of different kinds were appointed, which are accurately and fully
described in the beginning of the book of Leviticus.
Burnt-offerings, or holocausts, sacrifices in which the victims were
wholly consumed, were expiatory, and more ancient than any others, and
were, for that reason, held in special honour. It was in consideration
of these circumstances that Moses gave precepts in regard to this kind
of sacrifices first, Lev. i, 3. Holocausts might be offered by means of
the Hebrew priests, when brought by the Heathen, or those who had
originated from another nation; such persons being unable to offer sin
or trespass-offerings, since this sort of sacrifices had particular
reference to some neglect or violation of the Mosaic law, by whose
authority they did not acknowledge themselves bound. Holocausts were
expiatory, and we accordingly find that they were offered sometimes for
the whole people; for instance, the morning and the evening sacrifices;
and sometimes by an individual for himself alone, either from the free
impulse of his feelings, or in fulfilment of a vow, Psalm li, 19; lxvi,
13, 14. They were required to be offered under certain combinations of
circumstances pointed out in the Mosaic laws; namely, by a Nazarite, who
had been unexpectedly rendered unclean, or who had completed the days of
his separation, Num. vi, 11–16; by those who had been healed of leprosy;
and by women after child-birth, Lev. xii, 6, 8. The victims immolated at
a holocaust were bullocks of three years old, goats and lambs of a year
old, turtle doves, and young pigeons. Not only the parts which were
expressly destined for the altar, but also the other parts of the
victims, were burned. A libation of wine was poured out upon the altar.
It was the practice among the Gentile nations, (an allusion to which
occurs in Phil. ii, 17, and 2 Tim. iv, 6,) to pour the wine out between
the horns of the victims which they immolated to their idols. The priest
partially wrung or cut off the heads of the turtle doves and young
pigeons, sprinkled the blood on the side of the altar, plucked out the
feathers and the crop, and cast them to the east of the altar into the
place for the reception of ashes, and placed the remainder, after having
cleft or broken the wings, upon the fire, Lev. i, 3–17.
Drink-offerings. With a bullock, half a hin of wine, with three-tenth
deals of flour, and half a hin of oil. With a ram, one-third of a hin of
wine, with two-tenth deals of flour, and one-third of a hin of oil. With
a lamb or a kid of the goats, one quarter of a hin of wine, one-tenth
deal of flour, and one quarter of a hin of oil. With a sheaf of the
first-fruits, one quarter of a hin of wine, one-tenth deal of flour,
with oil.
Meat-offerings. These, like the drink-offerings, were appendages to the
sacrifices. They were of thin cakes or wafers. In some instances they
were offered alone.
Heave-offerings. So called from the sacrifice being lifted up toward
heaven, in token of its being devoted to Jehovah.
Peace-offerings. Bullocks, heifers, goats, rams, and sheep, were the
only animals sacrificed on these occasions, Lev. iii, 1–17; vii, 23–27.
These sacrifices, which were offered as an indication of gratitude, were
accompanied with unleavened cakes, covered with oil, by pouring it upon
them; with thin cakes or wafers, likewise unleavened, and besmeared with
oil; also with another kind of cakes, made of fine meal, and kneaded
with oil. The priest, who sprinkled the blood, presented one of each of
these kinds of cakes as an offering, Lev. vii, 11–14, 28–35. The
remainder of the animal substance and of the cakes was converted by the
person who made the offering into an entertainment, to which widows,
orphans, the poor, slaves, and Levites were invited. What was not eaten
on the day of the offering might be reserved till the succeeding; but
that which remained till the third was to be burned: a regulation which
was made in order to prevent the omission or putting off of the season
of this benevolence and joy, Lev. vii, 15–21; Deut. xii, 18. This feast
could be celebrated beyond the limits of the tabernacle, or temple, but
not beyond the city.
Sin-offerings were for expiation of particular sins, or legal
imperfections, called therefore sin-offerings: the first sort were for
sins of ignorance or surprise, either from the high priest, or body of
the community, from the rulers, or any one of the common people. The
other sort of sin-offerings were for voluntary sins; but as to the more
capital violations of the moral law, as murder, adultery, or the worship
of idols, no expiatory sacrifice was admitted.
