our redemption by Christ. This is that salvation referred
to by St. Paul: “How shall we escape if we neglect so great salvation?”
The salvation which Christ purchased, and the Gospel tenders to every
creature, comprehends the greatest blessings which God can bestow; a
deliverance from the most dreadful evils that mankind can suffer. It
contains all that can make the nature of man perfect or his life happy,
and secures him from whatever can render his condition miserable. The
blessings of it are inexpressible, and beyond imagination. “Eye hath not
seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, the
things which God hath prepared for them that love him.” For, to be saved
as Christ saves, is to have all our innumerable sins and transgressions
forgiven and blotted out; all those heavy loads of guilt which oppressed
our souls perfectly removed from our minds. It is to be reconciled to
God, and restored to his favour, so that he will be no longer angry,
terrible, and retributive, but a most kind, compassionate, and tender
Father. It is to be at peace with him and with our consciences; to have
a title to his peculiar love, care, and protection, all our days; to be
rescued from the bondage and dominion of sin, and the tyranny of the
devil. It is to be translated from the power of darkness, into the
kingdom of Christ; so that sin shall reign no longer in our mortal
bodies, but we shall be enabled to serve God in newness of life. It is
to be placed in a state of true freedom and liberty, to be no longer
under the control of blind passions, and hurried on by our impetuous
lusts to do what our reason condemns. It is to have a new principle of
life infused into our souls; to have the Holy Spirit resident in our
hearts, whose comfortable influence must ever cheer and refresh us, and
by whose counsels we may be always advised, directed, and governed. It
is to be transformed into the image of God; and to be made like him in
wisdom, righteousness, and all other perfections of which man’s nature
is capable.
Finally, to be saved as Christ came to save mankind, is to be
translated, after this life is ended, into a state of eternal felicity,
never more to die or suffer, never more to know pain and sickness, grief
and sorrow, labour and weariness, disquiet, or vexation, but to live in
perfect peace, freedom, and liberty, and to enjoy the greatest good
after the most perfect manner for ever. It is to have our bodies raised
again, and reünited to our souls; so that they shall be no longer gross,
earthly, corruptible bodies, but spiritual, heavenly, immortal ones,
fashioned like unto Christ’s glorious body, in which he now sits at the
right hand of God. It is to live in the city of the great King, the
heavenly Jerusalem, where the glory of the Lord fills the place with
perpetual light and bliss. It is to spend eternity in the most noble and
hallowed employments, in viewing and contemplating the wonderful works
of God, admiring the wisdom of his providence, adoring his infinite love
to the sons of men, reflecting on our own inexpressible happiness, and
singing everlasting hymns of praise, joy, and triumph to God and our
Lord Jesus Christ for vouchsafing all these blessings. It is to dwell
for ever in a place, where no objects of pity or compassion, of anger or
envy, of hatred or distrust, are to be found; but where all will
increase the happiness of each other, by mutual love and kindness. It is
to converse with the most perfect society, to be restored to the
fellowship of our friends and relations who have died in the faith of
Christ, and to be with Jesus Christ, to behold his glory, to live for
ever in seeing and enjoying the great God, in “whose presence is fulness
of joy, and at whose right hand are pleasures for evermore.” This is the
salvation that Christ has purchased for us; and which his Gospel offers
to all mankind.
SAMARIA, one of the three divisions of the Holy Land, having Galilee on
the north, Judea on the south, the river Jordan on the east, and the
Mediterranean Sea on the west. It took its name from its capital city,
Samaria; and formed, together with Galilee and some cantons on the east
of Jordan, during the reigns of the kings of Israel and Judah, the
kingdom of the former. The general aspect and produce of the country are
nearly the same as those of Judea. But Mr. Buckingham observes, that
“while in Judea the hills are mostly as bare as the imagination can
paint them, and a few of the narrow valleys only are fertile, in
Samaria, the very summits of the eminences are as well clothed as the
sides of them. These, with the luxuriant valleys which they enclose,
present scenes of unbroken verdure in almost every point of view, which
are delightfully variegated by the picturesque forms of the hills and
vales themselves, enriched by the occasional sight of wood and water, in
clusters of olive and other trees, and rills and torrents running among
them.”
