denotes between the rivers,” and on this account Strabo says, ὅτι κεῖται
μεταξὺ τοῦ Εὐφράτου καὶ τοῦ Τίγρος, that it was situated between the
Euphrates and the Tigris.” In Scripture this country is called Aram, and
Aramea. But as Aram also signifies Syria, it is denominated Aram
Naharaim, or the Syria of the rivers. This province, which inclines from
the south-east to the north-west, commenced at 33° 20´ N. lat., and
terminated near 37° 30´ N. lat. Toward the south it extended as far as
the bend formed by the Jordan at Cunaxa, and to the wall of Semiramis
which separated it from Messene. Toward the north, it comprehended part
of Taurus and the Mesius, which lay between the Euphrates and the
Tigris. The modern name, given by the Arabs to this part, is of the same
import with the ancient appellation; they call it isle,” or, in their
language, _Al-Dgezera_. In this northern part is found Osrhoene, which
seems to have been the same place with Anthemusir. The northern part of
Mesopotamia is occupied by chains of mountains passing from north-west
to south-east, in the situation of the rivers. The central parts of
these mountains were called Singaræ Montes. The principal rivers were
Chaboras, (Al Kabour,) which commenced at Charræ, (Harran,) east of the
mountains, and discharged itself into the Euphrates at Circesium
(Kirkisieh;) the Mygdonius, (Hanali,) the source of which was near
Nisibis, and its termination in the Chaboras. The principal towns in the
eastern part along the Tigris and near it, are Nisibis, (Nisibin,)
Bezabde, (Zabda,) Singora, (Sindja,) Labbana on the Tigris, (Mosul,)
Hatru, (Harder,) and Apamea-Mesenes. At some distance to the south, upon
the Tigris and on the borders of Mesopotamia, was the town of Antiochia,
near which commenced the wall that passed from the Tigris to the
Euphrates, under the name of _Murus Mediæ_, or Semiramidis. In the
western part were Edessa, called also Callin-Rhæ, (Orfa,) Charræ,
(Harran,) Nicephorium, (Racca,) Circesium at the mouth of the Chaboras,
Anatho, (Anah,) Neharda, (Hadith Unnour,) upon the right of the
Euphrates. There are several other towns of less importance. According
to Strabo, this country was fertile in vines, and afforded abundance of
good wine. According to Ptolemy, Mesopotamia had on the north a part of
Armenia, on the west the Euphrates on the side of Syria, on the east the
Tigris on the borders of Assyria, and on the south the Euphrates which
joined the Tigris. Mesopotamia was a satrapy under the kings of Syria.
In the earliest accounts we have of this country, subsequent to the time
of Abraham, it was subject to a king, called Cushan-Rishathaim, then
perhaps the most powerful potentate of the east, and the first by whom
the Israelites were made captive, which happened soon after the death of
Joshua, and about B. C. 1400, Judges iii, 8. The name of this king
bespeaks him a descendant of Nimrod; and it was probably of the Lower
Mesopotamia only, or Babylonia, of which he was sovereign; the northern
parts being in the possession of the Arameans. This is implied in the
history of Abraham; who, when ordered to depart from his country,
namely, Chaldea, in the southern part of Mesopotamia, removed to
Charran, still in Mesopotamia, but beyond the boundary of the Chaldees,
and in the territory of Aram. About four hundred years after
Cushan-Rishathaim, we find the northern parts of Mesopotamia in the
hands of the Syrians of Zobah; as we are told, in 2 Sam. x, that
Hadarezer, king of Zobah, after his defeat by Joab, sent and brought out
the Syrians that were beyond the river” Euphrates. The whole country was
afterward seized by the Assyrians; to whom it pertained till the
dissolution of their empire, when it was divided between the Medes and
the Babylonians. It subsequently formed a part of the Medo-Persian,
second Syrian or Macedonian, and Parthian empires, as it does at the
present day of the modern Persian. The southern part of Mesopotamia
answers nearly to the country anciently called the land of Shinar; to
which the Prophet Daniel, i, 2, refers, and Zechariah v, 11.
On the fifth or sixth day after leaving Aleppo,” says Campbell in his
_Overland Journey to India_, “we arrived at the city of Diarbeker, the
capital of the province of that name; having passed over an extent of
country of between three and four hundred miles, most of it blessed with
the greatest fertility, and abounding with as rich pastures as I ever
beheld, covered with numerous herds and flocks. The air was charmingly
temperate in the day time, but, to my feeling, extremely cold at night.
