of Judah, having received permission from Cyrus to return to their
native country, not only occupied the former territories of that
kingdom, but extended themselves over great part of what had belonged to
the ten tribes of the kingdom of Israel; and then, for the first time,
gave the name of Judea to the whole country over which they had again
established their dominion. The same name was given to that kingdom as
possessed by Herod the Great under the Romans; but, in the enumeration
of the provinces of the empire, it was recognised only by the name of
Palestine. All traces of its ancient division among the twelve tribes
were now abolished, and it was distributed into four provinces; namely,
Judea Proper in the south, Galilee in the north, Samaria in the centre,
and Peræa on the east of the river Jordan. Judea Proper, situated in 31°
40´ north latitude, was bounded on the north by Samaria, on the west by
the Mediterranean, on the east by the river Jordan, on the south by
Arabia Petræa; and comprised the ancient settlements of Judah, Benjamin,
Dan, and Simeon, with Philistia and Idumea. It is divided by Josephus
into eleven toparchies, and by Pliny into ten; but these subdivisions
are little noticed by ancient writers, and their boundaries are very
imperfectly ascertained. The principal places in the north-east quarter
of the province were Jerusalem, the capital, which was entirely
destroyed in the reign of Hadrian, and replaced by a new city named
Ælia, a little farther north, which is now the site of the modern
Jerusalem; Jericho, the city of palm trees, about nineteen miles
eastward of Jerusalem, and eight from the river Jordan; Phaselis, built
by Herod in memory of his brother, fifteen miles north-west of Jericho;
Archelais, built by Archelaus, ten miles north of Jericho; Gophna,
fifteen miles north of Jerusalem, in the road to Sichem; Bethel, twelve
miles north of Jerusalem, originally called Luz; Gilgal, about one mile
and a half from Jericho; Engeddi, a hundred furlongs south south-east of
Jericho, near the northern extremity of the Dead Sea; Masada, a strong
fortress built by Judas Maccabeus, the last refuge of the Jews after the
fall of Jerusalem; Ephraim, a small town westward of Jericho; Anathoth,
a Levitical town, nearly four miles north of Jerusalem. In the
south-east quarter of the province were situated Bethlehem, or Ephrath,
about six miles south from the capital; Bethzur, now St. Philip, a
strong place on the road to Hebron, ten miles south of Jerusalem; Ziph,
a small town between Hebron and the Dead Sea; Zoar, at the southern
extremity of the Dead Sea, near the situation of Sodom; Hebron, formerly
Kirjath-arba, a very ancient town in a hilly country, twenty-five miles
south of the capital; Arad, about twenty-four miles southward from
Hebron, and near the Ascensus Avrabim, or Scorpion Mountains, on the
border of Arabia Petræa; and Thamar, on the southern limit of the
province, near the south extremity of the Dead Sea. In the north-west
quarter were Bethshemesh, or Heliopolis, a Levitical city, about ten
miles west of the capital; Rama, six miles north from Jerusalem; Emmaus,
a village eight miles north north-west from Jerusalem, afterward called
Nicopolis, in consequence of a victory gained by Vespasian over the
revolted Jews; Bethoron, a populous Levitical city on the road to Lydda,
a few miles north-west of Emmaus; Kirjath-jearim, on the road to Joppa,
nine miles westward from the capital; Lydda, now Lod, and called by the
Greeks Diospolis, about twelve miles east of Joppa; Ramla, supposed to
be the same as Arimathea, about five miles south-west of Lydda; Joppa, a
maritime town, now Jaffa, about twelve leagues north-west of Jerusalem;
Jabne, a walled sea-port town between Joppa and Azotus; and Ekron, a
town on the north boundary of the Philistines. In the south-west quarter
of Judea were Gath, about twenty miles west from Jerusalem, near to
which were the city of Eleutheropolis, a flourishing place in the second
century; Makkedah, a strong place, eight miles north-east from
Eleutheropolis; Bersabe, or Beersheba, about twenty-six miles south from
Eleutheropolis; Gerar, between Beersheba and the sea coast; Azotus, or
Ashdod, to the west of Eleutheropolis, within a few miles of the sea,
and the seat of a bishop in the first ages of the Christian church;
Ascalon, a considerable maritime town, above forty-three miles
south-west of Jerusalem; Gaza, fifteen miles southward from Ascalon; and
Raphia, between Gaza and Rhinocurura, remarkable for a great battle in
its neighbourhood, in which Philopater, king of Egypt, defeated
Antiochus, king of Syria.
