account of devil-worship: “These people (the Sanjacks, a nation
inhabiting the country about Mosul, the ancient Nineveh) once professed
Christianity, then Mohammedanism, and last of all devilism. They say it
is true that the devil has at present a quarrel with God; but the time
will come when, the pride of his heart being subdued, he will make his
submission to the Almighty; and, as the Deity cannot be implacable, the
devil will receive a full pardon for all his transgressions, and both
he, and all those who paid him attention during his disgrace, will be
admitted into the blessed mansions. This is the foundation of their
hope, and this chance for heaven they esteem to be a better one than
that of trusting to their own merits, or the merits of the leader of any
other religion whatsoever. The person of the devil they look on as
sacred; and when they affirm any thing solemnly, they do it by his name.
All disrespectful expressions of him they would punish with death, did
not the Turkish power prevent them. Whenever they speak of him, it is
with the utmost respect; and they always put before his name a certain
title corresponding to that of highness or lord.” The worshippers of the
devil mentioned by Ives were also found by Niebuhr in the same country,
in a village between Bagdad and Mosul, called Abd-el-asis, on the great
Zab, a river which empties itself into the Tigris. This village, says
he, is entirely inhabited by people who are called Isidians, and also
Dauâsin. As the Turks allow the free exercise of religion only to those
who possess sacred books, that is, the Mohammedans, Christians, and
Jews, the Isidians are obliged to keep the principles of their religion
very secret. They therefore call themselves Mohammedans, Christians, or
Jews, according to the party of him who inquires what their religion is.
Some accuse them of worshipping the devil under the name of Tschellebi;
that is, Lord. Others say that they show great reverence for the sun and
fire, that they are unpolished Heathens, and have horrid customs. I have
also been assured that the Dauâsins do not worship the devil; but adore
God alone as the Creator and Benefactor of all mankind. They will not
speak of Satan, nor even have his name mentioned. They say that it is
just as improper for men to take a part in the dispute between God and a
fallen angel, as for a peasant to ridicule and curse a servant of the
pacha who has fallen into disgrace; that God did not require our
assistance to punish Satan for his disobedience; it might happen that he
might receive him into favour again; and then we must be ashamed before
the judgment seat of God, if we had, uncalled for, abused one of his
angels: it was therefore the best not to trouble one’s self about the
devil; but endeavour not to incur God’s displeasure ourselves. When the
Isidians go to Mosul, they are not detained by the magistrates, even if
they are known. The vulgar, however, sometimes attempt to extort money
from them. When they offer eggs or butter to them for sale, they
endeavour first to get the articles into their hands, and then dispute
about the price, or for this or other reasons to abuse Satan with all
their might; on which the Dauâsin is often polite enough to leave every
thing behind, rather than hear the devil abused. But in the countries
where they have the upper hand, nobody is allowed to curse him, unless
he chooses to be beaten, or perhaps even to lose his life.
DEUTERONOMY, from δέυτερος, _second_, and νομὸς, _law_; the last book of
the Pentateuch or five books of Moses. As its name imports, it contains
a repetition of the civil and moral law, which was a second time
delivered by Moses, with some additions and explanations, as well to
impress it more forcibly upon the Israelites in general, as in
particular for the benefit of those who, being born in the wilderness,
were not present at the first promulgation of the law. It contains also
a recapitulation of the several events which had befallen the Israelites
since their departure from Egypt, with severe reproaches for their past
misconduct, and earnest exhortations to future obedience. The Messiah is
explicitly foretold in this book; and there are many remarkable
predictions interspersed in it, particularly in the twenty-eighth,
thirtieth, thirty-second, and thirty-third chapters, relative to the
future condition of the Jews. The book of Deuteronomy finishes with an
account of the death of Moses, which is supposed to have been added by
his successor, Joshua.
DEW. Dews in Palestine are very plentiful, like a small shower of rain
every morning. Gideon filled a basin with the dew which fell on a fleece
of wool, Judges vi, 38. Isaac, blessing Jacob, wished him the dew of
heaven, which fattens the fields, Gen. xxvii, 28. In those warm
countries where it seldom rains, the night dews supply the want of
showers. Isaiah speaks of rain as if it were a dew, Isaiah xviii, 4.
Some of the most beautiful and illustrative of the images of the Hebrew
poets are taken from the dews of their country. The reviving influence
of the Gospel, the copiousness of its blessings, and the multitude of
its converts, are thus set forth.
