upon another; and, in a more restrained sense, the sufferings of
Christians on account of their religion. The establishment of
Christianity was opposed by the powers of the world, and occasioned
several severe persecutions against Christians, during the reigns of
several Roman emperors. Though the absurdities of polytheism were openly
derided and exposed by the Apostles and their successors, yet it does
not appear that any public laws were enacted against Christianity till
the reign of Nero, A. D. 64, by which time it had acquired considerable
stability and extent. As far the greater number of the first converts to
Christianity were of the Jewish nation, one secondary cause for their
being so long preserved from persecution may probably be deduced from
their appearing to the Roman governors only as a sect of Jews, who had
seceded from the rest of their brethren on account of some opinion,
trifling in its importance, and perhaps difficult to be understood. Nor,
when their brethren were fully discovered to have cast off the religion
of the synagogue, did the Jews find it easy to infuse into the breasts
of the Roman magistrates that rancour and malice which they themselves
experienced. But the steady and uniform opposition made by the
Christians to Heathen superstition could not long pass unnoticed. Their
open attacks upon Paganism made them extremely obnoxious to the
populace, by whom they were represented as a society of atheists, who,
by attacking the religious constitution of the empire, merited the
severest animadversion of the civil magistrate. Horrid tales of their
abominations were circulated throughout the empire; and the minds of the
Pagans were, from all these circumstances, prepared to regard with
pleasure or indifference every cruelty which could be inflicted upon
this despised sect. Historians usually reckon ten general persecutions.
_First general persecution._--Nero selected the Christians as a grateful
sacrifice to the Roman people, and endeavoured to transfer to this hated
sect the guilt of which he was strongly suspected; that of having caused
and enjoyed the fire which had nearly desolated the city. (See _Nero_.)
This persecution was not confined to Rome: the emperor issued edicts
against the Christians throughout most of the provinces of the empire.
He was far, however, from obtaining the object of his hopes and
expectations; and the virtues of the Christians, their zeal for the
truth, and their constancy in suffering, must have considerably
contributed to make their tenets more generally known.
_Second general persecution._--From the death of Nero to the reign of
Domitian, the Christians remained unmolested and daily increasing; but
toward the close of the first century, they were again involved in all
the horrors of persecution. In this persecution many eminent Christians
suffered; but the death of Domitian soon delivered them from this
calamity.
_Third general persecution._--This persecution began in the third year
of the Emperor Trajan, A. D. 100. Many things contributed toward it; as
the laws of the empire, the emperor’s zeal for his religion, and
aversion to Christianity, and the prejudices of the Pagans, supported by
falsehoods and calumnies against the Christians. Under the plausible
pretence of their holding illegal meetings and societies, they were
severely persecuted by the governors and other officers; in which
persecution great numbers fell by the rage of popular tumult, as well as
by laws and processes. This persecution continued several years, with
different degrees of severity in many parts of the empire; and was so
much the more afflicting, because the Christians generally suffered
under the notion of malefactors and traitors, and under an emperor famed
for his singular justice and moderation. The most noted martyr in this
persecution was Clement, bishop of Rome. After some time the fury of
this persecution was abated, but did not cease during the whole reign of
Trajan. In the eighth year of his successor Adrian, it broke out with
new rage. This is by some called the fourth general persecution; but is
more commonly considered as a revival or continuance of the third.
_Fourth general persecution._--This took place under Antoninus the
philosopher; and at different places, with several intermissions, and
different degrees of severity, it continued the greater part of his
reign. Antoninus himself has been much excused as to this persecution.
As the character of the virtuous Trajan, however, is sullied by the
martyrdom of Ignatius, so the reign of the philosophic Marcus is for
ever disgraced by the sacrifice of the venerable Polycarp, bishop of
Smyrna, the friend and companion of St. John. A few days previous to his
death, he is said to have dreamed that his pillow was on fire. When
urged by the proconsul to renounce Christ, he replied, Fourscore and six
years have I served him, and he has never done me an injury: can I
blaspheme my King and my Saviour?” Several miracles are reported to have
happened at his death. The flames, as if unwilling to injure his sacred
person, are said to have arched over his head; and it is added, that at
length, being despatched with a sword, a dove flew out of the wound; and
that from the pile proceeded a most fragrant smell. It is obvious that
the arching of the flames might be an accidental effect, which the
enthusiastic veneration of his disciples might convert into a miracle;
and as to the story of the dove, &c, Eusebius himself apparently did not
credit it; since he has omitted it in his narrative of the transaction.
Among many other victims of persecution in this philosophic reign, we
must also record that of the excellent and learned Justin. But it was at
Lyons and Vienne in Gaul, that the most shocking scenes were acted.