Samaria, lying between Judea and Galilee, in 32° 15´ north latitude,
extended along the sea coast from Joppa to Dora, and along the river
Jordan from the rivulet of Alexandrium to the southern extremity of the
sea of Tiberias; comprehending the territory of the tribe of Ephraim, of
the half tribe of Manasseh, and part of Issachar. Its principal cities
were Samaria, the capital of the kingdom of Israel, north of Sichem, and
equally distant from Jordan and the sea coast, afterward named Sebaste
by Herod, in honour of Augustus; Jezrael, or Esdraelon, about four
leagues north from Samaria; Sichem, or Sychar, called by the Romans
Neapolis, eight miles south of Samaria, in a valley between the
mountains Gerizim and Ebal; Bethsan, called by the Greek writers
Scythopolis, about twenty miles north-east of Sichem; Cæsarea of
Palestine, anciently called Turris Stratonis, greatly enlarged by Herod,
and long the principal city of the province, about nineteen leagues
north north-west from Jerusalem; Dora, now Tartura, nine miles north
from Cæsarea, on the road to Tyre; Apollonia, now Arzuf, on the sea
coast, twenty-two miles south of Cæsarea; and Hadadrimmon, afterward
called Maximianopolis, about seventeen miles eastward of Cæsarea.
Galilæa, in 33° north latitude, bounded on the south by Samaria, on the
west by the Mediterranean, on the north by Syria, on the east by the
river Jordan and the lake Gennesareth, comprehended the possessions of
Asher, Naphtali, and Zabulon, with part of the allotment of Issachar.
The northern division of the province was thinly inhabited by Jews, and
was sometimes called Galilee of the Gentiles; but the southern portion
was very populous. Its principal towns were Capernaum, at the northern
extremity of the lake of Gennesareth; Bethsaida, a considerable village
a few leagues south of Capernaum; Cinnereth, south of Bethsaida, rebuilt
by Herod Antipas, and named Tiberias; Tarichæa, a considerable town at
the efflux of the river Jordan from the sea of Tiberias, thirty stadia
south from the town of Tiberias; Nazareth, two leagues north-west of
Mount Tabor, and equally distant from the lake of Gennesareth and the
sea coast; Arbela, six miles west of Nazareth; Sepphoris, or
Dio-Cæsarea, now Sefouri, a large and well fortified town, about five
leagues north north-west of Mount Tabor; Zabulon, a strong and populous
place, sixty stadia south-east of Ptolemais; Acre, or Accon, seven miles
north from the promontory of Carmel, afterward enlarged and called
Ptolemais by Ptolemy I., of Egypt, and in the time of the crusades
distinguished by the name of Acre, the last city possessed by the
Christians in Syria, and was taken and destroyed by the Sultan Serapha,
of Egypt, in 1291; Kedes, or Cydissus, a Levitical city at the foot of
Mount Panium, twenty miles south-east of Tyre; Dan, originally Laish, on
the north boundary of the Holy Land, about thirty miles south-east of
Sidon; Paneas, near to Dan, or, according to some, only a different name
for the same place, was repaired by Philip, son of Herod the Great, and
by him named Cæsarea, in honour of Augustus, with the addition of
Philippi, to distinguish it from the other town of the same name in
Samaria; Jotapata, the strongest town in Galilee, about four leagues
north north-east of Dio-Cæsarea; and Japha and Gischala, two other
fortified places in the same district.
Peræa, though the name would denote any extent of country beyond Jordan,
is more particularly applied to that district in 32° north latitude,
which formerly composed the territories of Sihon, the Amorite, and Og,
king of Bashan; extending from the river Arnon (which flows through an
extensive plain into the Dead Sea) to the mount of Gilead, where the
Jordan issues from the sea of Tiberias; and which fell to the lot of the
tribes of Reuben and Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh. This province
was about sixty miles from north to south, and forty from east to west.