DIADEM. See CROWN.
DIAL is not mentioned in Scripture before the reign of Ahaz.
Interpreters differ concerning the form of the dial of Ahaz, 2 Kings xx.
The generality of expositors think that it was a staircase so disposed,
that the sun showed the hours upon it by the shadow. Others suppose that
it was a pillar erected in the middle of a very level and smooth
pavement, on which the hours were engraven. According to these authors,
the lines marked in this pavement are what the Scripture calls degrees.
Grotius describes it as follows: “It was a concave hemisphere, and in
the midst was a globe, the shadow of which fell on the different lines
engraven in the concavity of the hemisphere; these lines were
twenty-eight in number.” This description answers pretty nearly to that
kind of dial, which the Greeks called _scapha_, a boat or hemisphere,
the invention (rather introduction) of which, Vitruvius ascribes to
Berosus the Chaldean. It would seem, indeed, that the most ancient sun
dial known is in the form of a half circle, hollowed into the stone, and
the stone cut down to an angle. This kind of dial was invented in
Babylon, and was very probably the same as that of Ahaz.
DIAMOND, יהלם. Exod. xxviii, 18; xxix, 11; Ezek. xxviii, 13. This has
from remote antiquity been considered as the most valuable, or, more
properly, the most costly substance in nature. The reason of the high
estimation in which it was held by the ancients was its rarity and its
extreme hardness and brilliancy. It filled the sixth place in the high
priest’s breastplate, and on it was engraven the name of Naphtali.
DIANA, a celebrated goddess of the Heathens, who was honoured
principally at Ephesus, Acts xix. She was one of the number of the
twelve superior deities, and was called by the several names of Hebe,
Trivia, and Hecate. In the heavens she was the moon, upon earth she was
called Diana, and in hell Hecate. She was worshipped in Palestine,
Jeremiah vii, 18; xliv, 17, 18.
DIONYSIUS, the Areopagite, a convert of St. Paul, Acts xvii, 34.
Chrysostom declares Dionysius to have been a citizen of Athens; which is
credible, because the judges of the Areopagus generally were so. After
his conversion, Dionysius was made the first bishop of Athens; having
laboured, and suffered much in the Gospel, he is said to have been burnt
at Athens, A. D. 95. The works attributed to Dionysius are generally
reputed spurious.
DIRECTORY, an ecclesiastical instrument, containing directions for the
conduct of religious worship, drawn up by the assembly of divines, by
order of parliament, in 1645. It was intended to supply the use of the
Common Prayer Book, which had been abolished. It orders the reverent
observation of public worship, prayer, singing of psalms, the reading
and exposition of the Scriptures, &c. It enjoins no forms, but
recommends the Lord’s prayer as a model of devotion; directs that the
Lord’s Supper may be received sitting; that the Sabbath day be strictly
observed; but puts down all saints’ days, consecrations of churches, and
private or lay baptisms. This Directory, which was formerly bound with
the Westminster confession of faith, is still, in effect, the plan of
worship among the Dissenters, and especially the Presbyterians.
DISCIPLE. The proper signification of this word is a learner; but it
signifies in the New Testament, a believer, a Christian, a follower of
Jesus Christ. Disciple is often used instead of Apostle in the Gospels;
but, subsequently, Apostles were distinguished from disciples. The
seventy-two who followed our Saviour from the beginning, are called
disciples; as are others who were of the body of believers and bore no
office. In subsequent times, the name disciple, in the sense of learner,
was sometimes given to the κατηχουμενοι, “_auditores_,” persons who, in
the primitive church, were receiving a preparatory instruction in
Christianity. They were divided into two classes, those who received
private instruction, and those who were admitted to the congregations,
and were under immediate preparation for baptism. The church readers
were, in some places, appointed to instruct the catechumens; and at
Alexandria, where often learned men presented themselves for
instruction, the office of catechist was filled by learned laymen, and
these catechists laid the foundation of an important theological school.
DISEASES. In the primitive ages of the world, diseases, in consequence
of the great simplicity in the mode of living, were but few in number.
