Lechler, Id. 446. On the comparison of English and French deism see
Henke’s _Kirchengeschichte_, vi. s. 131.
515 1726-1729. Cfr. Villemain, _Cours de Litt._ i. (168-177). A letter
of Fleury, quoted from Schlosser by Lechler (Id. 446), proves that
his fears were excited by the influence which English literature was
producing.
516 On this charge of attack about 1750 see Buckle, i. 716-718; and on
the origin of the attack on the church, and the causes why it
preceded that on the state, Id. 684 seq. Cfr. also De Tocqueville’s
_Louis XV_, t. ii. ch. 10.
517 Voltaire lived 1694-1778. The Life by Lord Brougham, in _Lives of
Men of Letters_, is not only very full of facts, but contains some
very able criticism, especially on the dramatic works of Voltaire.
More biographies have been given in this lecture than in others, in
accordance with the reasons explained in Lec. I. p. 33, because in
this period the infidel influence was the result of the teachers, as
much as of the ideas taught. See concerning Voltaire, Henke’s
_Kirchengesch._ vi. 166; Schlosser, _Hist. of Eighteenth Century_,
i. 2. § 1, iv. § 1. Bartholmess, _Hist. Crit. des Doctr. Relig. de
la Phil. Mod._ i. 211 seq.; Bungener’s _Voltaire_.
518 In 1726.
519 Sirven was condemned in 1762, on an unjust suspicion of causing his
daughter’s death, to prevent her becoming a protestant.
520 La Barre was a youth of seventeen, who, on the suspicion of having
injured a crucifix on the bridge of Abbeville, was condemned (1763)
to be tortured on the rack, to have his tongue cut out, and to be
put to death; which sentence was literally executed. See _Biographie
Universelle_, sub _Voltaire_, vol. xix. p. 484, and Brougham’s Life
of him (94-99).
521 The Calas were a family at Toulouse, the father of which was put to
death (1762) by catholic fanaticism. Voltaire investigated the facts
with care; and, by instituting legal proceedings at Paris, got the
sentence of the Toulouse court reversed, and all the reparation that
was possible made to the family. Money to defray the expenses was
sent to him from all the reformed parts of Europe. The English queen
(Charlotte) and the archbishop of Canterbury (Secker) headed the
English subscription list. The facts have lately been reinvestigated
by the accomplished A. Coquerel _fils._, _Jean Calas et sa Famille_,
1858. The narrative is told in the _Westminster Review_, No. 28, for
Oct. 1858. See also Henke’s _Kirchengeschichte_, vi. 298 seq.
On the tomb of Voltaire, now a cenotaph, in the vaults of the
Pantheon, is an inscription, “Il défendit Calas, Sirven, De la
Barre, et Montbailly.” Since the Pantheon has been converted into a
church, the side of the tomb which bears this inscription has been
concealed by a screen, so that visitors are only permitted to view
one of the other sides.
522 Carlyle’s _Miscellaneous Works_, vol. ii. It will be observed that
many of the following remarks are abbreviated from this source.
523 Carlyle, Id. p. 113.
524 i.e. the age of Louis XV. See Id. pp. 180-185.
525 On Voltaire’s power of ridicule, see Id. 120, 167; and on his power
of order, 163 seq.
526 Id. p. 161.
527 Id. p. 119.
528 The question of Voltaire’s blasphemy is treated by lord Brougham
(_Life_, p. 7).
529 The four volumes are xxxii-xxxv of the _Œuvres Complètes_, 8vo.
1785. Vol. xxxii contains the philosophical works, of which ch. 2,
6, 7, 9, of the _Traité de Metaphysique_, relate to religion; also
the _Profession de Foi des Théistes_; the _Homélies prononcées à
Londres_. Vol. xxxiii contains the _Examen de Milord Bolingbroke_;
and the _Epitre aux Romains_. Vol. xxxiv, _La Bible enfin
Expliquée_, where the notes contain Voltaire’s views fully. Vol.
xxiv, _Histoire de l’Etablissement du Christianisme_.
530 On the persecutions which fell on literary men, see Buckle, i.
(672-684.)