Among many nameless sufferers, history has preserved from oblivion
Pothinus, the respectable bishop of Lyons, who was then more than ninety
years of age; Sanctus, a deacon of Vienne; Attalus, a native of
Pergamus; Maturus, and Alexander; some of whom were devoured by wild
beasts, and some of them tortured in an iron chair made red hot. Some
females, also, and particularly Biblias and Blandina, reflected honour
both upon their sex and religion by their constancy and courage.
_Fifth general persecution._--A considerable part of the reign of
Severus proved so far favourable to the Christians, that no additions
were made to the severe edicts already in force against them. For this
lenity they were probably indebted to Proculus, a Christian, who, in a
very extraordinary manner, cured the emperor of a dangerous distemper by
the application of oil. But this degree of peace, precarious as it was,
and frequently interrupted by the partial execution of severe laws, was
terminated by an edict, A. D. 197, which prohibited every subject of the
empire, under severe penalties, from embracing the Jewish or Christian
faith. This law appears, upon a first view, designed merely to impede
the farther progress of Christianity; but it incited the magistracy to
enforce the laws of former emperors, which were still existing, against
the Christians; and during seven years they were exposed to a rigorous
persecution in Palestine, Egypt, the rest of Africa, Italy, Gaul, and
other parts. In this persecution Leonidas, the father of Origen, and
Irenæus, bishop of Lyons, suffered martyrdom. On this occasion
Tertullian composed his Apology.” The violence of Pagan intolerance was
most severely felt in Egypt, and particularly at Alexandria.
_Sixth general persecution._--This persecution began with the reign of
the Emperor Maximinus, A. D. 235, and seems to have arisen from that
prince’s hatred to his predecessor, Alexander, in whose family many
Christians had found shelter and patronage. Though this persecution was
very severe in some places, yet we have the names of only a few martyrs.
Origen at this time was very industrious in supporting the Christians
under these fiery trials.
_Seventh general persecution._--This was the most dreadful persecution
that ever had been known in the church. During the short reign of
Decius, the Christians were exposed to greater calamities than any they
had hitherto suffered. It has been said, and with some probability, that
the Christians were involved in this persecution by their attachment to
the family of the Emperor Philip. Considerable numbers were publicly
destroyed; several purchased safety by bribes, or secured it by flight;
and many deserted from the faith, and willingly consented to burn
incense on the altars of the gods. The city of Alexandria, the great
theatre of persecution, had even anticipated the edicts of the emperor,
and had put to death a number of innocent persons, among whom were some
women. The imperial edict for persecuting the Christians was published
A. D. 249; and shortly after, Fabianus, bishop of Rome, with a number of
his followers, was put to death. The venerable bishops of Jerusalem and
Antioch died in prison, the most cruel tortures were employed, and the
numbers that perished are by all parties confessed to have been very
considerable.
_Eighth general persecution._--The Emperor Valerian, in the fourth year
of his reign, A. D. 257, listening to the suggestions of Macrinus, a
magician of Egypt, was prevailed upon to persecute the Christians, on
pretence that by their wicked and execrable charms they hindered the
prosperity of the emperor. Macrinus advised him to perform many impious
rites, sacrifices, and incantations; to cut the throats of infants, &c;
and edicts were published in all places against the Christians, who were
exposed without protection to the common rage. We have the names of
several martyrs, among whom were the famous St. Laurence, archdeacon of
Rome, and the great St. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage.
_Ninth general persecution._--This persecution took place under the
Emperor Aurelian, A. D. 274; but it was so small and inconsiderable,
that it gave little interruption to the peace of the church.
_Tenth general persecution._--The tenth and last general persecution of
the Christians began in the nineteenth year of the Emperor Diocletian,
A. D. 303. The most violent promoters of it were Hierocles the
philosopher, who wrote against the Christian religion, and Galerius,
whom Diocletian had declared Cæsar. This latter was excited not only by
his own cruelty and superstition, but likewise by his mother, who was a
zealous Pagan. Diocletian, contrary to his inclination, was prevailed
upon to authorize the persecution by his edicts. Accordingly, it began
in the city of Nicomedia, whence it spread into other cities and
provinces, and became at last universal. Great numbers of Christians
suffered the severest tortures in this persecution, though the accounts
given of it by succeeding historians are probably exaggerated. There is,
however, sufficient of well authenticated facts to assure us amply of
the cruel and intolerant disposition of the professors of Pagan
philosophy. The human imagination was, indeed, almost exhausted in
inventing a variety of tortures. Some were impaled alive; some had their
limbs broken, and in that condition were left to expire. Some were
roasted by slow fires; and some suspended by their feet with their heads
downward, and, a fire being placed under them, were suffocated by the
smoke. Some had melted lead poured down their throats, and the flesh of
some was torn off with shells, and others had splinters of reeds thrust
under the nails of their fingers and toes. The few who were not
capitally punished had their limbs and their features mutilated. It
would be endless to enumerate the victims of superstition. The bishops
of Nicomedia, of Tyre, of Sidon, of Emesa, several matrons and virgins
of the purest character, and a nameless number of plebians, arrived at
immortality through the flames of martyrdom. At last it pleased God that
the Emperor Constantine, who himself afterward became a Christian,
openly declared for the Christians, and published the first law in
favour of them. The death of Maximin, emperor of the east, soon after
put a period to all their troubles; and this was the great epoch when
Christianity triumphantly got possession of the thrones of princes.
