CHAPTER II.

Various modes of capturing Fish--The hook and line--Military

use of the hook--Putting a hook in the jaws--The fishing

spear--Different kinds of net--The casting-net--Prevalence

of this form--Technical words among fishermen--Fishing

by night--The draught of Fishes--The real force of the

miracle--Selecting the Fish--The Fish-gate and Fish-market--Fish

killed by a draught--Fishing in the Dead Sea--Dagon, the

fish-god of Philistina, Assyria, and Siam--Various Fishes of

Egypt and Palestine.

As to the various methods of capturing Fish, we will first take the

simplest plan, that of the hook and line.

Sundry references are made to angling, both in the Old and New

Testaments. See, for example, the well-known passage respecting the

leviathan, in Job xli. 1, 2: "Canst thou draw out leviathan with an

hook? or his tongue with a cord which thou lettest down?

"Canst thou put an hook into his nose? or bore his jaw through with

a thorn?"

It is thought that the last clause of this passage refers, not to

the actual capture of the Fish, but to the mode in which they were

kept in the tanks, each being secured by a ring or hook and line, so

that it might be taken when wanted.

On referring to the New Testament, we find that the fisher Apostles

used both the hook and the net. See Matt. xvii. 27: "Go thou to the

sea, and cast an hook, and take up the fish that first cometh up."

Now this passage explains one or two points.

In the first place, it is one among others which shows that,

although the Apostles gave up all to follow Christ, they did not

throw away their means of livelihood, as some seem to fancy, nor

exist ever afterwards on the earnings of others. On the contrary,

they retained their fisher equipment, whether boats, nets, or hooks;

and here we find St. Peter, after the way of fishermen, carrying

about with him the more portable implements of his craft.

Next, the phrase "casting" the hook into the sea is exactly

expressive of the mode in which angling is conducted in the sea and

large pieces of water, such as the Lake of Galilee. The fisherman

does not require a rod, but takes his line, which has a weight just

above the hook, coils it on his left arm in lasso fashion, baits the

hook, and then, with a peculiar swing, throws it into the water as

far as it will reach. The hook is allowed to sink for a short time,

and is then drawn towards the shore in a series of jerks, in order

to attract the Fish, so that, although the fisherman does not employ

a rod, he manages his line very much as does an angler of our own

day when "spinning" for pike or trout.

Sometimes the fisherman has a number of lines to manage, and in this

case he acts in a slightly different manner. After throwing out the

loaded hook, as above mentioned, he takes a short stick, notched at

one end, and pointed at the other, thrusts the sharp end into the

ground at the margin of the water, and hitches the line on the notch.

He then proceeds to do the same with all his lines in succession,

and when he has flung the last hook into the water, he sits down

on a heap of leaves and grass which he has gathered together, and

watches the lines to see if either of them is moved in the peculiar

jerking manner which is characteristic of a "bite." After a while,

he hauls them in successively, removes the Fish that may have been

caught, and throws the lines into the water afresh.

* * * * *

We now come to the practice of catching Fish by the net, a custom

to which the various Scriptural writers frequently refer, sometimes

in course of historical narrative, and sometimes by way of allegory

or metaphor. The reader will remember that the net was also used on

land for the purpose of catching wild animals, and that many of the

allusions to the net which occur in the Old Testament refer to the

land and not to the water.

The commonest kind of net, which was used in the olden times as it

is now, was the casting-net. This kind of net is circular, and is

loaded all round its edge with weights, and suspended by the middle

to a cord. When the fisherman throws this net, he gathers it up in

folds in his arms, and, with a peculiar swing of the arms, only to

be learned by long practice, flings it so that it spreads out and

falls in its circular form upon the surface of the water. It rapidly

sinks to the bottom, the loaded circumference causing it to assume

a cup-like form, enclosing within its meshes all the Fish that

happen to be under it as it falls. When it has reached the bottom,

the fisherman cautiously hauls in the rope, so that the loaded

edges gradually approach each other, and by their own weight cling

together and prevent the Fish from escaping as the net is slowly

drawn ashore.