531 The proof of this assertion is clear in his _Traité de
Metaphysique_, c. 2. (_Œuvres_, vol. xxxii); in Letter iii of
Memmius to Cicero; in the _Profess. de Foi des Théistes_; and is
shown by the fact of his opposition to the Encyclopædists on the
ground of their atheism; which is confirmed by the inscription on
his tomb, “Il combattit les athées.” It is his blasphemous tone
which has, not unnaturally, given rise to the idea of his atheism.
532 “Ecrasez l’infame” are the words, the initials of which, signed at
the end of his letters to infidel friends, baffled the French
police. Buckle considers them to have been designed against the
French church, but offers no proof. It is to be feared that they
were rather intended against the Christian religion, if not against
the sacred person of our blessed Lord.
533 See his _Commentary_ (_Œuvres_, vol. xxxiv.), the _Homélies_ (vol.
xxxii,), and the _Histoire_ (vol. xxxiv.).
534 On the contrast of his historic tone to that of Bossuet, see Buckle,
i. 726, and Schlosser, _History of the Eighteenth Century_, (English
translation), vol. i. ch. iv. § 2. p. 273.
535 Compare Carlyle’s remarks _ut sup._ p. 175.
536 Id. 105.
537 On Frederick’s entertainment of these French refugees, see Henke,
_Kirchengesch_. vi. 180; Schlosser, vol. i. 2. § 3.
538 La Mettrie (1709-1751). His views are seen in the _Discours
Préliminaire_ to his _Hist. Nat. del âme_, and in the _L’homme
machiné_ (1748). See a criticism on him in Ph. Damiron’s _Memoires
pour servir à l’Histoire de Philosophie au 18__e__ siècle_ (vol. i.
pp. 1-49), reprinted from the Report of the _Académie des Sciences_;
also Henke, vi, 13.
539 De Prades (1720-1782). See Henke, vi. 201; also the article in the
_Biographie Universelle_.
540 D’Argens (1704-1771). See Damiron, Id. ii. 256-376.
541 On the old coteries of Rambouillet, &c., see Hallam’s _Hist. of
Literature_, iii. 137.
542 D’Alembert (1717-83). For particulars of his life, see Brougham’s
memoir in _Lives of Men of Letters_. For his philosophy, see
Damiron, ii. 1-114; Henke, vi. 218; Schlosser, i. 4. § 7. His
infidelity was known to friends, but not openly avowed.
543 Marmontel (1723-99). See Sainte-Beuve, _Portraits_, vol. iv.;
Schlosser, ii. 2. § 1.
544 Grimm, 1723-1807. See Sainte-Beuve, vol. vii. The _Correspondance
Litt. par le Baron Grimm et Diderot_ is the great source for the
knowledge of his character.
545 St. Lambert (1717-1803). See Damiron, ii. 144-256.
546 Abbé Raynal (1711-96). See Schlosser, ii. 2. § 1. Henke, vol. vi.
enumerates many more of the same class. Particulars of all are given
in the _Biographie Universelle_.
547 The following refer to places where the tendency and spirit of this
whole movement are described, as well as literary information
supplied. Henke, vi. 208, &c.; Bartholmess, i. 117-210; Lerminier’s
_Influence de la Phil. du 18__e__ siècle_ (1833); Morell’s _Hist. of
Phil._ i. 158, &c.; Maurice, _Mod. Phil._ p. 527-59; H. Martin’s
_Hist. de France_, vol. xv. and xvi. liv. 96, 99, 100, 101;
Renouvier, _Mod. Phil._ b. v. ch. 2. § 6-8; also Kuno Fischer’s
_Bacon_, p. 451, and the references above given to Schlosser and to
Damiron; Tennemann (_Manual_, § 378, &c.) also gives many literary
references.
548 Diderot (1713-84). His life and character have been sketched by
Carlyle, (_Misc. Works_, vol. iv.); also by Damiron, ii. (227-324);
St. Beuve, i. 355. Also see Villemain, _Tableau de la Litt. au
18__e__ siècle_, lec. xix. 20. His novels are the parent of the
impure novel of modern times. See Schlosser, i. 4. § 5, ii 2. § 1.
549 In the _Essai sur le Mérite et la Vertu_, pp. 73, 87, he allows
deism, the God of moral order. Similarly in the _Pensées Philos._ §
46, but it is the God of nature. But in the Dialogue with D’Alembert
he teaches atheism. On his theological views see Damiron, ii. 261
seq.
550 § 25, &c.
