us in our search for this ancient city, seeing that Babylon itself, with
which it was coeval, is reduced to heaps; and that it is not mentioned
under its ancient name by any profane author. But the discoveries of
modern travellers may be brought to aid us in our inquiry. At the
distance of about six miles from the modern town of Bagdad, is found a
mound, surmounted by a tower-shaped ruin, called by the Arabs Tell
Nimrood, and by the Turks Nemrood Tepasse; both terms implying the Hill
of Nimrod. This gigantic mass rises in an irregularly pyramidal or
turreted shape, according to the view in which it is taken, one hundred
and twenty-five or one hundred and thirty feet above the gently inclined
elevation on which it stands. Its circumference, at the bottom, is three
hundred feet. The mound which constitutes its foundation is composed of
a collection of rubbish, formed from the decay of the superstructure;
and consists of sandy earth, fragments of burnt brick, pottery, and hard
clay, partially vitrified. In the remains of the tower, the different
layers of sun-dried brick, of which it is composed, may be traced with
great precision. These bricks, cemented together by slime, and divided
into courses varying from twelve to twenty feet in height, are separated
from one another by a stratum of reeds, similar to those now growing in
the marshy parts of the plain, and in a wonderful state of preservation.
The resemblance of this mode of building to that in some of the
structures at Babylon, cannot escape observation; and we may reasonably
conclude it to be the workmanship of the same architects. The solidity
and the loftiness of this pile, unfashioned to any other purpose,
bespeak it to be one of those enormous pyramidal towers which were
consecrated to the Sabian worship; which, as essential to their
religious rites, were probably erected in all the early cities of the
Cuthites; and, like their prototype at Babylon, answered the double
purpose of altars and observatories. Here then was the site of one of
these early cities. It was not Babylon; it was not Erech; it was not
Calneh. It might be too much to say that _therefore_ it must be Accad;
but the inference is at least warrantable; which is farther strengthened
by the name of the place, Akarkouff; which bears a greater affinity to
that of Accad than many others which are forced into the support of
geographical speculations, especially when it is recollected that the
Syrian name of the city was Achar.
ACCESS, free admission, open entrance. Our access to God is by Jesus
Christ, the way, the truth, and the life, Rom. v, 2; Eph. ii, 18. Under
the law, the high priest alone had access into the holiest of all; but
when the veil of the temple was rent in twain, at the death of Christ,
it was declared that a new and living way of access was laid open
through the veil, that is to say, his flesh. By his death, also, the
middle wall of partition was broken down, and Jew and Gentile had both
free access to God; whereas, before, the Gentiles had no nearer access
in the temple worship than to the gate of the court of Israel. Thus the
saving grace and lofty privileges of the Gospel are equally bestowed
upon true believers of all nations.
ACCHO, afterward called Ptolemais, and now Akka by the Arabs, and Acre
by the Turks. It was given to the tribe of Asher, Judges i, 31.
Christianity was planted here at an early period, and here St. Paul
visited the saints in his way to Jerusalem, Acts xxi, 7. It is a seaport
of Palestine, thirty miles south of Tyre, and, in the first partition of
the holy land, belonged to the tribe of Asher; but this was one of the
places out of which the Israelites could not drive the primitive
inhabitants. In succeeding times it was enlarged by the first Ptolemy,
to whose lot it fell, and who named it after himself, Ptolemais.
This city, now called Acre, which, from the convenience of its port, is
one of the most considerable on the Syrian coast, was, during almost two
centuries, the principal theatre of the holy wars, and the frequent
scene of the perfidies and treacheries of the crusaders.
Among its antiquities, Dr. E. D. Clarke describes the remains of a very
considerable edifice, exhibiting a conspicuous appearance among the
buildings on the north side of the city. “In this structure the style of
the architecture is of the kind we call Gothic. Perhaps it has on that
account borne among our countrymen the appellation of ‘King Richard’s
Palace,’ although, in the period to which the tradition refers, the
English were hardly capable of erecting palaces, or any other buildings
of equal magnificence. Two lofty arches, and part of the cornice, are
all that now remain to attest the former greatness of the
superstructure. The cornice, ornamented with enormous stone busts,
exhibiting a series of hideous distorted countenances, whose features
are in no instances alike, may either have served as allusions to the
decapitation of St. John, or were intended for a representation of the
heads of Saracens suspended as trophies upon the walls.” Maundrell and
Pococke consider this building to have been the church of St. Andrew;
but Dr. E. D. Clarke thinks it was that of St. John, erected by the
Knights of Jerusalem, whence the city changed its name of Ptolemais for
that of St. John d’Acre. He also considers the style of architecture to
be in some degree the original of our ornamented Gothic, before its
translation from the holy land to Italy, France, and England.