At a subsequent period the number was increased by the accession of
diseases that had been previously unknown. Epidemics also, diseases
somewhat peculiar in their character, and still more fearful in their
consequences, soon made their appearance, some infesting one period of
life, and some another; some limiting their ravages to one country, and
some to another. Prosper Alpinus mentions the diseases which are
prevalent in Egypt, and in other countries in the same climate: they are
ophthalmies, leprosies, inflammations of the brain, pains in the joints,
the hernia, the stone in the reins and bladder, the phthisic, hectic,
pestilential and tertian fevers, weakness of the stomach, obstructions
in the liver, and the spleen. Of these diseases, ophthalmies,
pestilential fevers, and inflammations of the brain, are epidemics; the
others are of a different character. The leprosy prevails in Egypt, in
the southern part of Upper Asia, and in fact may be considered a disease
endemic in warm climates generally. Accordingly, it is not at all
surprising, if many of the Hebrews, when they left Egypt, were infected
with it; but the assertion of Manetho, that they were all thus infected,
and were in consequence of the infection, driven out by force, in which
he is precipitately and carelessly followed by Strabo, Tacitus, by
Justin Trogus, and others more recent, is a mere dream without any
foundation. The appearance of the disease externally is not always the
same. The spot is commonly small, and resembling in its appearance the
small red spot that would be the consequence of a puncture from a
needle, or the pustules of a ringworm. The spots for the most part make
their appearance very suddenly, especially if the infected person, at
the period when the disease shows itself externally, happens to be in
great fear, or to be moved with anger, Num. xii, 10; 2 Chron. xxvi, 19.
They commonly exhibit themselves in the first instance on the face,
about the nose and eyes; and gradually increase in size for a number of
years, till they become, as respects the extent of surface which they
embrace on the skin, as large as a pea or bean; they are then called
שאת. The white spot or pustule, בהרת, _morphea alba_, and also the dark
spot, ספחת, _morphea nigra_, are indications of the existence of the
real leprosy, Lev. xiii, 2, 39; xiv, 56. From these it is necessary to
distinguish the spot, which, whatever resemblance there may be in form,
is so different in its effects, called בהק, and also the harmless sort
of scab, which occurs under the word, מספחת, Lev. xiii, 6–8, 29. Moses,
in the thirteenth chapter of Leviticus, lays down very explicit rules
for the purpose of distinguishing between those spots which are proofs
of the actual existence of the leprosy, and those spots which are
harmless and result from some other cause. Those spots which are the
genuine effects and marks of the leprosy gradually dilate themselves,
till at length they cover the whole body. Not only the skin is subject
to a total destruction, but the body is affected in every part. The
pain, it is true, is not very great, but there is a great debility of
the system, and great uneasiness and grief, so much so, as almost to
drive the victim of the disease to self-destruction.
2. Moses acted the part of a wise legislator in making those laws which
have come down to us concerning the inspection and separation of leprous
persons. The object of these laws will appear peculiarly worthy, when it
is considered, that they were designed, not wantonly to fix the charge
of being a leper upon an innocent person, and thus to impose upon him
those restraints and inconveniences which the truth of such a charge
naturally implies, but to ascertain, in the fairest and most
satisfactory manner, and to separate those, and those only, who were
truly and really leprous. As this was the prominent object of his laws
that have come down to us on this subject, namely, to secure a fair and
impartial decision on a question of this kind, he has not mentioned
those signs of leprosy which admitted of no doubt, but those only which
might be the subject of contention; and left it to the priests, who also
fulfilled the office of physicians, to distinguish between the really
leprous, and those who had only the appearance of being such. We find
mention, in the rules laid down by Moses for the purpose of ascertaining
the true tokens of leprosy, of a cutaneous disorder which is denominated
by him _bohak_. The words of Moses, which may be found in Lev. xiii, 38,
39, are as follows: “If a man or woman have white spots on the skin, and
the priest see that the colour of these spots is faint and pale, it is,
in this case, the _bohak_ that has broken out on the skin, and they are
clean.” A person, accordingly, who was attacked with this disease, the
_bohak_, was not declared unclean; and the reason of it was, that it is
not only harmless in itself, but is free from that infectious and
hereditary character which belongs to the true leprosy. “The _bohak_”
says Mr. Niebuhr, “is neither infectious nor dangerous. A black boy at
Mocha, who was attacked with this sort of leprosy, had white spots here
and there on his body. It was said that the use of sulphur had for some
time been of service to this boy, but had not altogether removed the
disease.” He then adds the following extract from the papers of a Dr.
