other bishops. Archbishops were not known in the east till about the
year 320; and though there were some soon after this, who had the title,
yet it was only a personal honour, by which the bishops of considerable
cities were distinguished. It was not till of late that archbishops
became metropolitans, and had suffragans under them. Athanasius appears
to have been the first who used the title archbishop, which he gave
occasionally to his predecessor. Gregory Nazianzen, in like manner, gave
it to Athanasius; not that either of them was entitled to any
jurisdiction, or even any precedency, in virtue of this title. Among the
Latins, Isidore Hispalensis is the first who speaks of archbishops.
ARCHELAUS, son of Herod the Great, and Maltace, his fifth wife. Herod
having put to death his sons Alexander, Aristobulus, and Antipater, and
expunged out of his will Herod Antipas, whom he had declared king, he
substituted Archelaus, and gave Antipas the title of tetrarch only.
After the death of Herod, Archelaus ordered that king’s will to be read,
wherein he, Archelaus, was declared king, on condition that Augustus
consented. Hereupon the assembly cried, “Long live king Archelaus!” and
the soldiers promised the same fidelity to him as they had shown to his
father. Archelaus buried his father magnificently, came to Jerusalem,
and there mourned seven days, according to custom. He then gave a
splendid entertainment to the people, went to the temple, harangued the
multitude, promised them good treatment, and declared he would not
assume the title of king till the emperor had confirmed it, A. M. 4001;
B. C. 3. The people, notwithstanding, tumultuously demanded the
execution of those who advised Herod to slay certain zealots, who had
pulled down a golden eagle from one of the temple gates. They also
required Archelaus to divest Joazar of the high priesthood; and they
vehemently reproached the memory of the late king. Archelaus sent troops
to suppress the mutineers, and killed near three thousand of them about
the temple. After this he embarked at Cæsarea for Rome, to procure from
Augustus the confirmation of Herod’s will. Antipas, his brother, went to
Rome likewise, to dispute his title, pretending that Herod’s first will
should be preferred to his last, which he alleged to have been made by
him when his understanding was not sound.
The two brothers, Archelaus and Antipas, procured able orators to
display their pretensions before the emperor; and when they had done
speaking, Archelaus threw himself at Augustus’s feet. Augustus gently
raised him, said he would do nothing contrary to Herod’s intention or
his interest, but refused to decide the affair at that time. Some time
afterward, the Jews sent a solemn embassy to Rome, to desire Augustus
would permit them to live according to their own laws, and on the
footing of a Roman province, without being subject to kings of Herod’s
family, but only to the governors of Syria. Augustus heard them, and
likewise heard Archelaus in reply; then broke up the assembly without
declaring himself. After some days, he sent for Archelaus, gave him the
title, not of king, but of ethnarch, with one moiety of the territories
which his father Herod had enjoyed; promising him the crown likewise, if
his good conduct deserved it. Archelaus returned to Judea, and, under
pretence that he had countenanced the seditious against him, he deprived
Joazar of the high priesthood, and gave that dignity to his brother
Eleazar. He governed Judea with so much violence, that, after seven
years, the chiefs of the Samaritans and Jews accused him before
Augustus. The emperor immediately sent for his agent at Rome, and
without condescending to write to Archelaus he commanded the agent to
depart instantly for Judea, and order Archelaus to Rome, to give an
account of his conduct. On his arrival at Rome, the emperor called for
his accusers, and permitted him to defend himself; which he did so
insufficiently, that Augustus banished him to Vienne, in Gaul, where he
continued in exile to the end of his life. See ANTIPAS.
ARCHI-SYNAGOGUS, _the ruler of a synagogue_. See SYNAGOGUE.
ARCHITRICLINUS, ἀρχιτρίκλινος, generally translated steward, signifies
rather the _master_ or _superintendent of the feast_; “one,” says
Gaudentius, “who is the husband’s friend, and commissioned to conduct
the order and economy of the feast.” He gave directions to the servants,
superintended every thing, commanded the tables to be covered, or to be
cleared of the dishes, as he thought proper: whence his name, as
regulator of the triclinium, or festive board. He also tasted the wine,
and distributed it to the guests. The author of Ecclesiasticus thus
describes this office, xxxii, 1, 2: “If thou be made the master of a
feast, lift not thyself up, but be among them as one of the rest: take
diligent care of them, and so sit down. And when thou hast done all thy
office, take thy place, that thou mayest be merry with them, and receive
a crown for the well ordering of the feast.” This office is mentioned,
John ii, 8, 9, upon which Theophylact remarks: “That no one might
suspect that their taste was vitiated by having drunk to excess, so as
not to know water from wine, our Saviour orders it to be first carried
to the governor of the feast, who _certainly_ was sober; for those who
on such occasions are intrusted with this office, observe the strictest
sobriety, that they may be able properly to regulate the whole.”