The principal places were Penuel, on the left of the Jabbok, which forms
the northern border of the country; Succoth, on the banks of the Jordan,
a little farther south; Bethabara, a little below Succoth, where was a
place of passage over the river; Amathus, afterward named Assalt, a
strong town below the influx of the torrent Jazer; Livias, between Mount
Nebo and the northern extremity of the Dead Sea, a town which was so
named by Herod, in honour of Livia, the wife of Augustus; Machærus, a
citadel on a steep rock, south of Livias, near the upper end of the Dead
Sea; Lasa, or Calle-rhoe, celebrated for its hot springs, between
Machærus and the river Arnon; Herodium, a fort built by Herod a few
miles farther inland, as a protection against the Moabites; Aroer, a
town of Moab, seven leagues east of the Dead Sea; Castra Amonensia, a
Roman station, supposed to be the ancient Mephoath, seven leagues
north-east of Aroer; Hesbon, or Esbus, the capital of Sihon, anciently
famed for its fish pools, seven leagues east from the Jordan, three from
Mount Nebo, and nearly in the centre of the province; Madaba, now
El-Belkaa, three leagues south-east of Hesbon; Jazer, or Tira, a
Levitical city on a small lake, five leagues north-east of Hesbon. To
the south of Peræa lies a territory called Moabites, the capital of
which was Rabbath-Moab, afterward named Areopolis; and to the south-west
of which was Charac-Moab, or Karak, a fortress on the summit of a hill,
at the entrance of a deep valley.
To the north of Peræa were situated several districts, which, as forming
part of the kingdom of Judea under Herod the Great, require to be
briefly noticed in this account; and which do properly come under the
general name of Peræa, as being situated on the eastward of the river
Jordan. These were Galaadites, or Gileadites, in 32° 20´ north latitude,
now Zarca, east from Jordan, and north from the Jabbok; containing the
cities of Ramoth-Gilead, Mahanaim, Jabesh-Gilead, at the foot of Mount
Gilead. Batanæa, anciently Basan, now Bitinia, in 32° 25´ north
latitude, formerly celebrated for its oaks and pastures, was situated to
the north of Galaadites, and contained the cities of Adrea, or Edrei,
Astaroth, and Bathyra. Gaulonitis, a narrow strip of land between
Batanæa and the shore of the sea of Tiberias, stretching northward to
Mount Hermon, and containing Gamala, a strong town near the southern
extremity of the sea of Tiberias; Argob, between this sea and Mount
Hippos; Julias, supposed to be the same as Chorazin, and by others to be
Bethsaida; and Seleuca, a fortified place on the east border of Lacus
Samochonitis. Auranitis, or Ituræa, a mountainous and barren tract north
of Batanæa, and bounded on the west by a branch of Mount Hermon,
contained Bostra, or Bozra, about fifty miles east from the sea of
Tiberias, bordering on Arabia Petræa, afterward enlarged by Trajan, and
named Trajana Bostra; and Trachonitis, in 33° 15´ north latitude,
between Hermon and Antilibanus, eastward from the sources of Jordan, and
containing Baalgad, Mispah, Paneas, or Cæsarea Philippi, and Ænos,
nearly twenty-five miles east of Panæas, and as far south south-west of
Damascus. There remains to be noticed the Decapolis, or confederation of
ten cities in the last mentioned districts, which having been occupied
during the Babylonish captivity by Heathen inhabitants, refused to adopt
the Mosaic ritual after the restoration of the Jews, and found it
necessary to unite their strength against the enterprises of the
Asmonean princes. One of them, namely, Scythopolis, already described in
the account of Samaria, was situated to the west of Jordan; but the
other nine were all to the east of that river, namely, Gadara, or Kedar,
a strong place on a hill, the capital of Peræa in the time of Josephus,
about sixty stadia east from the sea of Tiberias, and much frequented
for its hot baths: Hippos, sometimes called Susitha, thirty stadia
north-west of Gadara; Dium, or Dion, of which the situation is unknown,
but conjectured by D’Anville to have been about seven leagues eastward
from Pella, a considerable town supplied with copious fountains, on the
river Jabbok, fourteen miles south-east of Gadara, and celebrated as the
place to which the Christians retired, by divine admonition, before the
destruction of Jerusalem; Canatha, south-east of Cæsarea, and between
the Jordan and Mount Hermon; Garasa, afterward Jaras, three leagues
north-east from the upper extremity of the sea of Tiberias, and much
noted during the crusades; Rabbath-Ammon, the capital of the Ammonites,
south-east of Ramoth, and near the source of the Jabbok, on the confines
of Arabia, afterward called Philadelphia by Ptolemy Philadelphus, from
whom it had received considerable improvements, of which the ruins are
still visible; Abila, four leagues east from Gadara, in a fertile tract
between the river Hieromax and Mount Gilead; and Capitolais, a town in
Batanæa, five or six leagues east north-east of Gadara.