2. SAMARIA, the capital city of the kingdom of the ten tribes that
revolted from the house of David. It was built by Omri, king of Israel,
who began to reign A. M. 3079, and who died 3086. He bought the hill
Samaria of Shemer for two talents of silver, or for the sum of 684l.
7_s._ 6_d._ It took the name of Samaria from Shemer, the owner of the
hill, 1 Kings xvi, 24. Some think, however, that there were before this
some beginnings of a city in that place, because, antecedent to the
reign of Omri, there is mention made of Samaria, 1 Kings xiii, 32, A. M.
3030. But others take this for a prolepsis, or an anticipation, in the
discourse of the man of God. However this may be, it is certain that
Samaria was no considerable place, and did not become the capital of the
kingdom, till after the reign of Omri. Before him, the kings of Israel
dwelt at Shechem or at Tirzah. Samaria was advantageously situated upon
an agreeable and fruitful hill, twelve miles from Dothaim, twelve from
Merrom, and four from Atharath. Josephus says it was a day’s journey
from Jerusalem. The kings of Samaria omitted nothing to make this city
the strongest, the finest, and the richest that was possible. Ahab built
there a palace of ivory, 1 Kings xxii, 39; that is, in which there were
many ivory ornaments; and, according to Amos, iii, 15; iv, 1, 2, it
became the seat of luxury and effeminacy. Benhadad, king of Syria, built
public places, called “streets,” in Samaria, 1 Kings xx, 34; probably
bazaars for trade, and quarters where his people dwelt to pursue
commerce. His son Benhadad besieged this place under the reign of Ahab,
1 Kings xx, A. M. 3103. It was besieged by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria,
in the ninth year of the reign of Hoshea, king of Israel, 2 Kings xvii,
6, &c, which was the fourth of Hezekiah, king of Judah. It was taken
three years after, A. M. 3283. The Prophet Hosea, x, 4, 8, 9, speaks of
the cruelties exercised by Shalmaneser against the besieged; and Micah,
i, 6, says that the city was reduced to a heap of stones. The Cuthites
that were sent by Esar-haddon to inhabit the country of Samaria did not
think it worth their while to repair the ruined city: they dwelt at
Shechem, which they made the capital city of their state. They were in
this condition when Alexander the Great came into Phenicia and Judea.
However, the Cuthites had rebuilt some of the houses of Samaria, even
from the time of the return of the Jews from the captivity, since the
inhabitants of Samaria are spoken of, Ezra iv, 17; Neh. iv, 2. And the
Samaritans, being jealous of the Jews, on account of the favours that
Alexander the Great had conferred on them, revolted from him, while he
was in Egypt, and burned Andromachus alive, whom he had left governor of
Syria. Alexander soon marched against them, took Samaria, and appointed
Macedonians to inhabit it, giving the country round it to the Jews; and
to encourage them in the cultivation, he exempted them from tribute. The
kings of Egypt and Syria, who succeeded Alexander, deprived them of the
property of this country. But Alexander Balas, king of Syria, restored
to Jonathan Maccabæus the cities of Lydda, Ephrem, and Ramatha, which he
cut off from the country of Samaria, 1 Macc. x, 30, 38; xi, 28, 34.
Lastly, the Jews reëntered into the full possession of this whole
country under John Hircanus, the Asmonean, who took Samaria, and,
according to Josephus, made the river run through its ruins. It
continued in this state till A. M. 3947, when Aulus Gabinius, the
proconsul of Syria, rebuilt it, and gave it the name of Gabiniana. Yet
it remained very inconsiderable till Herod the Great restored it to its
ancient splendour.