This kind of net is found, with certain modifications, in nearly

all parts of the world. The Chinese are perhaps supreme in their

management of it. They have a net of extraordinary size, and cast it

by flinging it over their backs, the huge circle spreading itself

out in the most perfect manner as it falls on the water.

At the present day, when the fishermen use this net they wade into

the sea as far as they can, and then cast it. In consequence of this

custom, the fishermen are always naked while engaged in their work,

wearing nothing but a thick cap in order to save themselves from

sun-stroke. It is probable that on the memorable occasion mentioned

by St. John, in chap. xxi., all the fishermen were absolutely,

and not relatively naked, wearing no clothes at all, not even the

ordinary tunic.

That a great variety of nets was used by the ancient Jews is

evident from the fact that there are no less than ten words to

signify different kinds of net. At the present day we have very

great difficulty in deciding upon the exact interpretation of these

technical terms, especially as in very few cases are we assisted

either by the context or by the etymology of the words. It is the

same in all trades or pursuits, and we can easily understand how our

own names of drag-net, seine, trawl, and keer-drag would perplex

any commentator who happened to live some two thousand years after

English had ceased to be a living language.

[Illustration: MODE OF DRAGGING THE SEINE-NET.]

The Sagene, or seine-net, was made in lengths, any number of which

could be joined together, so as to enclose a large space of water.

The upper edge was kept at the surface of the water by floats, and

the lower edge sunk by weights.

This net was always taken to sea in vessels, and when "shot" the

various lengths were joined together, and the net extended in a

line, with a boat at each end. The boats then gradually approached

each other, so as to bring the net into a semicircle, and finally

met, enclosing thereby a vast number of Fishes in their meshen

walls. The water was then beaten, so as to frighten the Fishes

and drive them into the meshes, and the net was then either taken

ashore, or lifted by degrees on board the boats, and the Fish

removed from it.

As in a net of this kind Fishes of all sorts are enclosed, the

contents are carefully examined, and those which are unfit for

eating are thrown away. Even at the present day much care is taken

in the selection, but in the ancient times the fishermen were still

more cautious, every Fish having to be separately examined in order

that the presence both of fins and scales might be assured before

the captors could send it to the market.

It is to this custom that Christ alludes in the well-known parable

of the net: "Again, the kingdom of heaven is like unto a net that

was cast into the sea, and gathered of every kind;

"Which, when it was full, they drew to shore, and sat down, and

gathered the good into vessels, but cast the bad away."

* * * * *

Lastly, we come to the religious, or rather superstitious, part

played by Fish in the ancient times. That the Egyptians employed

Fish as material symbols of Divine attributes we learn from secular

writers, such as Herodotus and Strabo.

The Jews, who seem to have had an irrepressible tendency to

idolatry, and to have adopted the idols of every people with whom

they came in contact, resuscitated the Fish-worship of Egypt as soon

as they found themselves among the Philistines. We might naturally

imagine that as the Israelites were bitterly opposed to their

persistent enemy, who trod them under foot and crushed every attempt

at rebellion for more than three hundred years, they would repudiate

the worship as well as the rule of their conquerors. But, on the

contrary, they adopted the worship of Dagon, the Fish-god, who was

the principal deity of the Philistines, and erected temples in his

honour.

We find precisely the same worship at the present day in Siam, where

Dagon has exactly the same form as among the Philistines of old.

There is now before me a photograph of a great temple at Ayutia, the

entrance to which is guarded by two huge images of the Fish-god.

They are about sixty feet in height, and have both legs and feet

like man, but in addition the lower part of the body is modified

into the tail of a Fish, which, in common with the whole of the

body, is covered with gilded scales.

In order that the reader may see examples of the typical Fish which

are to be found in Egypt and Palestine, I have added three more

species, which are represented in the following illustration.