Foster: “May 15th, 1763, I myself saw a case of the _bohak_ in a Jew at
Mocha. The spots in this disease are of unequal size. They have no
shining appearance, nor are they perceptibly elevated above the skin;
and they do not change the colour of the hair. Their colour is an
obscure white or somewhat reddish. The rest of the skin of this patient
was blacker than that of the people of the country was in general, but
the spots were not so white as the skin of an European when not
sunburnt. The spots, in this species of leprosy, do not appear on the
hands, nor about the navel, but on the neck and face; not, however, on
that part of the head where the hair grows very thick. They gradually
spread, and continue sometimes only about two months; but in some cases,
indeed, as long as two years, and then disappear, by degrees, of
themselves. This disorder is neither infectious nor hereditary, nor does
it occasion any inconvenience.” “That all this,” remarks Michaëlis,
“should still be found exactly to hold at the distance of three thousand
five hundred years from the time of Moses, ought certainly to gain some
credit to his laws, even with those who will not allow them to be of
divine authority.” The pestilence, in its effects, is equally terrible
with the leprosy, and is much more rapid in its progress; for it
terminates the existence of those who are infected with it almost
immediately, and at the farthest within three or four days. The Gentiles
were in the habit of referring back the pestilence to the agency and
interference of that being, whatever it might be, whether idol or
spirit, whom they regarded as the divinity. The Hebrews, also, every
where attribute it to the agency either of God himself, or of that
legate or angel, whom they denominate מלאך.
3. The _palsy_ of the New Testament is a disease of very wide import.
Many infirmities, as Richter has demonstrated, were comprehended under
the word which is rendered _palsy_ in the New Testament. 1. The
apoplexy, a paralytic shock, which affected the whole body. 2. The
hemiplegy, which affects and paralyzes only one side of the body. 3. The
paraplegy, which paralyzes all the parts of the system below the neck.
4. The catalepsy, which is caused by a contraction of the muscles in the
whole or a part of the body, for example, in the hands, and is very
dangerous. The effects upon the parts seized are very violent and
deadly. For instance: when a person is struck with it, if his hand
happens to be extended, he is unable to draw it back. If the hand is not
extended when he is struck with the disease, he is unable to extend it:
it appears diminished in size, and dried up in appearance. Hence the
Hebrews were in the habit of calling it “a withered hand,” 1 Kings xiii,
4–6; Zech. xi, 17; Matt. xii, 10–13; John v, 3. 5. The cramp, in
oriental countries, is a fearful malady, and by no means unfrequent. It
originates from the chills of the night. The limbs, when seized with it,
remain immovable, sometimes turned in, and sometimes out, in the same
position as when they were first seized. The person afflicted resembles
those undergoing the torture βασανιζομένοι, and experiences nearly the
same exquisite sufferings. Death follows the disease in a few days,
Matt. viii, 6, 8; Luke vii, 2; 1 Macc. ix, 55–58.
DISPENSATIONS, DIVINE. These are otherwise called “the ways of God,” and
denote those schemes or methods which are devised and pursued by the
wisdom and goodness of God, in order to manifest his perfections and
will to mankind, for the purpose of their instruction, discipline,
reformation, and advancement in rectitude of temper and conduct, in
order to promote their happiness. These are the grand ends of the divine
dispensations; and in their aptitude to promote these ends consist their
excellence and glory. The works or constitutions of nature are, in a
general sense, divine dispensations, by which God condescends to display
to us his being and attributes, and thus to lead us to the
acknowledgment, adoration, and love, of our Creator, Father, and
Benefactor. The sacred Scriptures reveal and record other dispensations
of divine providence, which have been directed to the promotion of the
religious principles, moral conduct, and true happiness of mankind.
These have varied in several ages of the world, and have been adapted by
the wisdom and goodness of God to the circumstances of his intelligent
and accountable creatures. In this sense the various revelations which
God has communicated to mankind at different periods, and the means he
has used, as occasion has required, for their discipline and
improvement, have been justly denominated divine dispensations.
Accordingly, we read in the works of theological writers of the various
dispensations of religion; that of the patriarchs, that of Moses, and
that of Christ, called the dispensation of grace, the perfection and
ultimate object of every other. All these were adapted to the conditions
of the human race at these several periods; all, in regular succession,
were mutually connected and rendered preparatory one to the other; and
all were subservient to the design of saving the world, and promoting
the perfection and happiness of its rational and moral inhabitants. See
COVENANT.
DISPERSION OF MANKIND. See DIVISION OF THE EARTH.