JUDEA, WILDERNESS OF, a wild and desert country along the southern
course of the river Jordan, east of Jerusalem; that which by St. Matthew
is called the wilderness of Judea, being described by St. Luke as “all
the country about Jordan;” from whence this wilderness extended
southward along the western side of the Dead Sea. This is a stony and
desolate region, of hopeless sterility, and most savage aspect;
consisting almost entirely of disordered piles of rocks, and rocky
mountains. This was the wilderness in which John first preached and
baptized, and into which our Lord, after his own baptism, was led by the
Spirit to be tempted, Matthew iv; Luke iv. Here, also, the mountain was
situated which formed the scene of one of the most striking parts of
this temptation. Maundrell describes this region as a most miserable,
dry, and barren place; consisting of high rocky mountains, so torn and
disordered, as if the earth had here suffered some great convulsion. Mr.
Buckingham, who visited the same part in 1816, says, “As we proceeded to
the northward, we had on our left a lofty peak of the range of hills
which border the plain of the Jordan on the west, and ended in this
direction the mountains of Judea. This peak is considered to be that to
which Jesus was transported by the devil during his fast of forty days
in the wilderness; ‘after which he was an hungered.’ Nothing can be more
forbidding than the aspect of these hills; not a blade of verdure is to
be seen over all their surface, and not the sound of any living being is
to be heard throughout all their extent. They form, indeed, a most
appropriate scene for that wilderness in which the Son of God is said to
have dwelt with the wild beasts, ‘while the angels ministered unto
him.’”
JUDGES is applied to certain eminent persons chosen by God himself to
govern the Jews from the time of Joshua till the establishment of the
kings. For the nature and duration of their office, and the powers with
which they were invested, see JEWS. The judges were not ordinary
magistrates, but were appointed by God on extraordinary occasions; as to
head the armies, to deliver the people from their enemies, &c. Salian
has observed, that they not only presided in courts of justice, but were
also at the head of the councils, the armies, and of every thing that
concerned the government of the state; though they never assumed the
title either of princes, governors, or the like.
Salian remarks seven points wherein they differed from kings: 1. They
were not hereditary. 2. They had no absolute power of life and death,
but only according to the laws, and dependently upon them. 3. They never
undertook war at their own pleasure, but only when they were commanded
by God, or called to it by the people. 4. They exacted no tribute. 5.
They did not succeed each other immediately, but after the death of one
there was frequently an interval of several years before a successor was
appointed. 6. They did not use the ensigns of sovereignty, the sceptre
or diadem. 7. They had no authority to make any laws, but were only to
take care of the observance of those of Moses. Godwin, in his “Moses and
Aaron,” compares them to the Roman dictators, who were appointed only on
extraordinary emergencies, as in case of war abroad, or conspiracies at
home, and whose power, while they continued in office, was great, and
even absolute. Thus the Hebrew judges seem to have been appointed only
in cases of national trouble and danger. This was the case particularly
with respect to Othniel, Ehud, and Gideon. The power of the judges,
while in office, was very great; nor does it seem to have been limited
to a certain time, like that of the Roman dictators, which continued for
half a year; nevertheless, it is reasonable to suppose, that, when they
had performed the business for which they were appointed, they retired
to a private life. This Godwin infers from Gideon’s refusing to take
upon him the perpetual government of Israel, as being inconsistent with
the theocracy.