Trespass-offerings were not required of the people as a body. They were
to be offered by individuals, who, through ignorance, mistake, or want
of reflection, had neglected some of the ceremonial precepts of Moses,
or some of those natural laws, which had been introduced into his code,
and sanctioned with the penalty of death; and who were subsequently
conscious of their error. The person who, being sworn as a witness,
concealed the truth by keeping silent; the man who, having become
contaminated without knowing it, had omitted purification, but had
afterward become acquainted with the fact; the person who had rashly
sworn to do a thing, and had not done it; all these delinquents offered
a lamb or kid, or, in case of poverty, two doves or young pigeons, the
one for a trespass, the other for a sin-offering. In case the person was
unusually poor, he was required to offer merely the tenth part of an
ephah of fine meal, without oil or frankincense, Lev. iii, 1–16. Whoever
appropriated to himself any thing consecrated, or any thing that was
promised, or found, or stolen, or deposited in his possession for
keeping; whoever swore falsely, or omitted to restore the goods that
belonged to another, or injured him in any other way, presented for his
trespass a ram, which had been submitted to the estimation of the
priest, and not only made restitution, but allowed an additional amount
of a fifth part by way of indemnification. He who had committed
fornication with a betrothed bondmaid, previously to her being redeemed
from servitude, offered a ram for the trespass, Lev. xix, 20–22.
Nazarites, who had been unexpectedly rendered unclean, presented a lamb
of a year old, Num. vi, 11. Finally, lepers, when restored to health,
and purified, sacrificed a ram, Lev. xiv, 10–14. The ceremonies were the
same as in the sin-offerings.
Wave-offering. It was so called, because it was waved up and down, and
toward the east, west, north, and south, to signify, that he to whom it
was offered was Lord of the universe, the God who fills all space, and
to whom all things of right belong. See SACRIFICES>.
OG, a king of Bashan; being a giant of the race of the Rephaim. Moses
records the conquest of Og, and his destruction. After which his country
was given to the tribe of Reuben, Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh,
Num. xxi, 33. See GIANTS.
OIL, שמן. The invention and use of oil is of the highest antiquity. It
is said that Jacob poured oil upon the pillar which he erected at
Bethel, Gen. xxviii, 18. The earliest kind was that which is extracted
from olives. Before the invention of mills, this was obtained by
pounding them in a mortar, Exod. xxvii, 20; and sometimes by treading
them with the feet in the same manner as were grapes, Deut. xxxiii, 24;
Micah vi, 15. The Hebrews used common oil with their food, in their
meat-offerings, for burning in their lamps, &c. As vast quantities of
oil were made by the ancient Jews, it became an article of exportation.
The great demand for it in Egypt led the Jews to send it thither. The
Prophet Hosea thus upbraids his degenerate nation with the servility and
folly of their conduct: Ephraim feedeth on wind, and followeth after the
east wind; he daily increaseth falsehood and vanity: and a league is
made with Assyria, and oil carried into Egypt,” Hosea xii, 1. The
Israelites, in the decline of their national glory, carried the produce
of their olive plantations into Egypt as a tribute to their ancient
oppressors, or as a present to conciliate their favour, and obtain their
assistance in the sanguinary wars which they were often compelled to
wage with the neighbouring states. There was an unguent, very precious
and sacred, used in anointing the priests, the tabernacle, and
furniture. This was compounded of spicy drugs; namely, myrrh, sweet
cinnamon, sweet calamus, and cassia, mixed with oil olive.
OLIVE TREE, וית, ἐλαία, Matt. xxi, 1; Rom. xi, 17, 24; James iii, 12;
ἀγριέλαιος, _oleaster_, the wild olive, Rom. xi, 17, 24. Tournefort
mentions eighteen kinds of olives; but in the Scripture we only read of
the cultivated and wild olive. The cultivated olive is of a moderate
height, and thrives best in a sunny and warm soil. Its trunk is knotty;
its bark is smooth, and of an ash colour; its wood is solid, and
yellowish; its leaves are oblong, and almost like those of the willow,
of a dark green colour on the upper side, and a whitish below. In the
month of June it puts forth white flowers, growing in bunches, each of
one piece, and widening toward the top, and dividing into four parts.