Yet notwithstanding the extreme fertility of this country, the bad
administration of government, conspiring with the indolence of the
inhabitants, leaves it unpeopled and uncultivated. Diarbeker Proper,
called also Mesopotamia from its lying between two famous rivers, and by
Moses called PADANARAM, that is, ‘_the fruitful Syria_,’ abounds with
corn, wine, oil, fruits, and all the necessaries of life. It is supposed
to have been the seat of the earthly paradise; and all geographers agree
that here the descendants of Noah settled immediately after the flood.
To be treading that ground which Abraham trod, where Nahor the father of
Rebecca lived, where holy Job breathed the pure air of piety and
simplicity, and where Laban the father-in-law of Jacob resided, was to
me a circumstance productive of delightful sensations. As I rode along,
I have often mused upon the contemptible stratagems to which I was
reduced, in order to get through this country, for no other reason than
because I was a Christian; and I could not avoid reflecting with sorrow
on the melancholy effects of superstition, and regretting that this fine
tract of country, which ought to be considered above all others as the
universal inheritance of mankind, should now be cut off from all except
a horde of senseless bigots, barbarous fanatics, and inflexible
tyrants.”
MESSIAH. The Greek word Χριϛὸς, from whence comes _Christ_ and
_Christian_, exactly answers to the Hebrew _Messiah_, which signifies
him that hath received unction, a prophet, a king, or a priest. See
JESUS CHRIST.
Our Lord warned his disciples that false messiahs should arise, Matt.
xxiv, 24; and the event has verified the prediction. No less than
twenty-four false Christs have arisen in different places and at
different times: Caziba was the first of any note who made a noise in
the world. Being dissatisfied with the state of things under Adrian, he
set himself up as the head of the Jewish nation, and proclaimed himself
their long expected messiah. He was one of those banditti that infested
Judea, and committed all kinds of violence against the Romans; and had
become so powerful that he was chosen king of the Jews, and by them
acknowledged their messiah. However, to facilitate the success of this
bold enterprise, he changed his name from Caziba, which it was at first,
to that of Barchocheba, alluding to the star foretold by Balaam; for he
pretended to be the star sent from heaven to restore his nation to its
ancient liberty and glory. He chose a forerunner, raised an army, was
anointed king, coined money inscribed with his own name, and proclaimed
himself messiah and prince of the Jewish nation. Adrian raised an army,
and sent it against him; he retired into a town called Bither, where he
was besieged. Barchocheba was killed in the siege, the city was taken,
and a dreadful havoc succeeded. The Jews themselves allow, that, during
this short war against the Romans in defence of this false messiah, they
lost five or six hundred thousand souls. This was in the former part of
the second century. In the reign of Theodosius the younger, A. D. 434,
another impostor arose, called Moses Cretensis. He pretended to be a
second Moses, sent to deliver the Jews who dwelt in Crete, and promised
to divide the sea, and give them a safe passage through it. Their
delusion proved so strong and universal, that they neglected their
lands, houses, and other concerns, and took only so much with them as
they could conveniently carry. And on the day appointed, this false
Moses, having led them to the top of a rock, men, women, and children
threw themselves headlong down into the sea, without the least
hesitation or reluctance, till so great a number of them were drowned as
opened the eyes of the rest, and made them sensible of the cheat. They
then began to look for their pretended leader; but he had disappeared,
and escaped out of their hands. In the reign of Justin, about A. D. 520,
another impostor appeared, who called himself the son of Moses. His name
was Dunaan. He entered into a city of Arabia Felix, and there he greatly
oppressed the Christians; but he was taken prisoner, and put to death by
Elesban, an Ethiopian general. The Jews and Samaritans rebelled against
the Emperor Justinian, A. D. 529, and set up one Julian for their king,
and accounted him the messiah. The emperor sent an army against them,
killed great numbers of them, took their pretended messiah prisoner, and
immediately put him to death. In the time of Leo Isaurus, about A. D.
721, arose another false messiah in Spain; his name was Serenus. He drew
great numbers after him, to their no small loss and disappointment; but
all his pretensions came to nothing. The twelfth century was fruitful in
messiahs. About A. D. 1137, there appeared one in France, who was put to
death, and numbers of those who followed him. In A. D. 1138, the
Persians were disturbed with a Jew, who called himself the messiah. He
collected a vast army; but he too was put to death, and his followers
treated with great inhumanity. A false messiah stirred up the Jews at
Corduba in Spain, A. D. 1157. The wiser and better sort looked upon him
as a madman, but the great body of the Jews in the nation believed in
him. On this occasion nearly all the Jews in Spain were destroyed.