[Illustration: FISHES OF EGYPT AND PALESTINE.

1. NILE PERCH. 2. SURMULLET. 3. STAR-GAZER.]

The uppermost figure represents the NILE PERCH. This Fish is

plentiful in the Nile, and in the mouths of many Asiatic rivers. It

is brown above, silvery white below, and may be distinguished by the

armed gill-covers, and the three strong spines of the anal fin. The

tongue is smooth.

Immediately below the Nile Perch is the STAR-GAZER.

This Fish is found in the Mediterranean, and derives its name from

the singular mode in which the eyes are set in the head, so that it

looks upwards instead of sideways. It is one of the mud-lovers,

a fact which accounts for the peculiar position of the eyes. It

is said to feed after the fashion of the fishing-frog--_i.e._ by

burying itself in the mud and attracting other Fishes by a worm-like

appendage of its mouth, and pouncing on them before they are aware

of their danger.

This is not a pretty Fish, and as it is very spiny, is not pleasant

to the grasp, but its flesh is very good, and it is much valued by

those who can obtain it.

The last Fish to be noticed is the SURMULLET, a Fish that is equally

remarkable for the beauty of its colours and the excellence of its

flesh.

[Illustration: man]

MOLLUSCS.

The purple of Scripture--The sac containing the purple

dye--Curious change of colour--Mode of obtaining the dye--The

Tyrian purple--The king of the Ethiopians and the purple

robe--The professional purple dyers--Various words expressive of

different shades of purple.

Leaving the higher forms of animal life, we now pass to the

Invertebrated Animals which are mentioned in Scripture.

As may be inferred from the extreme looseness of nomenclature

which prevails among the higher animals, the species which can be

identified are comparatively few, and of them but a very few details

are given in the Scriptures.

Taking them in their zoological order, we will begin with the

MOLLUSCS.

* * * * *

We are all familiar with the value which was set by the ancients

upon the peculiar dye which may be called by the name of Imperial

Purple. In the first place, it was exceedingly costly, not only

for its richness of hue, but from the great difficulty with which

a sufficient quantity could be procured for staining a dress.

Purple was exclusively a royal colour, which might not be worn by a

subject. Among the ancient Romans, during the times of the Cæsars,

any one who ventured to appear in a dress of purple would do so at

the peril of his life. In the consular days of Rome, the dress of

the consuls was white, striped with purple; but the Cæsars advanced

another step in luxury, and dyed the whole toga of this costly hue.

The colour of the dye is scarcely what we understand by the term

"purple," _i.e._ a mixture of blue and red. It has but very little

blue in it, and has been compared by the ancients to the colour

of newly-clotted blood. It is obtained from several Shell Fish

belonging to the great Whelk family, the chief of which is the

_Murex brandaris_.

The shell is shaped something like that of a whelk, but is very

smooth and porcelain-like, and is generally white, ornamented with

several coloured bands. It is, however, one of the most variable of

shells, differing not only in colour but in form. It always inhabits

the belt of the shore between tide-marks, and preys upon other

Molluscs, such as the mussel and periwinkle, literally licking them

to pieces with its long riband tongue.

This tongue is beset with rows of hooked teeth, exactly like the

shark-tooth weapons of the Samoan and Mangaian Islanders, and with

it the creature is enabled to bore through the shells of mussels

and similar Molluscs, and to eat the enclosed animal. It is very

destructive to periwinkles, thrusting its tongue through the mouth

of the shell, piercing easily the operculum by which the entrance is

closed, and gradually scooping out the unfortunate inmate.

Even the bivalves, which can shut themselves up between two shells,

fare no better, the tongue of the Dog-Whelk rasping a hole in the

hard shell in eight-and-forty hours.

In order to procure the animal, the shell must be broken with a

sharp blow of a small hammer, and the receptacle of the colouring

matter can then be seen behind the head, and recognised by its

lighter hue.