After this flower succeeds the fruit, which is oblong and plump. It is
first green, then pale, and, when quite ripe, becomes black. Within it
is enclosed a hard stone, filled with oblong seeds. The wild olives were
of a less kind. Canaan much abounded with olives. It seems almost every
proprietor, whether kings or subjects, had their olive yards. The olive
branch was, from most ancient times, used as the symbol of
reconciliation and peace.
OLIVES. The Mount of Olives was situated to the east of Jerusalem, and
divided from the city only by the brook Kidron, and by the valley of
Jehoshaphat, which stretches out from the north to the south. It was
upon this mount that Solomon built temples to the gods of the Ammonites,
1 Kings xi, 7, and the Moabites, out of complaisance to his wives of
those nations. Hence it is that the Mount of Olives is called the
mountain of corruption, 2 Kings xxiii, 13. The Mount of Olives forms
part of a ridge of limestone hills, extending to the north and the south
west. Pococke describes it as having four summits. On the lowest and
most northerly of these, which, he tells us, is called Sulman Tashy, the
stone of Solomon, there is a large domed sepulchre, and several other
Mohammedan tombs. The ascent to this point, which is to the north-east
of the city, he describes as very gradual, through pleasant corn fields,
planted with olive trees. The second summit is that which overlooks the
city: the path to it rises from the ruined gardens of Gethsemane, which
occupy part of the valley. About half way up the ascent is a ruined
monastery, built, as the monks tell us, on the spot where our Saviour
wept over Jerusalem. From this point, the spectator enjoys, perhaps, the
best view of the holy city. On reaching the summit, an extensive view is
obtained toward the east, embracing the fertile plain of Jericho,
watered by the Jordan, and the Dead Sea, enclosed by mountains of
considerable grandeur. Here there is a small village, surrounded by some
tolerable corn land. This summit is not relatively high, and would more
properly be termed a hill than a mountain: it is not above two miles
distant from Jerusalem. At a short distance from the summit is shown the
supposed print of our Saviour’s left foot; Chateaubriand says the mark
of the right was once visible, and Bernard de Breidenbach saw it in
1483! This is the spot fixed upon by the mother of Constantine, as that
from which our Lord ascended, and over which she accordingly erected a
church and monastery, the ruins of which still remain. Pococke describes
the building which was standing in his time, as a small Gothic chapel,
round within, and octagonal without, and tells us that it was converted
into a mosque. The Turks, for a stipulated sum, permit the Christian
pilgrims to take an impression of the foot print in wax or plaster, to
carry home. Twice,” says Dr. Richardson, I visited this memorable spot;
and each time it was crowded with devout pilgrims, taking casts of the
holy vestige. They had to purchase permission of the Turks; but, had it
not been in the possession of the Turks, they would have had to purchase
it from the more mercenary and not less merciless Romans or Greeks.” On
ascension eve, the Christians come and encamp in the court, and that
night they perform the offices of the ascension. Here, however, as with
regard to Calvary and almost all the supposed sacred places,
superstition has blindly followed the blind. That this is not the place
of the ascension, is certain from the words of St. Luke, who says that
our Lord led out his disciples as far as Bethany, and lifted up his
hands, and blessed them. And it came to pass, while he blessed them, he
was parted from them, and carried up to heaven,” Acts i. Bethany is a
small village to the east of the Mount of Olives, on the road to
Jericho, not farther from Jerusalem than the pinnacle of the hill. There
are two roads to it; one passes over the Mount of Olives; the other,
which is the shorter and easier, winds round the eastern end, having the
greater part of the hill on the north or left hand, and on the right the
elevation called by some writers the Mount of Offence, which is,
however, very little above the valley of Jehoshaphat. The village of
Bethany is small and poor, and the cultivation of the soil is much
neglected; but it is a pleasant and somewhat romantic spot, sheltered by
Mount Olivet on the north, and abounding with trees and long grass. The
inhabitants are Arabs.