Mr. Buckingham, who visited Acre in 1816, says, “Of the Canaanitish
Accho it would be thought idle perhaps to seek for remains; yet some
presented themselves to my observation so peculiar in form and
materials, and of such high antiquity, as to leave no doubt in my own
mind of their being the fragments of buildings constructed in the
earliest ages.
“Of the splendour of Ptolemais, no perfect monument remains; but
throughout the town are seen shafts of red and grey granite, and marble
pillars. The Saracenic remains are only to be partially traced in the
inner walls of the town; which have themselves been so broken down and
repaired, as to leave little visible of the original work; and all the
mosques, fountains, bazaars, and other public buildings, are in a style
rather Turkish than Arabic, excepting only an old, but regular and
well-built khan or caravanserai, which might perhaps be attributed to
the Saracen age. The Christian ruins are altogether gone, scarcely
leaving a trace of the spot on which they stood.”
Acre has been rendered famous in our own times by the successful
resistance made by our countryman Sir Sydney Smith, aided by the
celebrated Djezzar Pasha, to the progress of the French under
Buonaparte. Since this period, the fortifications have been considerably
increased; and although to the eye of an engineer they may still be very
defective, Acre may be considered as the strongest place in Palestine.
Mr. Conner says, on the authority of the English consul, that there are
about ten thousand inhabitants in Acre, of whom three thousand are
Turks, and the remainder Christians, chiefly Catholics.
ACCUBATION, the posture used at table by the ancients. The old Romans
sat at meat as we do, till the Grecian luxury and softness had corrupted
them. The same custom, of lying upon couches at their entertainments,
prevailed among the Jews also in our Saviour’s time; for having been
lately conquered by Pompey, they conformed in this, and in many other
respects, to the example of their masters. The manner of lying at meat
among the Romans, Greeks, and more modern Jews, was the same in all
respects. The table was placed in the middle of the room, around which
stood three couches covered with cloth or tapestry, according to the
quality of the master of the house; upon these they lay, inclining the
superior part of their bodies upon their left arms, the lower part being
stretched out at full length, or a little bent. Their heads were
supported and raised with pillows. The first man lay at the head of the
couch; the next man lay with his head toward the feet of the other, from
which he was defended by the bolster that supported his own back,
commonly reaching over to the middle of the first man; and the rest
after the same manner. The most honourable place was the _middle_
couch--and the _middle_ of _that_. Favourites commonly lay in the bosom
of their friends; that is, they were placed next below them: see John
xiii, 23, where St. John is said to have lain in our Saviour’s bosom.
The ancient Greeks sat at the table; for Homer observes that when
Ulysses arrived at the palace of Alcinous, the king dispatched his son
Laodamas to seat Ulysses in a magnificent chair. The Egyptians sat at
table anciently, as well as the Romans, till toward the end of the Punic
war, when they began to recline at table.
ACCURSED, in the Scriptures, signifies that which is separated or
devoted. With regard to persons, it denotes the cutting off or
separating any one from the communion of the church, the number of the
living, or the privileges of society; and also the devoting an animal,
city, or other thing to destruction. _Anathema_ was a species of
_excommunication_ among the Jews, and was often practised after they had
lost the power of life and death, against those persons who, according
to the Mosaic law, ought to have been executed. A criminal, after the
sentence of excommunication was pronounced, became _anathema_: and they
had a full persuasion that the sentence would not be in vain; but that
God would interfere to punish the offender in a manner similar to the
penalty of the law of Moses: a man, for instance, whom the law condemned
to be stoned, would, they believed, be killed by the falling of a stone
upon him; a man to be hanged, would be choked; and one whom the law
sentenced to the flames, would be burnt in his house, &c. _Maranatha_, a
Syriac word, signifying _the Lord cometh_, was added to the sentence, to
express their persuasion that the Lord God would come to take vengeance
upon that guilt which they, circumstanced as they were, had not the
power to punish, 1 Cor. xvi, 22.