Another false messiah arose in the kingdom of Fez, A. D. 1167, which
brought great troubles and persecutions upon the Jews that were
scattered throughout that country. In the same year, an Arabian
professed to be the messiah, and pretended to work miracles. When search
was made for him, his followers fled, and he was brought before the
Arabian king. Being questioned by him, he replied, that he was a prophet
sent from God. The king then asked him what sign he could show to
confirm his mission. Cut off my head,” said he, and I will return to
life again.” The king took him at his word, promising to believe him if
his prediction was accomplished. The poor wretch, however, never came to
life again, and the cheat was sufficiently discovered. Those who had
been deluded by him were grievously punished, and the nation condemned
to a very heavy fine. Not long after this, a Jew who dwelt beyond the
Euphrates, called himself the messiah, and drew vast multitudes of
people after him. He gave this for a sign of it, that he had been
leprous, and had been cured in the course of one night. He, like the
rest, perished, and brought great persecution on his countrymen. A
magician and false christ arose in Persia, A. D. 1174, who seduced many
of the common people, and brought the Jews into great tribulation.
Another of these impostors arose, A. D. 1176, in Moravia, who was called
David Almusser. He pretended he could make himself invisible; but he was
soon taken and put to death, and a heavy fine laid upon the Jews. A
famous cheat and rebel exerted himself in Persia, A. D. 1199, called
David el David. He was a man of learning, a great magician, and
pretended to be the messiah. He raised an army against the king, but was
taken and imprisoned; and, having made his escape, was afterward retaken
and beheaded. Vast numbers of the Jews were butchered for taking part
with this impostor. Rabbi Lemlem, a German Jew of Austria, declared
himself a forerunner of the messiah, A. D. 1500, and pulled down his own
oven, promising his brethren that they should bake their bread in the
holy land next year. A false christ arose in the East Indies, A. D.
1615, and was greatly followed by the Portuguese Jews who are scattered
over that country. Another in the Low Countries declared himself to be
the messiah of the family of David, and of the line of Nathan, A. D.
1624. He promised to destroy Rome, and to overthrow the kingdom of
antichrist, and the Turkish empire. In A. D. 1666, appeared the false
messiah Sabatai Tzevi, who made a great noise, and gained a great number
of proselytes. He was born at Aleppo, and imposed on the Jews for a
considerable time; but afterward, with a view of saving his life, he
turned Mohammedan, and was at last beheaded. The last false christ that
made any considerable number of converts was one rabbi Mordecai, a Jew
of Germany: he appeared, A. D. 1682. It was not long before he was found
out to be an impostor, and was obliged to flee from Italy to Poland to
save his life: what became of him afterward does not seem to be
recorded.
METEMPSYCHOSIS, the doctrine of the transmigration of souls into other
bodies. This tenet has been attributed to the sect of the Pharisees.
Josephus, who was himself a Pharisee, gives this account of their
doctrine in these points: Every soul is immortal; those of the good only
enter into another body, but those of the bad are tormented with
everlasting punishment.” From whence it has been pretty generally
concluded, that the resurrection they held was only a Pythagorean one,
namely, the transmigration of the soul into another body; from which
they excluded all that were notoriously wicked, who were doomed at once
to eternal punishment; but their opinion was, that those who were guilty
only of lesser crimes were punished for them in the bodies into which
their souls were next sent. It is also supposed, that it was upon this
notion the disciples asked our Lord, Did this man sin, or his parents,
that he was born blind?” John ix, 2; and that some said, Christ was John
the Baptist, some Elias, others Jeremias, or one of the prophets,” Matt.
xvi, 14. The transmigration of souls into other bodies was undoubtedly
the opinion of the Pythagoreans and Platonists, and was embraced by some
among the Jews; as by the author of the Book of Wisdom, who says, that
being good, he came into a body undefiled,” viii, 20. Nevertheless, it
is questioned by some persons, whether the words of Josephus, before
quoted, are a sufficient evidence of this doctrine of the metempsychosis
being received by the whole sect of the Pharisees; for passing into
another or different body,” may only denote its receiving a body at the
resurrection; which will be another, not in substance, but in quality;
as it is said of Christ at his transfiguration, το ειδος του προσωπου
αυτου ἑτερον, the fashion of his countenance was” another, or, as we
render it, was altered,” Luke ix, 29. As to the opinion which some
entertained concerning our Saviour, that he was either John the Baptist,
or Elias, or Jeremias, or one of the prophets, Matt. xvi, 14, it is not
ascribed to the Pharisees in particular, and if it were, one cannot see
how it could be founded on the doctrine of the metempsychosis; since the
soul of Elias, now inhabiting the body of Jesus, would no more make him
to be Elias, than several others had been, in whose bodies the soul of
Elias, according to this doctrine, is supposed to have dwelt since the
death of that ancient prophet, near a thousand years before. Beside, how
was it possible any person that saw Christ, who did not appear to be
less than thirty years old, should, according to the notion of the
metempsychosis, conceive him to be John the Baptist, who had been so
lately beheaded? Surely this apprehension must be grounded on the
supposition of a proper resurrection. It was probably, therefore, upon
the same account, that others took him to be Elias, and others Jeremias.