551 See Carlyle, _Misc. Works_, iv. 322.
552 Helvetius (1715-1771). See C. Remusat in _Rev. des Deux Mondes_,
Aug. 15, 1858. On the circle of Helvetius see Carlyle _ut sup._ 287
seq.; and on their atheism Buckle, i. 786 seq. Concerning Helvetius
himself see Ritter’s _Christliche Philos._ viii. b. ix. ch. 2;
Cousin’s _Hist. de Phil. Morale_, leçon 7; Schlosser, i. 4. § 6.
553 Viz., _De l’Esprit et de l’Homme_ (Œuvres compl. 1818, vol. i. and
ii.). Both treatises are excellently analysed in the table of
contents prefixed to the work. The allusions in the text here may be
thought to fail from their brevity in showing that Helvetius’s
opinions were a logical corollary from his principles; they cannot
at least give any notion of the great power of analysis exhibited by
him in expressing his own views.
554 In Discourse ii.
555 Id.
556 D’Holbach (1723-89). _The Système de la Nature_ bears the name of a
Mirabaud, secretary to the Academy. Some have thought it to be
written by Robinet, author of a similar work. (His works are
discussed in Damiron, ii, 480 seq.) Concerning the work see
Villemain, iii. leç. 38; Damiron, i. (93-177); Ritter, _Christ.
Philos._ viii. b. 9. ch. 3; Schlosser, i. 4. § 1. On D’Holbach’s
view of God see Damiron, Id. p. 155, &c.; Buckle, i. 787, note. The
_Système de la Nature_ is partly analysed and criticised in
Brougham’s _Discourse on Natural Theology_, pp. 232-47. It comprised
two volumes, and is followed by a volume containing three small
treatises relating to the natural principles of morals, and social
philosophy. The work was refuted by Bergier (1771).
557 Partie 1ere ch. iii. and iv.
558 Part ii. ch. vii.
559 Part ii. ch. xi.
560 Part i. ch. xiii.
561 Part ii. ch. i.
562 Id. ch. iv. and v.
563 Damiron discuses, in addition to the writers already named, two or
three others, viz., Naigeon, Sylv. Marechal, and De la Lande, whose
names are not introduced here into the text.
564 On Rousseau see Villemain ii. leçon (23-24); Brougham’s life of him
in _Men of Letters_; Bartholmess, i. 233-270; Henke, vi. 232,
especially p. 253, which refers to his theology; Schlosser, i. 4. §
4, and ii. § 2; St. Marc Girardin on the Emile in _Rev. des Deux
Mondes_, Dec. 1854; and an article, too favourably written, but full
of information, in the _Westminster Review_, Oct. 1859, which has
been of much use for this lecture.
565 The chief facts of Rousseau’s life are these:—Born 1712; came to
Paris, 1741; wrote _Sur les Sciences et les Arts_, 1750;
_L’inegalité parmi les hommes_, 1753; lived in the Paris coteries,
1754-60; wrote _Nouvelle Heloise_, 1760; _Le Contrat Social_, 1761,
and _Emile_; an exile in Switzerland 1762, where he wrote _Lettres
de la Montagne_; accompanied Hume to England 1776; wrote his
_Confessions_; returned to the Continent 1767; died 1770.
566 There are some good remarks on this theory in the article in the
_Westminster Review_ before quoted, the substance of which is to
show that Rousseau’s doctrine was false in its method and in its
tendencies. It marked the stage of inquiry, indicative of the last
part of the last century, when men, ignoring the teaching of
history, strove to solve problems by means of abstract speculations;
the attempt to study the origin of phenomena instead of the facts of
their progressive manifestation. The social contract is nothing but
the description of the collective development to which society
tends. The scheme was visionary: but, as a protest against unjust
monopolies which existed in that age, it woke up a response in
society (cfr. Mill on _Liberty_, p. 47-50); and in its tendency it
made Rousseau the precursor of the French revolution; but in
typifying that movement it represented only its transient aspect of
subversive energy, not its work of political reformation.
_ 567 Emile_, b. iv. (See _Œuvres_, vol. iv. p. 14-119, ed. Paris, 1823,
by Musset-Pathay.)
568 Id. p. 17-20.
569 Id. p. 22-30.
_ 570 Emile_, p. 33: “Si la matière mue me montre une volonté, la matière
mue, selon de certaines lois me montre une intelligence. C’est mon
second article de foi.”