According to the idiom of the Hebrew language, _accursed_ and
_crucified_ were synonymous terms. By the Jews every one who died upon a
tree was reckoned _accursed_, Deut. xxi, 23.
Excommunication is a kind of anathema also among some Christians; and by
it the offender is deprived, not only of communicating in prayers and
other holy offices, but of admittance to the church, and of conversation
with the faithful. The spirit of Judaism, rather than that of the
Gospel, has in this been imitated; for among the Hebrews, they who were
excommunicated could not perform any public duty of their employments;
could be neither judges nor witnesses; neither be present at funerals,
nor circumcise their own sons, nor sit down in the company of other men,
nearer than within the distance of four cubits. If they died under
excommunication, they were denied the rites of burial; and a large stone
was left on their graves, or a heap of stones was thrown over them, as
over Achan, Joshua vii, 26. The Apostolical excommunication was simply
to deny to the offender, after admonition, the right of partaking of the
Lord’s Supper, which was excision from the church of Christ.
ACELDAMA, a piece of ground without the south wall of Jerusalem, on the
other side of the brook Siloam. It was called the Potter’s Field,
because an earth or clay was dug in it, of which pottery was made. It
was likewise called the Fuller’s Field, because cloth was dried in it.
But it having been afterward bought with the money by which the high
priest and rulers of the Jews purchased the blood of Jesus, it was
called Aceldama, or the Field of Blood.
ACHAIA. This name is used to denote the whole of Greece, as it existed
as a Roman province; or Achaia Proper, a district in the northern part
of the Peloponnesus, on the bay of Corinth, and in which the city of
that name stood. It appears to have been used in the former sense in 2
Cor. xi, 10; and in the latter, in Acts xix, 21.
ACHAN, the son of Carmi, of the tribe of Judah, who having taken a part
of the spoils of Jericho, against the injunction of God, who had
_accursed_ or devoted the whole city, was, upon being taken by lot,
doomed to be stoned to death. The whole history is recorded, Joshua vii.
It would appear that Achan’s family were also stoned; for they were led
out with him, and all his property, “And all Israel stoned him with
stones, and burned them with fire, after they had stoned them with
stones.” Some of the critics have made efforts to confine the stoning to
Achan, and the burning to his goods; but not without violence to the
text. It is probable, therefore, that his family were privy to the
theft, seeing he hid the accursed things which he had stolen in the
earth, in his tent. By concealment they therefore became partakers of
his crime, and so the sentence was justified.
ACHMETHA. See ECBATANA.
ACHOR, Valley of, between Jericho and Ai. So called from the trouble
brought upon the Israelites by the sin of Achan; Achor in the Hebrew
denoting trouble.
ACHZIB, a city on the coast of the Mediterranean, in the tribe of Asher,
and one of the cities out of which that tribe did not expel the
inhabitants, Judges i, 31. It was called Ecdippa by the Greeks, and is
at present termed Zib. It is situated about ten miles north of Accho, or
Ptolemais. Mr. Buckingham, who passed by this place, says that it is
small, and situated on a hill near the sea; having a few palm trees
rearing themselves above its dwellings.
ACRA, Ἄκρα. This Greek word signifies, in general, _a citadel_. The
Syrians and Chaldeans use הקרא, in the same sense. King Antiochus gave
orders for building a citadel at Jerusalem, north of the temple, on an
eminence, which commanded the holy place; and for that reason was called
Acra. Josephus says, that this eminence was semicircular, and that Simon
Maccabæus, having expelled the Syrians, who had seized Acra, demolished
it, and spent three years in levelling the mountain on which it stood;
that no situation in future should command the temple. On mount Acra
were afterward built, the palace of Helena; Agrippa’s palace, the place
where the public records were lodged; and that where the magistrates of
Jerusalem assembled.
ACRABATENE, a district of Judæa, extending between Shechem (now
Napolose) and Jericho, inclining east. It was about twelve miles in
length. The Acrabatene had its name from a place called Akrabbim, about
nine miles from Shechem, eastward. This was also the name of another
district of Judea on the frontier of Idumea, toward the northern
extremity of the Dead Sea.