AREOPAGUS, the high court at Athens, famed for the justice of its
decisions; and so called, because it sat on a hill of the same name, or
in the suburbs of the city, dedicated to Mars, the god of war, as the
city was to Minerva, his sister. St. Paul, Acts xvii, 19, &c, having
preached at Athens, was carried before the Areopagites, as “a setter
forth of strange gods.” On this occasion he delivered that fine sermon
which is in substance recorded in Acts xvii. Dionysius, one of the
judges, was converted; and the Apostle was dismissed without any farther
trouble.
ARGOB, a canton lying beyond Jordan, in the half tribe of Manasseh, and
in the country of Bashan, one of the most fruitful on the other side of
Jordan. In the region of Argob there were sixty cities, called
Bashan-havoth-Jair, which had very high walls and strong gates, without
reckoning many villages and hamlets, which were not inclosed, Deut. iii,
4–14; 1 Kings iv, 13. But Argob was more peculiarly the name of the
capital city of the region of Argob, which Eusebius says was fifteen
miles west of Gerara.
ARIANS, this ancient sect, was unquestionably so called from Arius, a
presbyter of Alexandria, in the early part of the fourth century. It
is said that he aspired to episcopal honours; and after the death of
Achilles, in A. D. 313, felt not a little chagrined that Alexander
should be preferred before him. Whether this circumstance had any
influence on his opinions, it is impossible to say; but one day, when
his rival (Alexander) had been addressing the clergy in favour of the
orthodox doctrine, and maintaining, in strong and pointed language,
“that the Son of God was co-eternal, co-essential, and co-equal with
the Father,” Arius considered this as a species of Sabellianism, and
ventured to say, that it was inconsistent and impossible, since the
Father, who begat, must be before the Son, who was begotten: the
latter, therefore, could not be absolutely eternal. Alexander at first
admonished Arius, and endeavoured to convince him of his error; but
without effect, except that he became the more bold in contradiction.
Some of the clergy thought their bishop too forbearing, and it is
possible he felt his inferiority of talent; for Arius was a man of
accomplished learning, and commanding eloquence; venerable in person,
and fascinating in address. At length Alexander was roused, and
attempted to silence Arius by his authority; but this not succeeding,
as the latter was bold and pertinacious, Alexander, about the year
320, called a council of his clergy, by whom the reputed heretic was
deposed and excommunicated. Arius now retired into Palestine, where
his talents and address soon made a number of converts; and among the
rest, the celebrated Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, and other bishops
and clergy of those parts, who assembled in council, and received the
excommunicated presbyter into their communion. Eusebius also, having
great interest with Constantia, the sister of Constantine, and wife of
Licinius, recommended Arius to her protection and patronage; through
which, and by his own eloquent letters to the clergy in various parts,
his system spread with great rapidity, and to a vast extent. The
emperor Constantine, who had no great skill in these matters, was
grieved to see the Christian church (but just escaped from the red
dragon of persecution) thus torn by intestine animosity and
dissensions; he therefore determined to summon a general council of
the clergy, which met at Nice, A. D. 325, and contained more than 300
bishops. Constantine attended in person, and strongly recommended
peace and unanimity. Athanasius was the chief opponent of the Arians.
Both parties were willing to subscribe to the language of the
Scriptures, but each insisted on interpreting for themselves. “Did the
Trinitarians,” says Mr. Milner, “assert that Christ was God? The
Arians allowed it, but in the same sense as holy men and angels are
styled gods in Scripture. Did they affirm that he was truly God? The
others allowed that he was made so by God. Did they affirm that the
Son was naturally of God? It was granted: Even we, said they, are of
God, ‘of whom are all things.’” At length the Athanasians collected a
number of texts, which they conceived amounted to full proof of the
Son being of one and _the same_ substance with the Father; the Arians
admitted he was of _like_ substance, the difference in the Greek
phrases being only in a single letter,--ὁμοούσιος, _homoousios_ and
ὁμοιούσιος, _homoiousios_. At length the former was decreed to be the
orthodox faith, and the Nicene creed was framed as it remains at this
day so far as concerns the person of the Son of God, who is said to be
“begotten of his Father before all worlds; God of God, Light of Light,
very God of very God, begotten, not made, of one substance with the
Father, by whom all things were made,” &c.