The guilt of persecution has, however, been attached to professing
Christians. Had men been guided solely by the spirit and the precepts of
the Gospel, the conduct of its blessed Author, and the writings and
example of his immediate disciples, we might have boldly affirmed that
among Christians there could be no tendency to encroach upon freedom of
discussion, and no approach to persecution. The Gospel, in every page of
it, inculcates tenderness and mercy; it exhibits the most unwearied
indulgence to the frailties and errors of men; and it represents charity
as the badge of those who in sincerity profess it. In St. Paul’s
inimitable description of this grace he has drawn a picture of mutual
forbearance and kindness and toleration, upon which it is scarcely
possible to dwell, without being raised superior to every contracted
sentiment, and glowing with the most diffusive benevolence. In the
churches which he planted he had often to counteract the efforts of
teachers who had laboured to subvert the foundation which he had laid,
to misrepresent his motives, and to inculcate doctrines which, through
the inspiration that was imparted to him, he discerned to proceed from
the most perverted views, and to be inconsistent with the great designs
of the Gospel. These teachers he strenuously and conscientiously
opposed; he endeavoured to show the great importance of those to whom he
wrote being on their guard against them; and he evinced the most ardent
zeal in resisting their insidious purposes: but he never, in the most
distant manner, insinuated that they should be persecuted, adhering
always to the maxim which he had laid down, that the weapons of a
Christian’s warfare are not carnal but spiritual. He does, indeed,
sometimes speak of heretics; and he even exhorts that, after
expostulation with him, a heretic should be rejected, and not
acknowledged to be a member of the church to which he had once belonged.
But that precept of the Apostle has no reference to the persecution
which it has sometimes been conceived to sanction, and which has been
generally directed against men quite sincere in their belief, however
erroneous that belief may be esteemed.
Upon a subject thus enforced by precept and example, it is not to be
supposed that the first converts, deriving their notions of Christianity
immediately from our Lord or his Apostles, could have any opinion
different in theory, at least, from that which has been now established.
Accordingly, we find that the primitive fathers, although, in many
respects, they erred, unequivocally express themselves in favour of the
most ample liberty as to religious sentiment, and highly disapprove of
every attempt to control it. Passages from many of these writers might
be quoted to establish that this was almost the universal sentiment till
the age of Constantine. Lactantius in particular has, with great force
and beauty, delivered his opinion against persecution: There is no need
of compulsion and violence, because religion cannot be forced; and men
must be made willing, not by stripes, but by arguments. Slaughter and
piety are quite opposite to each other; nor can truth consist with
violence, or justice with cruelty. They are convinced that nothing is
more excellent than religion, and therefore think that it ought to be
defended with force; but they are mistaken, both in the nature of
religion, and in proper methods to support it; for religion is to be
defended, not by murder, but by persuasion; not by cruelty, but by
patience; not by wickedness, but by faith. If you attempt to defend
religion by blood, and torments, and evil, this is not to defend, but to
violate and pollute it; for there is nothing that should be more free
than the choice of religion, in which, if consent be wanting, it becomes
entirely void and ineffectual.”
The general conduct of Christians during the first three centuries was
in conformity with the admirable maxims now quoted. Eusebius has
recorded that Polycarp, after in vain endeavouring to persuade Anicetus,
who was bishop of Rome, to embrace his opinion as to some point with
respect to which they differed, gave him, notwithstanding, the kiss of
peace, while Anicetus communicated with the martyr; and Irenæus mentions
that although Polycarp was much offended with the Gnostic heretics, who
abounded in his days, he converted numbers of them, not by the
application of constraint or violence, but by the facts and arguments
which he calmly submitted for their consideration. It must be admitted,
however, that even during the second century some traces of persecution
are to be found. Victor, one of the early pontiffs, because the Asiatic
bishops differed from him about the rule for the observation of Easter,
excommunicated them as guilty of heresy; and he acted in the same manner
toward a person who held what he considered as erroneous notions
respecting the trinity. This stretch of authority was, indeed,
reprobated by the generality of Christians, and remonstrances against it
were accordingly presented. There was, however, in this proceeding of
Victor, too clear a proof that the church was beginning to deviate from
the perfect charity by which it had been adorned, and too sure an
indication that the example of one who held so high an office, when it
was in harmony with the corruption or with the worst passions of our
nature, would be extensively followed. But still there was, in the
excommunication rashly pronounced by the pope, merely an exertion of
ecclesiastical power, not interfering with the personal security, with
the property, or with the lives of those against whom it was directed;
and we may, notwithstanding this slight exception, consider the first
three centuries as marked by the candour and the benevolence implied in
the charity which judgeth not, and thinketh no evil.