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. This book, in the very beginning, professes itself
to be a continuation of the Gospel of St. Luke; and its style bespeaks
it to be written by the same person. The external evidence is also very
satisfactory; for besides allusions in earlier authors, and particularly
in Clement of Rome, Polycarp, and Justin Martyr, the Acts of the
Apostles are not only quoted by Irenæus, as written by Luke the
evangelist, but there are few things recorded in this book which are not
mentioned by that ancient father. This strong testimony in favour of the
genuineness of the Acts of the Apostles is supported by Clement of
Alexandria, Tertullian, Jerome, Eusebius, Theodoret, and most of the
later fathers. It may be added, that the name of St. Luke is prefixed to
this book in several ancient Greek manuscripts of the New Testament, and
also in the old Syriac version.
2. This is the only inspired work which gives us any historical account
of the progress of Christianity after our Saviour’s ascension. It
comprehends a period of about thirty years, but it by no means contains
a general history of the church during that time. The principal facts
recorded in it are, the choice of Matthias to be an Apostle in the room
of the traitor Judas; the descent of the Holy Ghost on the day of
pentecost; the preaching, miracles, and sufferings of the Apostles at
Jerusalem; the death of Stephen, the first martyr; the persecution and
dispersion of the Christians; the preaching of the Gospel in different
parts of Palestine, especially in Samaria; the conversion of St. Paul;
the call of Cornelius, the first Gentile convert; the persecution of the
Christians by Herod Agrippa; the preaching of Paul and Barnabas to the
Gentiles, by the express command of the Holy Ghost; the decree made at
Jerusalem, declaring that circumcision, and a conformity to other Jewish
rites and ceremonies, were not necessary in Gentile converts; and the
latter part of the book is confined to the history of St. Paul, of whom
St. Luke was the constant companion for several years.
3. As this account of St. Paul is not continued beyond his two years’
imprisonment at Rome, it is probable that this book was written soon
after his release, which happened in the year 63; we may therefore
consider the Acts of the Apostles as written about the year 64.
4. The place of its publication is more doubtful. The probability
appears to be in favour of Greece, though some contend for Alexandria in
Egypt. This latter opinion rests upon the subscriptions at the end of
some Greek manuscripts, and of the copies of the Syriac version; but the
best critics think, that these subscriptions, which are also affixed to
other books of the New Testament, deserve but little weight; and in this
case they are not supported by any ancient authority.
5. It must have been of the utmost importance in the early times of the
Gospel, and certainly not of less importance to every subsequent age, to
have an authentic account of the promised descent of the Holy Ghost, and
of the success which attended the first preachers of the Gospel both
among the Jews and Gentiles. These great events completed the evidence
of the divine mission of Christ, established the truth of the religion
which he taught, and pointed out in the clearest manner the
comprehensive nature of the redemption which he purchased by his death.
Œcumenius calls the Acts, the “Gospel of the Holy Ghost;” and St.
Chrysostom, the “Gospel of our Saviour’s resurrection,” or the Gospel of
Jesus Christ risen from the dead. Here, in the lives and preaching of
the Apostles, we have the most miraculous instances of the power of the
Holy Ghost; and in the account of those who were the first believers, we
have received the most excellent pattern of the true Christian life.
ADAM, the name given to man in general, both male and female in the
Hebrew Scriptures, Gen. i, 26, 27; v, 1, 2; xi, 5; Josh. xiv, 15; 2 Sam.
vii, 19; Eccl. iii, 21; Jer. xxxii, 20; Hosea vi, 7; Zech. xiii, 7: in
all which places mankind is understood; but particularly it is the name
of the first man and father of the human race, created by God himself
out of the dust of the earth. Josephus thinks that he was called Adam by
reason of the reddish colour of the earth out of which he was formed,
for Adam in Hebrew signifies red. God having made man out of the dust of
the earth, breathed into him the breath of life, and gave him dominion
over all the creatures of this world, Gen. i, 26, 27; ii, 7. He created
him after his own image and resemblance; and having blessed him, he
placed him in a delicious garden, in Eden, that he might cultivate it,
and feed upon its fruits, Gen. ii, 8; but under the following
injunction: “Of every tree of the garden thou mayest freely eat: but of
the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it;
for in the day thou eatest thereof, thou shalt surely die.” The first
thing that Adam did after his introduction into paradise, was to give
names to all the beasts and birds which presented themselves before him,
Gen. ii, 19, 20.