Arius was now excommunicated. The sentence of the council pronounced
against him and his associates was followed by another of the emperor,
whereby the excommunicated persons were condemned to banishment, that
they might be debarred the society of their countrymen whom the church
had judged unworthy to remain in her communion. Soon after which,
Eusebius of Nicomedia, and Theognis of Nice, being found to continue
their countenance and protection to the Arian cause, to communicate with
those whom they had anathematized, and to concur in those sentiments
which they had condemned by their subscriptions; they were both
subjected to the same penalty of exile by the emperor, and were actually
deposed, (as we learn from Athanasius,) and had successors ordained to
their sees, though history is silent as to the council by which this was
done. But such was the good nature and credulity of Constantine, that
these men, by their usual artifices, easily imposed upon him, and
brought him to such a full persuasion of their agreement with the Nicene
faith, that in about three years’ time they were not only recalled from
banishment, but restored to their sees, and to a considerable degree of
interest at court. Their thorough attachment to the cause of Arius, and
their hatred of Athanasius, who had so vigorously withstood them in the
council, and was now advanced to the see of Alexandria, made them
watchful of every opportunity to defeat the decisions of the council.
In the meantime one who wished well to their designs, and whom
Constantia had upon her death bed recommended to the emperor, did so far
prevail upon the easy credulity of Constantine, by complaining that
Arius had been misrepresented, and differed nothing in his sentiments
from the Nicene fathers, that the indulgent emperor recalled him from
his banishment, and required him to exhibit in writing, a confession of
his faith. He did this in such terms as, though they admitted of a
latent reservation, yet bore the appearance of being entirely catholic;
and therefore not only gave satisfaction to the emperor, but even
offended some of his own followers, who from that time forth separated
from him. The discerning Athanasius was not so easily imposed upon as
Constantine; but, well assured of the heretic’s prevarication, was
resolute in refusing to admit him to communion, whom the Nicene council
had so openly condemned. Upon this the emperor sent for Arius to
Constantinople, and insisted upon his being received into communion, by
Alexander, bishop of that city. However, on the day before this was to
have taken place, Arius died suddenly from a complaint in his bowels.
Some attributed this to poison; others to the judgment of God. The
emperor did not long survive; and Constantius, his successor, became
warmly attached to the Arian cause, as were all the court party.
Successive emperors took different sides, and thus was the peace of the
church agitated for many years, and practical religion sacrificed
alternately to the dogmas or the interests of one party or the other;
and each was in turn excommunicated, fined, imprisoned, or banished.
Constantius supported Arianism triumphantly, Julian laughed at both
parties, but persecuted neither, Jovian supported the Nicene doctrine.
Valentinian, and his brother Valens, took contrary sides; the former
supporting Athanasianism in the west, and the latter Arianism in the
east; so that what was orthodoxy at Rome was heresy at Constantinople,
and _vice versa_. The Arians themselves were not unanimous, but divided
into various shades of sentiment, under their respective leaders; as
Eusebians, Eudoxians, Acasians, Aëtians, &c; but the more general
distinction was into Arians and Semi-Arians; the former sinking the
character of the Son of God into that of a mere creature, while the
latter admitted every thing but the _homoousian_ doctrine, or his
absolute equality with the Father. After this period we hear little of
Arianism, till it was revived in England in the beginning of the last
century by the eccentric Mr. Whiston, by Mr. Emlyn, and Dr. Samuel
Clarke. The latter was what may be called a _high_ or Semi-Arian, who
came within a shade of orthodoxy; the two _former_ were low Arians,
reducing the rank of our Saviour to the scale of angelic beings--a
creature “made out of nothing.” Since this time, however, both Arians
and Socinians are sunk into the common appellation of _Unitarians_, or
rather _Humanitarians_, who believe our Saviour (as Dr. Priestley
expresses it) to be “a _man_ like themselves.” The last advocates of the
pure Arian doctrine, of any celebrity, were Mr. Henry Taylor, (under the
signature of Ben Mordecai,) and Dr. Richard Price, in his “Sermons on
the Christian Doctrine.” It may be proper to observe, that the Arians,
though they denied the absolute _eternity_ of the Son, strongly
contended for his preëxistence, as the _Logos_, or the Word of God, “by
whom the worlds were made;” and admitted, more or less explicitly, the
sacrifice which he offered for sin upon the cross.