When it is opened, a creamy sort of matter exudes. It is yellowish,

and gives no promise of its future richness of hue. There is only

one drop of this matter in each animal, and it is about sufficient

in quantity to stain a piece of linen the size of a dime.

The best mode of seeing the full beauty of the purple is to take a

number of the Molluscs, and to stain as large a surface as possible.

The piece of linen should then be exposed to the rays of the sun,

when it will go through a most curious series of colours. The yellow

begins to turn green, and, after a while, the stained portions of

the linen will be entirely green, the yellow having been vanquished

by the blue. By degrees the blue predominates more and more over the

yellow, until the linen is no more green, but blue. Then, just as

the yellow yielded to the blue, the blue yields to red, and becomes

first violet, then purple, and lastly assumes the blood-red hue of

royalty.

The colour is very permanent, and, instead of fading by time, seems

rather to brighten.

In some cases the ancients appear not to have troubled themselves

with the complicated operation of taking the animal out of the

shell, opening the receptacle, and squeezing the contents on the

fabric to be dyed, but simply crushed the whole of the Mollusc,

so as to set the colouring matter free, and steeped the cloth

in the pulp. Tyre was one of the most celebrated spots for this

manufacture, the "Tyrian dye" being celebrated for its richness.

Heaps of broken shells remain to the present day as memorials of the

long-perished manufacture.

The value which the ancients set upon this dye is shown by many

passages in various books. Among others we may refer to Herodotus.

Cambyses, it appears, had a design to make war upon three

nations, the Ammonians, the Carthaginians, and the Ethiopians. He

determined to invade the first by land, and the second by sea;

but, being ignorant of the best method of reaching the Ethiopians,

he dispatched messengers to them, nominally as ambassadors, but

practically as spies. He sent to the King of Ethiopia valuable

presents--namely, a purple mantle, a golden necklace and bracelet,

an elaborate box of perfumed ointment, and a cask of palm-wine,

these evidently being considered a proof of imperial magnificence.

The Ethiopian king ridiculed the jewels, praised the wine, and

asked curiously concerning the dye with which the purple mantle

was stained. On being told the mode of preparation, he refused

to believe the visitors, and, referring to the changing hues of

the mantle and to the perfume of the ointment, he showed his

appreciation of their real character by saying that the goods were

deceptive, and so were the bearers.

The Hebrew word _argaman_, which signifies the regal purple, occurs

several times in Scripture, and takes a slightly different form

according to the Chaldaic or Hebraic idiom.

For example, we find it in Exod. xxv. 4: "This is the offering which

ye shall take of them: gold, and silver, and brass,

"And blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine linen," &c. &c.

It occurs again in 2 Chron. ii. 7: "Send me now therefore a man

cunning to work in gold, and in silver, and in brass, and in iron,

and in purple, and crimson, and blue."

THE SNAIL.

The Snail which melteth--Rendering of the Jewish Bible--Theory

respecting the track of the Snail--The Hebrew word

_Shablul_--Various Snails of Palestine.

There is a very remarkable and not very intelligible passage in Ps.

lviii. 8: "As a snail which melteth, let every one of them pass

away." The Jewish Bible renders the passage in a way which explains

the idea which evidently prevailed at the time when the Psalms were

composed: "As a snail let him melt as he passeth on."

The ancients had an idea that the slimy track made by a Snail as it

crawled along was subtracted from the substance of its body, and

that in consequence the farther it crept, the smaller it became,

until at last it wasted entirely away. The commentators on the

Talmud took this view of the case. The Hebrew word _shablul_, which

undoubtedly does signify a Snail of some kind, is thus explained:

"The Shablul is a creeping thing: when it comes out of its shell,

saliva pours from itself, until it becomes liquid, and so dies."

Other explanations of this passage have been offered, but there is

no doubt that the view taken by these commentators is the correct

one, and that the Psalmist, when he wrote the terrible series of

denunciations in which the passage in question occurs, had in his

mind the popular belief regarding the gradual wasting away of the

Snail as it "passeth on."