The olive is still found growing in patches at the foot of the mount to
which it gives its name; and as a spontaneous produce, uninterruptedly
resulting from the original growth of this part of the mountain, it is
impossible,” says Dr. E. D. Clarke, to view even these trees with
indifference.” Titus cut down all the wood in the neighbourhood of
Jerusalem; but there would seem to have been constantly springing up a
succession of these hardy trees. It is truly a curious and interesting
fact,” adds the learned traveller, that, during a period of little more
than two thousand years, Hebrews, Assyrians, Romans, Moslems, and
Christians, have been successively in possession of the rocky mountains
of Palestine; yet, the olive still vindicates its paternal soil, and is
found, at this day, upon the same spot which was called by the Hebrew
writers Mount Olivet and the Mount of Olives, eleven centuries before
the Christian era,” 2 Sam. xv, 30; Zech. xiv, 4.
OMEGA, the last letter in the Greek alphabet, Rev. i, 8; a title of
Christ.
OMNIPOTENCE. See ALMIGHTY.
OMNIPRESENCE, that attribute of God by which he is present in all
places. The statement of this doctrine in the inspired records, like
that of all the other attributes of God, is made in their own peculiar
tone and emphasis of majesty and sublimity. Whither shall I go from thy
Spirit, or whither shall I flee from thy presence? If I ascend up to
heaven, thou art there; if I make my bed in hell, behold thou art there;
if I take the wings of the morning, and dwell in the uttermost parts of
the sea, even there shall thy hand lead me, and thy right hand shall
hold me. Can any hide himself in secret places that I shall not see him?
Do not I fill heaven and earth, saith the Lord? Am I a God at hand,
saith the Lord, and not a God afar off?” “Thus saith the Lord, Behold,
heaven is my throne, and the earth is my footstool.” Behold, heaven, and
the heaven of heavens cannot contain thee.” “Though he dig into hell,
thence shall my hand take him; though he climb up into heaven, thence
will I bring him down; and though he hide himself in the top of Carmel,
I will search and take him out from thence.” In him we live, and move,
and have our being.” “He filleth all things.”
Some striking passages on the ubiquity of the divine presence may be
found in the writings of some of the Greek philosophers, arising out of
this notion, that God was the soul of the world; but their very
connection with this speculation, notwithstanding the imposing phrase
occasionally adopted, strikingly marks the difference between their most
exalted views, and those of the Hebrew prophets on this subject. To a
large proportion of those who hold a distinguished rank among the
ancient theistical philosophers, the idea of the personality of the
Deity was in a great measure unknown. The Deity by them was considered
not so much an intelligent Being, as an animating power, diffused
throughout the world, and was introduced into their speculative system
to account for the motion of that passive mass of matter, which was
supposed coëval, and indeed coëxistent, with himself. These defective
notions are confessed by Gibbon, a writer not disposed to undervalue
their attainments: The philosophers of Greece deduced their morals from
the nature of man, rather than from that of God. They meditated,
however, on the divine nature, as a very curious and important
speculation; and, in the profound inquiry, they displayed the strength
and weakness of the human understanding. Of the four most considerable
sects, the Stoics and the Platonicians endeavoured to reconcile the
jarring interests of reason and piety. They have left us the most
sublime proofs of the existence and perfections of the First Cause; but
as it was impossible for them to conceive the creation of matter, the
workman, in the Stoic philosophy, was not sufficiently distinguished
from the work; while, on the contrary, the spiritual god of Plato and
his disciples resembled more an idea than a substance.”
Similar errors have been revived in the infidel philosophy of modern
times, from Spinoza down to the later offspring of the German and French
schools. The same remark applies also to the oriental philosophy, which
presents at this day a perfect view of the boasted wisdom of ancient
Greece, which was brought to nought” by the foolishness” of apostolic
preaching. But in the Scriptures there is nothing confused in the
doctrine of the divine ubiquity. God is every where, but he is not every
thing. All things have their being in him, but he is distinct from all
things; he fills the universe, but is not mingled with it. He is the
intelligence which guides, and the power which sustains; but his
personality is preserved, and he is independent of the works of his
hands, however vast and noble. So far is his presence from being bounded
by the universe itself, that, as we are taught in the passage above
quoted from the Psalms, were it possible for us to wing our way into the
immeasurable depths and breadths of space, God would there surround us,
in as absolute a sense as that in which he is said to be about our bed
and our path in that part of the world where his will has placed us.