The sacred authors of the New Testament speak but little of Samaria; and
when they do mention it, the country is rather to be understood than the
city, Luke xvii, 11; John iv, 4, 5. After the death of Stephen, Acts
viii, 1, 2, 3, when the disciples were dispersed through the cities of
Judea and Samaria, Philip made several converts in this city. There it
was that Simon Magus resided, and thither Peter and John went to
communicate the gifts of the Holy Spirit.
Travellers give the following account of its present state:--Sebaste is
the name which Herod gave to the name of the ancient Samaria, the
imperial city of the ten tribes, in honour of Augustus (Sebastos) Cæsar,
when he rebuilt and fortified it, converting the greater part of it into
a citadel, and erecting here a noble temple. “The situation,” says Dr.
Richardson, “is extremely beautiful, and strong by nature; more so, I
think, than Jerusalem. It stands on a fine, large, insulated hill,
compassed all around by a broad deep valley; and when fortified, as it
is stated to have been by Herod, one would have imagined that, in the
ancient system of warfare, nothing but famine could have reduced such a
place. The valley is surrounded by four hills, one on each side, which
are cultivated in terraces up to the top, sown with grain, and planted
with fig and olive trees, as is also the valley. The hill of Samaria
likewise rises in terraces to a height equal to any of the adjoining
mountains. The present village is small and poor, and, after passing the
valley, the ascent to it is very steep. Viewed from the station of our
tents, it is extremely interesting, both from its natural situation, and
from the picturesque remains of a ruined convent, of good Gothic
architecture. Having passed the village, toward the middle of the first
terrace, there is a number of columns still standing. I counted twelve
in one row, beside several that stood apart, the brotherless remains of
other rows. The situation is extremely delightful, and my guide informed
me, that they belonged to the serai, or palace. On the next terrace
there are no remains of solid building, but heaps of stone and lime and
rubbish mixed with the soil in great profusion. Ascending to the third
or highest terrace, the traces of former building were not so numerous,
but we enjoyed a delightful view of the surrounding country. The eye
passed over the deep valley that encompasses the hill of Sebaste, and
rested on the mountains beyond, that retreated as they rose with a
gentle slope, and met the view in every direction, like a book laid out
for perusal on a reading desk. This was the seat of the capital of the
short-lived and wicked kingdom of Israel; and on the face of these
mountains the eye surveys the scene of many bloody conflicts and many
memorable events. Here those holy men of God, Elijah and Elisha, spoke
their tremendous warnings in the ears of their incorrigible rulers, and
wrought their miracles in the sight of all the people. From this lofty
eminence we descended to the south side of the hill, where we saw the
remains of a stately colonnade that stretches along this beautiful
exposure from east to west. Sixty columns are still standing in one row.
The shafts are plain; and fragments of Ionic volutes, that lie scattered
about, testify the order to which they belonged. These are probably the
relics of some of the magnificent structures with which Herod the Great
adorned Samaria. None of the walls remain.” Mr. Buckingham mentions a
current tradition, that the avenue of columns formed a part of Herod’s
palace. According to his account, there were eighty-three of these
columns erect in 1816, beside others prostrate; all without capitals.
Josephus states, that, about the middle of the city, Herod built “a
sacred place, of a furlong and a half in circuit, and adorned it with
all sorts of decorations; and therein erected a temple, illustrious for
both its largeness and beauty.” It is probable that these columns
belonged to it. On the eastern side of the same summit are the remains,
Mr. Buckingham states, of another building, “of which eight large and
eight small columns are still standing, with many others fallen near
them. These also are without capitals, and are of a smaller size and of
an inferior stone to the others.” “In the walls of the humble dwellings
forming the modern village, portions of sculptured blocks of stone are
perceived, and even fragments of granite pillars have been worked into
the masonry.”