571 P. 34, 36.
572 P. 40-49.
573 P. 50-53.
574 P. 57-75.
575 P. 83-86.
576 P. 75-119.
577 P. 86, &c.
578 P. 86.
_ 579 Emile_, pp. 105-107.
580 The comparison of the statements of the _Confessions_ with fragments
of Rousseau lately published, shows that many statements which they
contain in reference to other persons is false. The statement in the
text is made in deference to the opinion latterly stated (e.g. in
Heine’s _Allemagne_), that there is a general air of romance
pervading the work. If the statements in reference to himself are
untrue, the narrative is only a greater proof of the immorality of
the author. The supposition however seems groundless. The defender
of Rousseau, G. H. Morin (_Essai_, 1851), does not exculpate his
author by impeaching the historical truthfulness of the Confessions.
581 The high moral standard is not of course seen in the _Confessions_,
which show Rousseau to have been the incarnation of selfishness, and
much worse than most of the other unbelievers, but is exhibited in
the _Emile_. The fact that the author of the latter work could write
the former is a sad example of a man knowing, like the ancient
heathens, how to do good and doing it not.
582 Henke (vi. p. 267 seq.) draws out the comparison of Voltaire with
Rousseau in an excellent manner. Coleridge (_Friend_, vol. i.
165-186) has given a comparison of Voltaire with Erasmus, and of
Rousseau with Luther.
583 See Villemain, i. 14, 15., ii. 22; Schlosser, i. 2. § 2., 4. § 3,
and ii. 2. § 2.
584 See Buckle, i. (772-783).
585 Compare Macaulay’s remarks in reference to the Revolution, _Essays_
(ed. 8vo. 1843), ii. 215, &c.
586 For the causes of the revolution compare the statements of Alison,
_Hist. of Europe_, i. ch. ii. and iii., and Buckle, i. (836-850).
587 On the incipient hostility to religion in the National Assembly, see
Alison, vol. ii. ch. v. § 46, Id. § 32-35. On the full development
of it in the Convention, see Id. iv. ch. xiv. § (45-48).
588 Nov. 9.
589 Concerning this act of Robespierre, see Alison, iv. ch. xv. § 23,
24, 27.
590 On the state of religion under the Directory, see Alison, vol. v.
ch. xix. § 41, and vol. vi, ch. xxiv. § 19.
591 See M. Gregoire’s _Histoire de la Théophilanthropie_, forming part
of his _Histoire des Sectes Relig._, and the notice of it in the
_Quarterly Review_, No. 56. Also the references in Alison, vi. ch.
xxiv. § 19; Staüdlin, _Geschichte des Rationalismus und Supernat._
1826, (44-54.)
592 On the state under Napoleon, see Alison, viii. ch. xxxv. § 1, and
30-40.
593 April 11, 1802.
594 See Morell, _Hist, of Phil._ vol. i. ch. iv. § 2.
_ 595 Les Ruines ou Meditations sur les Revolutions des Empires_ (1791.)
A similar view of religion is taken in Dupuis, _Origine de tous les
Cultes_, 1795.
596 Ch. ii.
597 Ch. iii.
598 Ch. v.
599 Ch. vii-xii.
600 Ch. xv.
601 Ch. xix.
602 Ch. xx. &c.
603 Ch. xxii. p. 218.
604 P. 226.
605 P. 232.
606 P. 238.
607 P. 255.
608 P. 262.
609 P. 268.
610 P. 274.
611 P. 277.
612 P. 285.
613 P. 286.
614 P. 287.
615 P. 288.
616 Ch. xxiv. p. 320.
617 Such as the idea of the plurality of worlds suggested by Fontenelle.
618 The apologetic literature of this period of the French church is not
powerful. See Buckle, i. 692, note; and Alison, i. 2. § 62.
619 The influence on Germany will be seen in Lect. VI.
620 In Lect. IV.
621 Gibbon (1737-1794). See _Autobiography_ (Milman’s edition 1839), ch.
iii. p. 73, &c.
622 Cfr. some remarks (p. 27, 28,) in an instructive paper on Gibbon in
the _National Review_, No. 3, on the relation of his method and
style to his age.
623 Milman and Guizot.
624 The first of these is explained by Dr. Milman, Preface to edition of
Gibbon, p. 10, and the article in the _Quarterly Review_, No. 100.