Accordingly, St. Luke expresses it thus: Others say, that one of the old
prophets is risen from the dead,” Luke ix, 19. It may farther be
observed, that the doctrine of the resurrection, which St. Paul
preached, was not a present metempsychosis, but a real future
resurrection, which he calls the hope and resurrection of the dead,”
Acts xxiii, 6. This he professed as a Pharisee, and for this profession
the partisans of that sect vindicated him against the Sadducees, Acts
xxiii, 7–9. Upon the whole, therefore, it appears most reasonable to
adopt the opinion of Reland, though in opposition to the sentiments of
many other learned men, that the Pharisees held the doctrine of the
resurrection in a proper sense.
METHODISTS, a name given in derision at different times to religious
persons and parties which have appeared in this country; but which now
principally designates the followers of the Rev. John Wesley. The
societies raised up by the instrumentality of the Rev. George Whitefield
were also called Methodists, and in Wales especially are still known by
that appellation. For distinction’s sake, therefore, and also because a
number of smaller sects have broken off from the Methodist societies
since Mr. Wesley’s death, the religious body which he raised up and left
organized under his rules, have of late been generally denominated the
WESLEYAN METHODISTS. In the year 1729, Mr. John Wesley, being then
fellow of Lincoln College, began to spend some evenings in reading the
Greek Testament with Charles Wesley, student, and Mr. Morgan, commoner
of Christ Church, and Mr. Kirkham, of Merton College. Not long after,
two or three of the pupils of Mr. John Wesley, and one pupil of Mr.
Charles Wesley, obtained leave to attend these meetings. They then began
to visit the sick in different parts of the town, and the prisoners
also, who were confined in the castle. Two years after, they were joined
by Mr. Ingham, of Queen’s College, Mr. Broughton, and Mr. Hervey; and in
1735, by the celebrated Mr. George Whitefield, then in his eighteenth
year. At this time their number in Oxford amounted to about fourteen.
They obtained the name of Methodists, from the exact regularity of their
lives, and the manner of spending their time. In October, 1735, John and
Charles Wesley, Mr. Ingham, and Mr. Delamotte, son of a merchant in
London, embarked for Georgia, having been engaged by the trustees of
that colony as chaplains; but their ultimate design was to preach the
Gospel to the Indians. No favourable opportunity offering itself for
this pious work, and the strict and faithful preaching of the Wesleys
having involved them in much persecution, and many disputes with the
colonists, they returned to England, Mr. Charles Wesley in 1737, Mr.
John Wesley in 1738. On the passage to America, and while in Georgia,
Mr. John had met with several pious Moravians; whose doctrines of
justification by faith alone, conscious pardon of sin, and peace with
God, confirmed by their own calmness in danger and freedom from the fear
of death, greatly impressed him. On his return to England, he was more
fully instructed in these views by Bohler, a Moravian minister; and
having proved their truth in his own experience, he began to preach in
the churches of the metropolis, and other places, and then in rooms,
fields, and streets, the doctrine of salvation by faith. In this his
brother Charles was his zealous coadjutor; and the effect was the
awakening of great multitudes to a religious concern, and the
commencement of a great revival of religion throughout the land, which
has in its effects extended itself to the most distant parts of the
world. At the time of Mr. Wesley’s death, the societies in connection
with him in Europe, America, and the West Indies, amounted to eighty
thousand members; they are now [1831] upward of three hundred thousand,
beside about half a million in the United States of America, who since
the acquisition of independence by that country have formed a separate
church. The rules of this religious society were drawn up by Messrs.