SAMARITANS, an ancient sect among the Jews, still subsisting in some
parts of the Levant, under the same name. Its origin was in the time of
Rehoboam, under whose reign a division was made of the people of Israel
into two distinct kingdoms. One of these kingdoms, called Judah,
consisted of such as adhered to Rehoboam and the house of David; the
other retained the ancient name of Israelites, under the command of
Jeroboam. The capital of the state of these latter was Samaria; and
hence it was that they were denominated Samaritans. Some affirm that
Salmanazar, king of Assyria, having conquered Samaria, led the whole
people captive into the remotest parts of his empire, and filled their
places with colonies of Babylonians, Cutheans, and other idolaters.
These finding themselves daily destroyed by wild beasts, it is said,
desired an Israelitish priest to instruct them in the ancient laws and
customs of the land they inhabited. This was granted them; and they
thenceforth ceased to be incommoded with any beasts. However, with the
law of Moses, they still retained somewhat of their ancient idolatry.
The rabbins say, they adored the figure of a dove on Mount Gerizim. As
the revolted tribes had no more of the Scriptures than the five books of
Moses, so the priest could bring no others with him beside those books
written in the old Phenician letters.
Upon the return of the Jews from the Babylonish captivity, and the
rebuilding of Jerusalem and the temple, the religion of the Samaritans
received another alteration on the following occasion: one of the sons
of Jehoiada, the high priest, whom Josephus calls Manasseh, married the
daughter of Sanballat the Horonite; but the law of God having forbidden
the intermarriages of the Israelites with any other nation, Nehemiah set
himself to reform this corruption, which had spread into many Jewish
families, and obliged all that had taken strange wives immediately to
part with them, Neh. xiii, 23–30. Manasseh, unwilling to surrender his
wife, fled to Samaria; and many others in the same circumstances, and
with similar disposition, went and settled under the protection of
Sanballat, governor of Samaria. Manasseh brought with him some other
apostate priests, with many other Jews, who disliked the regulations
made by Nehemiah at Jerusalem; and now the Samaritans, having obtained a
high priest, and other priests of the descendants from Aaron, were soon
brought off from the worship of the false gods, and became as much
enemies to idolatry as the best of the Jews. However, Manasseh gave them
no other Scriptures beside the Pentateuch, lest, if they had the other
Scriptures, they should then find that Jerusalem was the only place
where they should offer their sacrifices. From that time the worship of
the Samaritans came much nearer to that of the Jews, and they afterward
obtained leave of Alexander the Great to build a temple on Mount
Gerizim, near the city of Samaria, in imitation of the temple at
Jerusalem, where they practised the same forms of worship. To this
mountain and temple the Samaritan woman of Sychar refers in her
discourse with our Saviour, John iv, 20. The Samaritans soon after
revolted from Alexander, who drove them out of Samaria, introduced
Macedonians in their room, and gave the province of Samaria to the Jews.
This circumstance contributed in no small degree to increase the hatred
and animosity between those two people. When any Israelite deserved
punishment on account of the violation of some important point of the
law, he presently took refuge in Samaria or Shechem, and embraced the
worship at the temple of Gerizim. When the affairs of the Jews were
prosperous, the Samaritans did not fail to call themselves Hebrews, and
of the race of Abraham. But when the Jews suffered persecution, the
Samaritans disowned them, and alleged that they were Phenicians
originally, or descended from Joseph, or Manasseh his son. This was
their practice in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes. It is certain, the
modern Samaritans are far from idolatry; some of the most learned among
the Jewish doctors own, that they observe the law of Moses more rigidly
than the Jews themselves. They have a Hebrew copy of the Pentateuch,
differing in some respects from that of the Jews; and written in
different characters, commonly called Samaritan characters; which
Origen, Jerom, and other fathers and critics, ancient and modern, take
to be the primitive character of the ancient Hebrews, though others
maintain the contrary. The point of preference, as to purity, antiquity,
&c, of the two Pentateuchs, is also much disputed by modern critics.