625 Cfr. Mackintosh (_Life_, i. 244), quoted by Milman in his edition of
Gibbon, c. xv. first note.
626 The remarks which follow are partly taken from the above-named
article in the _National Review_ (pp. 33-36). Nearly the same thing
is said by Miss Hennell in the fifth Baillie Prize Essay on the
early Christian anticipation of the end of the world, 1860, a
treatise which in other respects is very objectionable.
627 Bp. Watson’s _Apology for Christianity_ was a reply to Gibbon, 1776.
Dean Milman’s notes to chapters xv. and xvi. of Gibbon are an
excellent comment and criticism.
628 Byron, _Childe Harold_, iii. 105-108.
629 Paine (1737-1809), published _Rights of Man_, 1790; _Age of Reason_,
1794. See the life by Cheetham, 1809, and Chalmers’s _Biographical
Dictionary_. Bp. Watson’s _Apology for the Bible_ was a reply to
Paine (1796).
630 Anacharsis Clootz.
631 The danger arising from republican clubs is described in Alison, iv.
ch. xvi. § 6; and in W. Hamilton Reed’s _Rise and Dissolution of
Infidel Societies in the Metropolis_, 1800. See also the Report of
the Committee of the House of Lords on them, 1801. The works of
Godwin on _Political Justice_, 1793, and of Mary Woolstencraft on
the _Rights of Women_, are generally adduced as illustrations of the
prevalence of French political principles at that time in England.
632 Part i. pp. 3-19, and part ii. pp. 8-83.
633 Part i. pp. 3, 4; 21-50; part ii. pp. 83-93.
634 P. 44.
635 Part ii. pp. 10-83.
636 Part i. pp. 37-44. This difficulty, first suggested by Fontenelle,
is met in the eloquent _Astronomical Discourses_ (1822) of Chalmers.
The controversy has been newly opened by the brilliant essay on the
_Plurality of Worlds_ (1853), supposed to be by Dr. Whewell, and
pursued by Dr. Brewster (_More Worlds than One_), Professor Baden
Powell (Essays on the _Order of Nature_), and by Professor H. S.
Smith in the _Oxford Essays_, 1855.
637 Page 20.
638 Part i. pp. 3, 4; p. 50.
639 Robert Owen (1771-1858). About the year 1800 he became known in
connexion with schemes of industrial reform at the Lanark mills; and
from 1813-19 conducted them as a social experiment to carry out his
views. He attempted also to spread his opinions in America. After
his return to England, by means of lectures and his work, _The New
Moral World_, he taught them in the manufacturing towns; and they
were widely spread about the time of the Chartist movement
(1839-41). His opinions may be learned from his _Essays on the
Formation of Character_ (1818), which explain his Lanark system; and
especially his _New Moral World_, published about 1839. His
religious opinions may be gathered from the _Debate on the Evidences
and on Society with A. Campbell_, 1839. His autobiography was
published in 1857, and a review of his philosophy by W. L. Sargeant,
1860. An article also related to him in the _Westminster Review_ for
Oct. 1860. See also Morell’s _History of Philosophy_, i. 386 seq.
Mr. R. Dale Owen, son of the above, published several deist tracts
in America, from about 1840-44.
640 It has been considered unnecessary to name three other unimportant
writers, Burgh, Farmer, a writer on the subject of Demoniacs, and
Carlisle, who was prosecuted in 1830.
641 Byron (1788-1824). The _Vision of Judgment_, written in 1821, has
been already referred to in Lecture III. as a vehicle for sceptical
banter. For a brief comparison between the scepticism of Byron and
Shelley, see remarks in the _Westminster Review_, April 1841, by Mr.
G. H. Lewes.
642 Bacon, _Nov. Org._ Aph. 52, 53.
643 Shelley (1792-1822). The materials are abundant for understanding
the character and works of Shelley, in biographies both friendly and
hostile. The second edition of the _Shelley Memorials_, by lady
Shelley, 1859, contains an essay on Christianity by him. Several
important articles in Reviews have been published in reference to
him, among which it is desirable to call attention to the one in the
_National Review_, No. 6, Oct. 1856, which contains a very
instructive analysis of his mental and moral character. It has been
used in the few remarks which follow.