DIVINATION, a conjecture or surmise, formed concerning future events,
from things which are supposed to presage them. The eastern people were
always fond of divination, magic, the curious arts of interpreting
dreams, and of obtaining a knowledge of future events. When Moses
published the law, this disposition had long been common in Egypt and
the neighbouring countries. To prevent the Israelites from consulting
diviners, fortune tellers, interpreters of dreams, &c, he forbade them,
under very severe penalties, to consult persons of this description, and
promised to them the true spirit of prophecy as infinitely superior. He
commanded those to be stoned who pretended to have a familiar spirit, or
the spirit of divination, Deut. xviii, 9, 10, 15. The writings of the
prophets are full of invectives against the Israelites who consulted
diviners, and against false prophets who by such means seduced the
people.
2. Different kinds of divination have passed for sciences, as 1.
Aëromancy, divining by the air. 2. Astrology, by the heavens. 3. Augury,
by the flight and singing of birds, &c. 4. Cheiromancy, by inspecting
the lines of the hand. 5. Geomancy, by observing cracks or clefts in the
earth. 6. Haruspicy, by inspecting the bowels of animals. 7. Horoscopy,
a branch of astrology, marking the position of the heavens when a person
is born. 8. Hydromancy, by water. 9. Physiognomy, by the countenance.
10. Pyromancy, a divination made by fire.
3. The kinds of divination, to which superstition in modern times has
given belief, are not less numerous, or less ridiculous, than those
which were practised in the days of profound ignorance. The divining
rod, which is mentioned in Scripture, is still in some repute in the
north of England, though its application is now confined principally to
the discovery of veins of lead ore, seams of coal, or springs. In order
that it may possess the full virtue for this purpose, it should be made
of hazel. Divination by Virgilian, Horatian, or Bible lots, was formerly
very common; and the last kind is still practised. The works are opened
by chance, and the words noticed which are covered by the thumb: if they
can be interpreted in any respect relating to the person, they are
reckoned prophetic. Charles I. is said to have used this kind of
divination to ascertain his fate. The ancient Christians were so much
addicted to the _sortes sanctorum_, or divining by the Bible, that it
was expressly forbidden by a council. Divination by the speal, or blade
bone of a sheep, is used in Scotland. In the Highlands it is called
_sleina-reached_, or reading the speal bone. It was very common in
England in the time of Drayton, particularly among the colony of
Flemings settled in Pembrokeshire. Camden relates of the Irish, that
they looked through the bare blade bone of a sheep; and if they saw any
spot in it darker than ordinary, they believed that somebody would be
buried out of the house. The Persians used this mode of divination.
4. Of all attempts to look into futurity by such means, as well as
resorting to charms and other methods of curing diseases, and
discovering secrets, we may say, that they are relics of Paganism, and
argue an ignorance, folly, or superstition, dishonourable to the
Christian name; and are therefore to be reproved and discouraged.
DIVISION OF THE EARTH. The prophecy of Noah, says Dr. Hales, was uttered
long after the deluge. It evidently alludes to a divine decree for the
orderly division of the earth among the three primitive families of his
sons, because it notices the “tents of Shem” and the “enlargement of
Japheth,” Genesis ix, 20–27. This decree was probably promulgated about
the same time by the venerable patriarch. The prevailing tradition of
such a decree for this threefold division of the earth, is intimated
both in the Old and New Testament. Moses refers to it, as handed down to
the Israelites, “from the days of old, and the years of many
generations; as they might learn from their fathers and their elders,”
and farther, as conveying a special grant of the land of Palestine, to
be the lot of the twelve tribes of Israel:--
“When the Most High divided to the nations their settlements,
When he separated the sons of Adam,
He assigned the boundaries of the peoples [of Israel]
According to the number of the sons of Israel:
For the portion of the Lord is his people,
Jacob is the lot of his inheritance,” Deut. xxxii, 7–9.
And this furnishes an additional proof of the justice of the expulsion
of the Canaanites, as usurpers, by the Israelites, the rightful
possessors of the land of Palestine, under Moses, Joshua, and their
successors, when the original grant was renewed to Abraham, Gen. xv,
13–21. And the knowledge of this divine decree may satisfactorily
account for the panic terror with which the devoted nations of Canaan
were struck at the miraculous passage of the Red Sea by the Israelites,
and approach to their confines, so finely described by Moses:--