But man was without a fellow creature of his own species; wherefore God
said, “It is not good for man to be alone; I will make him a help meet
for him.” And the Lord caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam, and while
he slept, he took one of his ribs, “and closed up the flesh instead
thereof;” and of that substance which he took from man made he a woman,
whom he presented to him. Then said Adam, “This is now bone of my bone,
and flesh of my flesh: she shall be called woman, because she was taken
out of man,” Gen. ii, 21, &c.
The woman was seduced by the tempter; and she seduced her husband to eat
of the forbidden fruit. When called to judgment for this transgression
before God, Adam attempted to cast the blame upon his wife, and the
woman upon the serpent tempter. But God declared them all guilty, and
punished the serpent by degradation; the woman by painful childbearing
and subjection; and the man by agricultural labour and toil; of which
punishments every day witnesses the fulfilment. As their natural
passions now became irregular, and their exposure to accidents was
great, God made a covering of skins for Adam and for his wife; and
expelled them from the garden, to the country without; placing at the
east of the garden cherubims and a flaming sword, which turned every
way, to keep the way of the tree of life. It is not known how long Adam
and his wife continued in paradise: some say, many years; others, not
many days; others, not many hours. Adam called his wife’s name _Eve_,
which signifies “the mother of all living.” Shortly after, Eve brought
forth Cain, Gen. iv, 1, 2. It is believed that she had a girl at the
time, and that, generally, she had twins. The Scriptures notice only
three sons of Adam: Cain, Abel, and Seth; and omits daughters; except
that Moses tells us, “Adam begat sons and daughters;” no doubt many. He
died, aged nine hundred and thirty, B. C. 3074.
Upon this history, so interesting to all Adam’s descendants, some
remarks may be offered.
1. It is disputed whether the name _Adam_ is derived from _red earth_.
Sir W. Jones thinks it may be from _Adim_, which in Sanscrit signifies,
_the first_. The Persians, however, denominate him Adamah, which
signifies, according to Sale, _red earth_. The term for woman is
_Aisha_, the feminine of _Aish_, man, and signifies, therefore, maness
or female man.
2. The manner in which the creation of Adam is narrated indicates
something peculiar and eminent in the being to be formed. Among the
heavenly bodies the earth, and above all the various productions of its
surface, vegetable and animal, however perfect in their kinds, and
beautiful and excellent in their respective natures, not one being was
found to whom the rest could minister instruction; inspire with moral
delight; or lead up to the Creator himself. There was, properly
speaking, no intellectual being; none to whom the whole frame and
furniture of material nature could minister knowledge; no one who could
employ upon them the generalizing faculty, and make them the basis of
inductive knowledge. If, then, it was not wholly for himself that the
world was created by God; and if angels were not so immediately
connected with this system, as to lead us to suppose that it was made
for them; a rational inhabitant was obviously still wanting to complete
the work, and to constitute a perfect whole. The formation of such a
being was marked, therefore, by a manner of proceeding which serves to
impress us with a sense of the greatness of the work. Not that it could
be a matter of more difficulty to Omnipotence to create man than any
thing beside; but principally, it is probable, because he was to be the
lord of the whole and therefore himself accountable to the original
proprietor; and was to be the subject of another species of government,
a moral administration; and to be constituted an image of the
intellectual and moral perfections, and of the immortality, of the
common Maker. Every thing therefore, as to man’s creation, is given in a
solemn and deliberative form, and contains also an intimation of a
Trinity of Persons in the Godhead, all equally possessed of _creative_
power, and therefore _Divine_, to each of whom man was to stand in
relations the most sacred and intimate:--“And God said, Let US make man
in our image, after our likeness; and let them have dominion,” &c.
3. It may be next inquired in what that image of God in which man was
made consists.
It is manifest from the history of Moses, that human nature has two
essential constituent parts, the BODY formed out of preëxisting matter,
the earth; and a LIVING SOUL, breathed into the body by an _inspiration_
from God. “And the Lord God formed man out of the dust of the ground,
and breathed into his nostrils (or _face_) the breath of life,
(_lives_,) and man became a living soul.” Whatever was thus imparted to
the body of man, already “_formed_,” and perfectly finished in all its
parts, was the only cause of life; and the whole tenor of Scripture
shows that this was the rational spirit itself, which, by a law of its
Creator, was incapable of death, even after the body had fallen under
that penalty.