644 The pamphlet appears to have been an anonymous statement of the
weakness of the argument for the existence of deity; negative rather
than positive. See the account of the transaction and its results in
T. J. Hogg’s _Life of Shelley_, 1858, vol. i. pp. (269-286).
645 E.g. in the _Ode to Liberty_ (§ 15 and 16), written in 1820.
646 In the _Adonais_, § 49-51. For Shelley’s own cremation and burial,
see the _Memorials_ by lady Shelley, p. 201.
647 This is well put in the Review above quoted, (p. 356).
648 The Reviewer thinks that the first stage was in tone like Lucretius,
i.e. Epicureanism. The second and third are described here in the
text. The Queen Mab (end of the first division) expressed the first
stage; the first speech of Ahasuerus in the Hellas is a specimen of
the second; and the Adonais (43 and 52) of the third.
649 This contrast however in the evidences, though true in a general
way, must not be pressed so as to imply an absolutely defined line
of chronological separation between the two classes of evidence.
650 Robert Boyle died in 1692, and founded the lecture by his last will.
The lectures commenced in the same year. Bampton’s were founded in
1751; but none delivered till 1780. Hulse died in 1790; but the
lectures did not commence till 1820. A list of the lectures
delivered in each series may be found in Darling’s _Cyclopædia
Bibliographica_.
651 The remarks on evidence in Nos. 73 and 84 of the _Tracts for the
Times_, and the tone assumed by the ultramontane writers of France,
are instances of the undervaluing evidences from the former causes.
The deist literature of the last century, and the writings of
Carlyle in the present, are instances of that which arises from the
latter.
652 I.e. they belong essentially to the protestant stand-point in
theology.
653 See above, p. 160. The view which Blunt took of the evidences is
given in his _Essays_, p. 133, reprinted from the _Quarterly
Review_, April 1828.
654 The controversy raised by the Tübingen school refers to the date of
books of the New Testament which testify to facts and doctrines.
Supposing this primary question settled in favour of our commonly
received view, then the further question follows concerning the
honesty and opportunity of information of the narrators; and it is
here that the arguments of Lyttleton, Lardner, and Paley, in the
last century, find their proper place. See below, Lect. VIII.
655 John iv. 37, 38, 36.
656 On Rationalism see Note 21 at the end of this volume.
657 The sources for the knowledge of this period are briefly stated in
the Preface to these lectures.
658 See p. 9, 99. Hundeshagen (_Der Deutsche Prot._ § 13) insists on the
prime importance of the spiritual element as the moving force in the
Reformation.
659 Melancthon and Camerarius, Calvin and Beza, represent the union of
learning with theology; the second Scaliger, the Stephenses,
Casaubon, and others, are instances of the great lay scholars.
660 The date of the former is 1577; of the latter 1618. These are named
as the events from which the theology in the Lutheran and
Calvinistic churches respectively became fixed. Buddeus (_Isagoge_,
p. 239) dates it rather from the confession of Ratisbon, 1601. On
this dogmatic period see _Der Deutsche Prot._ § 9; Hagenbach’s
_Dogmengesch._ § 216-18; Amand Saintes’ _Critical History of
Rationalism_ (transl.) ch. v. and vi; Pusey’s _Historical Inquiry_,
part i. pp. (1-52), part ii. ch. viii. and ix. (1830). It was this
period which produced the various books of Loci Communes Theologici.
The only exception to this scholastic spirit was Calixt. and the
school of Helmstadt, which in tone was like the school of Saumur,
(Cameron, Amyrauld, and Placæus,) or like Baxter, the controversies
connected with which prove the rule. On it see Schröckh,
_Christliche Kirchengeschichte seit der Reformation_ (1804), viii.
243 seq. On the theologians of this period see Weismann, _Introd. in
Memorabilia Eccles. Hist._ (1718), p. 919 seq.
661 This view of inspiration is stated in Quenstedt’s _Syst. Theol._,
and Calov’s _Syst. Theol._ i. 554 seq., about the end of the
seventeenth century. Dr. Pusey (part i. 140) refers to passages of
Semler’s _Lebens-Beschreibung_ illustrative of these opinions in the
German church of that period. On the similar controversy which
existed in the French protestant church see note above, p. 113. This
is only one instance among many of the close analogy which exists in
the development of thought between the reformed churches in
different lands.
662 These are the chief influences which the German writers enumerate.
See Tholuck ii. § 2-5, Kahnis, _History of German Protest_. (transl.
1856) i. 1.