John and Charles Wesley in 1743, and continue to be in force. They state
the nature and design of a Methodist society in the following words:
“Such a society is no other than a company of men, having the form and
seeking the power of godliness: united, in order to pray together, to
receive the word of exhortation, and to watch over one another in love,
that they may help each other to work out their own salvation. That it
may the more easily be discerned whether they are indeed working out
their own salvation, each society is divided into smaller companies,
called classes, according to their respective places of abode. There are
about twelve persons, sometimes fifteen, twenty, or even more, in each
class; one of whom is styled the leader. It is his business, 1. To see
each person in his class once a week, at least, in order to inquire how
their souls prosper; to advise, reprove, comfort, or exhort, as occasion
may require; to receive what they are willing to give to the poor, or
toward the support of the Gospel. 2. To meet the minister and the
stewards of the society once a week, to inform the minister of any that
are sick, or of any that walk disorderly and will not be reproved; to
pay to the stewards what they have received of their several classes in
the week preceding; and to show their account of what each person has
contributed. There is only one condition previously required of those
who desire admission into these societies, namely, a desire to flee from
the wrath to come; to be saved from their sins: but wherever this is
really fixed in the soul, it will be shown by its fruits. It is
therefore expected of all who continue therein, that they should
continue to evidence their desire of salvation, 1. By doing no harm; by
avoiding evil in every kind, especially that which is most generally
practised, such as taking the name of God in vain; profaning the day of
the Lord, either by doing ordinary work thereon, or by buying or
selling; drunkenness; buying and selling spirituous liquors, or drinking
them, unless in cases of extreme necessity; fighting, quarrelling,
brawling; brother going to law with brother; returning evil for evil, or
railing for railing; the using many words in buying or selling; the
buying or selling uncustomed goods; the giving or taking things on
usury, that is, unlawful interest; uncharitable or unprofitable
conversation, particularly speaking evil of magistrates or of ministers;
doing to others as we would not they should do unto us; doing what we
know is not for the glory of God, as the putting on of gold or costly
apparel; the taking such diversions as cannot be used in the name of the
Lord Jesus; singing those songs, or reading those books, which do not
tend to the knowledge or love of God; softness, or needless
self-indulgence; laying up treasure upon earth; borrowing without a
probability of paying; or taking up goods, without a probability of
paying for them. It is expected of all who continue in these societies,
that they should continue to evidence their desire of salvation, 2. By
doing good; by being in every kind merciful after their power, as they
have opportunity; doing good of every possible sort, and, as far as
possible, to all men; to their bodies, of the ability which God giveth,
by giving food to the hungry, by clothing the naked, by visiting or
helping them that are sick or in prison; to their souls, by instructing,
reproving, or exhorting all we have any intercourse with; trampling
under foot that enthusiastic doctrine of devils,--that we are not to do
good unless our hearts be free to it: by doing good, especially to them
that are of the household of faith, or groaning so to be; employing them
preferably to others; buying one of another; helping each other in
business, and so much the more as the world will love its own, and them
only; by all possible diligence and frugality, that the Gospel be not
blamed; by running with patience the race set before them, denying
themselves, and taking up their cross daily; submitting to bear the
reproach of Christ; to be as the filth and off-scouring of the world,
and looking that men should say all manner of evil of them falsely for
the Lord’s sake. It is expected of all who continue in these societies,
that they should continue to evidence their desire of salvation, 3. By
attending on all the ordinances of God: such are, the public worship of
God; the ministry of the word either read or expounded; the supper of
the Lord; family and private prayer; searching the Scriptures, and
fasting and abstinence. These are the general rules of our societies,
all which we are taught of God to observe, even in his written word, the
only rule, and the sufficient rule, both of our faith and practice; and
all these we know his Spirit writes on every truly awakened heart. If
there be any among us who observe them not, who habitually breaks any of
them, let it be made known to them who watch over that soul, as they
that must give an account. We will admonish him of the error of his
ways; we will bear with him for a season; but then, if he repent not, he
hath no more place among us: we have delivered our own souls.”
The effect produced by the preaching of the two brothers in various
parts of the kingdom, and those frequently the most populous and rude,
rendered it necessary to call out preachers to their assistance, and
especially since the clergy generally remained negligent, and rather
opposed and persecuted, than encouraged, the Wesleys in their endeavours
to effect a national reformation. The association of preachers with
themselves in the work led to an annual meeting of the ministers, then
and since called the conference. The first conference was held in June
1744, at which Mr. Wesley met his brother, two or three other clergymen,
and a few of the preachers, whom he had appointed to come from various
parts, to confer with them on the affairs of the societies. Monday, June
25,” observes Mr. Wesley, and the five following days, we spent in
conference with our preachers, seriously considering by what means we
might the most effectually save our own souls, and them that heard us;
and the result of our consultations we set down to be the rule of our
future practice.” Since that time a conference has been annually held;
Mr. Wesley himself having presided at forty-seven. The subjects of their
deliberations were proposed in the form of questions, which were amply
discussed; and the questions, with the answers agreed upon, were
afterward printed under the title of Minutes of several Conversations
between the Rev. Mr. Wesley and others,” commonly called Minutes of
Conference.