Beside these superior judges, every city in the commonwealth had its
elders, who formed a court of judicature, with a power of determining
lesser matters in their respective districts. The rabbies say, there
were three such elders or judges in each lesser city, and twenty-three
in the greater. But Josephus, whose authority has greater weight, speaks
of seven judges in each, without any such distinction of greater and
less. Sigonius supposes that these elders and judges of cities were the
original constitution settled in the wilderness by Moses, upon the
advice given him by Jethro, Exod. xviii, 21, 22, and continued by divine
appointment after the settlement in the land of Canaan; whereas others
imagine that the Jethronian prefectures were a peculiar constitution,
suited to their condition while encamped in the wilderness, but laid
aside after they came into Canaan. It is certain, however, that there
was a court of judges and officers, appointed in every city, by the law
of Moses, Deut. xvi, 18. How far, and in what respects, these judges
differed from the elders of the city, it is not easy to ascertain; and
whether they were the same or different persons. Perhaps the title
elders may denote their seniority and dignity; and that of judges, the
office they sustained. The lower courts of justice, in their several
cities, were held in their gates, Deut. xvi, 15. Each tribe had its
respective prince, whose office related chiefly, if not altogether, to
military affairs. We read also of the princes of the congregation, who
presided in judiciary matters. These are called elders, and were seventy
in number, Num. xi, 16, 17, 24, 25. But it does not appear whether or
not this consistory of seventy elders was a perpetual, or only a
temporary, institution. Some have supposed that it was the same that
afterward became famous under the appellation of sanhedrim; but others
conceive the institution of the seventy elders to have been only
temporary, for the assistance of Moses in the government, before the
settlement in the land of Canaan; and that the sanhedrim was first set
up in the time of the Maccabees. See SANHEDRIM.
JUDGES, BOOK OF, a canonical book of the Old Testament, containing the
history of the Israelitish judges, of whom we have been speaking in the
preceding article. The author is not known. It is probable the work did
not come from any single hand, being rather a collection of several
little histories, which at first were separate, but were afterward
collected by Ezra or Samuel into a single volume; and, in all
likelihood, were taken from the ancient journals, annals, or memoirs,
composed by the several judges. The antiquity of this book is
unquestionable, as it must have been written before the time of David,
since the description, Judges i, 21, was no longer true of Jerusalem
after he had taken possession of it, and had introduced a third class of
inhabitants of the tribe of Judah. Eichorn acknowledges that it does not
bear the marks of subsequent interpolation. Dr. Patrick is of opinion
that the five last chapters are a distinct history, in which the author
gives an account of several memorable transactions, which occurred in or
about the time of the judges; whose history he would not interrupt by
intermixing these matters with it, and therefore reserved them to be
related by themselves in the second part, or appendix.
JUDGMENT, DAY OF, is that important period which shall terminate the
present dispensation of grace toward the fallen race of Adam, put an end
to time, and introduce the eternal destinies of men and angels, Acts
xvi, 31; 1 Cor. xv, 24–26; 1 Thess. iv, 14–17; Matt. xxv, 31–46. It is
in reference to this solemn period that the Apostle Peter says, “The
heavens and the earth which now exist are by the word of God reserved in
store unto fire, against the day of judgment, and perdition of ungodly
men,” 2 Peter iii, 7. Several eminent commentators understand this
prophecy as a prediction of the destruction of Jerusalem. In support of
their interpretation, they appeal to the ancient Jewish prophecies,
where, as they contend, the revolutions in the political state of
empires and nations are foretold in the same forms of expression with
those introduced in Peter’s prediction. The following are the prophecies
to which they appeal:--Isaiah xxxiv, 4, where the destruction of Idumea
is foretold under the figures of dissolving the host of heaven, and of
rolling the heaven together as a scroll, and of the falling down of all
their host as the leaf falleth off from the vine. Ezekiel xxxii, 7,
where the destruction of Egypt is described by the figures of covering
the heaven, and making the stars thereof dark; and of covering the sun
with a cloud, and of hindering the moon from giving her light. In Joel
ii, 10, the invasion of Judea by foreign armies is thus foretold: “The
earth shall quake before them; the heavens shall tremble; the sun and
the moon shall be dark, and the stars shall withdraw their shining.” And
in verses 30, 31, the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans is thus
predicted: “I will show wonders in the heavens and in the earth, blood,
and fire, and pillars of smoke. The sun shall be turned into darkness,
and the moon into blood, before the great and terrible day of the Lord
come.” God, threatening the Jews, is introduced saying, “In that day I
will cause the sun to go down at noon, and I will darken the earth in
the clear day,” Amos viii, 9. The overthrow of Judaism and Heathenism is
thus foretold: “Yet once and I will shake the heavens and the earth, and
the sea and the dry land,” Haggai ii, 6. Lastly: our Lord, in his
prophecy of the destruction of Jerusalem, has the following expressions:
“After the tribulation of those days shall the sun be darkened, and the
moon shall not give her light, and the stars shall fall from heaven, and
the powers of heaven shall be shaken,” Matt. xxiv, 29.