ARIEL, the capital city of Moab, frequently mentioned in Scripture, Ezra
viii, 16. See MOAB.
ARIMATHEA, or RAMAH, now called Ramlè, or Ramla, a pleasant town,
beautifully situated on the borders of a fertile and extensive plain,
abounding in gardens, vineyards, olive and date trees. It stands about
thirty miles north-west of Jerusalem, on the high road to Jaffa. At this
Rama, which was likewise called Ramathaim Zophim, as lying in the
district of Zuph, or Zoph, Samuel was born, 1 Sam. i. This was likewise
the native place of Joseph, called Joseph of Arimathea, who begged and
obtained the body of Jesus from Pilate, Matt. xxvi, 57. There was
another Ramah, about six miles north of Jerusalem, in a pass which
separated the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, which Baasha, king of
Israel, took and began to fortify; but he was obliged to relinquish it,
in consequence of the alliance formed between Asa, king of Judah, and
Benhadad, king of Syria, 1 Kings xv. This is the Ramah, supposed to be
alluded to in the lamentation of Rachel for her children.
ARISTARCHUS, spoken of by St. Paul in his Epistle to the Colossians, iv,
10, and often mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles. He was a
Macedonian, and a native of Thessalonica. He accompanied St. Paul to
Ephesus, and there continued with him during the two years of his abode
in that place, sharing with him in all the dangers and labours of the
ministry, Acts xix, 29; xx, 4; xxvii, 2. He was near losing his life in
a tumult raised by the Ephesian silversmiths. He left Ephesus with the
Apostle, and went with him into Greece. From thence he attended him into
Asia; from Asia into Judea, and from Judea to Rome.
ARK, _arca_, denotes a kind of floating vessel built by Noah, for the
preservation of himself and family, with several species of animals
during the deluge. The Hebrew word by which the ark is expressed, is תבה
or תיבה, the constructive form of תבה, which is evidently the Greek
θίβη; and so the LXX render the word in Exod. ii, 3, where only it again
occurs. They also render it κιβωτὸν; Josephus, λαρνάκα; and the Vulgate,
_arcam_; signifying an ark, coffer, or chest. Although the ark of Noah
answered, in some respects, the purpose of a ship, it is not so certain
that it was of the same form and shape. It has been inconclusively
argued by Michaelis and some others, that if its form had not been like
that of a ship, it could not have resisted the force of the waves;
because it was not intended to be conducted, like a ship, from one place
to another, but merely “to float on the surface of the waters,” Gen.
vii, 17. It appears to have had neither helm, nor mast, nor oars; but
was merely a bulky capacious vessel, light enough to be raised aloft
with all its contents, by the gradual rise of the deluge. Its shape,
therefore, was of little importance; more especially as it seems to have
been the purpose of Providence, in this whole transaction, to signify to
those who were saved, as well as to their latest posterity, that their
preservation was not in any degree effected by human contrivance. The
ark in which Moses was exposed bears the same name; and some have
thought that both were of the same materials. With respect to the
etymology of the Hebrew word, the most rational seems to be that of
Clodius, who derives it from the Arabic word תאה, “he collected,” from
which is formed תבה, or תיבה, denoting a place in which things are
collected. Foster deduces it from two Egyptian words, _thoi_, “a ship,”
and _bai_, “a palm tree branch”; and such ships are still to be seen not
only in Egypt, but in India and other countries; particularly in some
isles of the Pacific Ocean.
To the insufficiency of the ark to contain all the creatures said to
have been brought into it, objections have, at different times, been
made. Bishop Wilkins and others have learnedly discussed this subject,
and afforded the most satisfactory answers. Dr. Hales proves the ark to
have been of the burden of forty-two thousand four hundred and thirteen
tons; and asks, “Can we doubt of its being sufficient to contain eight
persons, and about two hundred or two hundred and fifty pair of
four-footed animals, (a number to which, according to M. Buffon, all the
various distinct species may be reduced,) together with all the
subsistence necessary for a twelvemonth, with the fowls of the air, and
such reptiles and insects as cannot live under water?” All these various
animals were controlled by the power of God, whose special agency is
supposed in the whole transaction, and “the lion was made to lie down
with the kid.”