On this, as on all similar subjects, the Scriptures use terms which are
taken in their common-sense acceptation among mankind; and though the
vanity of the human mind disposes many to seek a philosophy in the
doctrine thus announced deeper than that which its popular terms convey,
we are bound to conclude, if we would pay but a common respect to an
admitted revelation, that, where no manifest figure of speech occurs,
the truth of the doctrine lies in the tenor of the terms by which it is
expressed. Otherwise there would be no revelation, we do not say of the
_modus_, [manner,] (for that is confessedly incomprehensible,) but of
the fact. In the case before us, the terms _presence_ and _place_ are
used according to common notions; and must be so taken, if the
Scriptures are intelligible. Metaphysical refinements are not Scriptural
doctrines, when they give to the terms chosen by the Holy Spirit an
acceptation out of their general and proper use, and make them the signs
of a perfectly distinct class of ideas; if, indeed, all distinctness of
idea is not lost in the attempt. It is therefore in the popular and
just, because Scriptural, manner, that we are to conceive of the
omnipresence of God. If we reflect upon ourselves, we may observe that
we fill but a small space, and that our knowledge or power reaches but a
little way. We can act at one time in one place only, and the sphere of
our influence is narrow at largest. Would we be witnesses to what is
done at any distance from us, or exert there our active powers, we must
remove ourselves thither. For this reason we are necessarily ignorant of
a thousand things which pass around us, incapable of attending and
managing any great variety of affairs, or performing at the same time
any number of actions, for our own good, or for the benefit of others.
Although we feel this to be the present condition of our being, and the
limited state of our intelligent and active powers, yet we can easily
conceive there may exist beings more perfect, and whose presence may
extend far and wide: any one of whom, present in what are to us various
places, at the same time, may know at once what is done in all these,
and act in all of them; and thus be able to regard and direct a variety
of affairs at the same instant: and who farther being qualified, by the
purity and activity of their nature, to pass from one place to another,
with great ease and swiftness, may thus fill a large sphere of action,
direct a great variety of affairs, confer a great number of benefits,
and observe a multitude of actions at the same time, or in so swift a
succession as to us would appear but one instant. Thus perfect we may
readily believe the angels of God.
We can farther conceive this extent of presence, and of ability for
knowledge and action, to admit of degrees of ascending perfection
approaching to infinite. And when we have thus raised our thoughts to
the idea of a being, who is not only present throughout a large empire,
but throughout our world; and not only in every part of our world, but
in every part of all the numberless suns and worlds which roll in the
starry heavens,--who is not only able to enliven and actuate the plants,
animals, and men who live upon this globe, but countless varieties of
creatures every where in an immense universe,--yea, whose presence is
not confined to the universe, immeasurable as that is by any finite
mind, but who is present every where in infinite space; and who is
therefore able to create still new worlds, and fill them with proper
inhabitants, attend, supply, and govern them all,--when we have thus
gradually raised and enlarged our conceptions, we have the best idea we
can form of the universal presence of the great Jehovah, who filleth
heaven and earth. There is no part of the universe, no portion of space,
uninhabited by God; none wherein this Being of perfect power, wisdom,
and benevolence is not essentially present. Could we with the swiftness
of a sun beam dart ourselves beyond the limits of the creation, and for
ages continue our progress in infinite space, we should still be
surrounded with the divine presence; nor ever be able to reach that
space where God is not. His presence also penetrates every part of our
world; the most solid parts of the earth cannot exclude it; for it
pierces as easily the centre of the globe as the empty air. All
creatures live and move and have their being in him. And the inmost
recesses of the human heart can no more exclude his presence, or conceal
a thought from his knowledge, than the deepest caverns of the earth.