It was after Christianity had been established as the religion of the
empire, and after wealth and honour had been conferred on its ministers,
that the monstrous evil of persecution acquired gigantic strength, and
threw its blasting influence over the religion of the Gospel. The causes
of this are apparent. Men exalted in the scale of society were eager to
extend the power which had been intrusted to them; and they sought to do
so by exacting from the people acquiescence in the peculiar
interpretations of tenets and doctrines which they chose to publish as
articles of faith. The moment that this was attempted, the foundation
was laid for the most inflexible intolerance; because reluctance to
submit was no longer regarded solely as a matter of conscience, but as
interfering with the interest and the dominion of the ruling party. It
was therefore proceeded against with all the eagerness which men so
unequivocally display when the temporal blessings that gratify their
ambition or add to their comfort are attempted to be wrested from them.
To other dictates than those of the word of God the members of the
church now listened; and opinions were viewed, not in reference to that
word, but to the effect which they might produce upon the worldly
advancement or prosperity of those by whom they were avowed. From the
era, then, of the conversion of Constantine we may date, if not
altogether the introduction, at least the decisive influence of
persecution.
PERSIA, an ancient kingdom of Asia, bounded on the north by Media, on
the west by Susiana, on the east by Carmania, and on the south by the
Persian Gulf. The Persians became very famous from the time of Cyrus,
the founder of the Persian monarchy. Their ancient name was Elamites,
and in the time of the Roman emperors they went by the name of
Parthians; but now Persians. See CYRUS; and for the religion of the
ancient Persians, MAGI.
PESTILENCE, or plague, generally is used by the Hebrews for all epidemic
or contagious diseases. The prophets usually connect together sword,
pestilence, and famine, being three of the most grievous inflictions of
the Almighty upon a guilty people. See DISEASES.
PETER, the great Apostle of the circumcision, was the son of Jona, and
born at Bethsaida, a town situated on the western shore of the lake of
Gennesareth, but in what particular year we are not informed, John i,
42, 43. His original name was Simon or Simeon, which his divine Master,
when he called him to the Apostleship, changed for that of Cephas, a
Syriac word signifying _a stone_ or _rock_; in Latin, _petra_, from
whence is derived the term Peter. He was a married man, and had his
house, his mother-in-law, and his wife, at Capernaum, on the lake of
Gennesareth, Matt. viii, 14; Mark i, 29; Luke iv, 38. He had also a
brother of the name of Andrew, who had been a disciple of John the
Baptist, and was called to the knowledge of the Saviour prior to
himself. Andrew was present when the venerable Baptist pointed his
disciples to Jesus, and added, Behold the Lamb of God that taketh away
the sin of the world;” and, meeting Simon shortly afterward, said, We
have found the Messiah,” and then brought him to Jesus, John i, 41. When
the two brothers had passed one day with the Lord Jesus, they took their
leave of him, and returned to their ordinary occupation of fishing. This
appears to have taken place in the thirtieth year of the Christian era.
Toward the end of the same year, as Jesus was one morning standing on
the shore of the lake of Gennesareth, he saw Andrew and Peter engaged
about their employment. They had been fishing during the whole night,
but without the smallest success; and, after this fruitless expedition,
were in the act of washing their nets, Luke v, 1–3. Jesus entered into
their boat, and bade Peter throw out his net into the sea, which he did;
and now, to his astonishment, the multitude of fishes was so immense
that their own vessel, and that of the sons of Zebedee, were filled with
them. Peter evidently saw there was something supernatural in this, and,
throwing himself at the feet of Jesus, he exclaimed, Depart from me, O
Lord, for I am a sinful man.” The miracle was no doubt intended for a
sign to the four disciples of what success should afterward follow their
ministry in preaching the doctrine of his kingdom; and therefore Jesus
said unto them, Follow me, and I will make you fishers of men;” on which
they quitted their boats and nets, and thenceforth became the constant
associates of the Saviour, during the whole of his public ministry, Luke
xviii, 28.