It is needless to say that no particular species of Snail is

mentioned, and almost as needless to state that in Palestine there

are many species of Snails, to any or all of which these words are

equally applicable.

[Illustration: PEARL OYSTER.]

THE PEARL.

The Pearl of Scripture--Wisdom compared to Pearl--Metaphorical

uses of the Pearl--The Pearl of great price--Casting Pearls

before swine.

There is only one passage in the Old Testament in which can be found

the word which is translated as PEARL, and it is certain that the

word in question may have another interpretation.

The word in question is _gabish_, and occurs in Job xxviii.

18. Treating of wisdom, in that magnificent passage beginning,

"But where shall Wisdom be found, and where is the place of

understanding?" the sacred writer uses these words, "No mention

shall be made of coral, or of pearls: for the price of wisdom is

above rubies."

In consequence of the labour and research required for seeking

wisdom, it was proverbially likened to a Pearl, and in this sense

we must understand the warning of our Lord, not to cast Pearls

before swine. The "pearl of great price" is another form of the same

metaphor.

* * * * *

The substance of Pearls is essentially the same as that which lines

many shells, and is known as "mother of pearl."

Although a large number of shell-fish secrete "mother of pearl,"

only a few of them yield true Pearls. The finest are obtained from

the so-called Pearl oyster, an illustration of which is given on the

preceding page.

The Ancients obtained their Pearls chiefly from India and the

Persian Gulf, where to this day the industry of Pearl-fishing is

still carried on by the natives.

The oysters containing the Pearls are brought up from the bottom of

the sea by divers, who go out in boats to the fishing-grounds, which

are some distance from the shore.

Leaping naked into the water, carrying a heavy stone to enable him

to sink quickly to the bottom, the diver descends to where the

oysters lie, and secures as many of them as possible during the

limited time that his breath lasts. On an average the divers remain

under water from fifty to eighty seconds, though some can endure a

much longer period.

Sharks are the special dread of Pearl-divers, and many are carried

off by this fierce monster of the deep. To arm himself against their

attack the diver carries a sharp knife, and instances are known of

his having attacked and fairly defeated the dread destroyer in its

own element.

Not only is the diver exposed to the danger of attack from sharks,

but his hazardous calling is necessarily exhausting, and, as a rule,

he is a short-lived man.

There are some kinds of fresh-water mussels which contain Pearls of

an inferior quality; perhaps the most celebrated of these is the

Pearl Mussel of the Chinese, who make a singular use of it. They

string a number of globular pellets, and introduce them between

the valves of the mussel, so that in course of time the creature

deposits a coating of pearly substance upon them, and forms a very

good imitation of real Pearls.

[Illustration: insects]

[Illustration: butterfly]

INSECTS.

THE LOCUST.

Insects--The Locust-The two migratory Locusts at rest and on

the wing--The Locust swarms--Gordon Cumming's account--Progress

of the insect hosts--Vain attempts to check them--Tossed up and

down as a Locust--Effect of the winds on the insect--The east

and the west winds--Locusts used for food--Ancient and modern

travellers--The food of John the Baptist.

Of the LOCUSTS there are several species in Palestine, two of which

are represented in the accompanying plate. Those on the ground are

the common Migratory Locusts, while those on the wing, which have

long heads, are a species of _Truxalis_.

The Locust belongs to the great order of Orthoptera, or

straight-winged insects. They have, when fully developed, four

wings, the two front being thick and membraneous, while the

two hinder wings are large, delicate, translucent, and folded

longitudinally under the front pair of wings when the insect is at

rest. In the Locusts these characteristics are admirably shown. The

appearance of a Locust when at rest and when flying is so different

that the creature is at first sight scarcely recognisable as the

same creature. When at rest, it is a compact and tolerably stout

insect, with a dull though delicately coloured body; but when it

takes flight it appears to attain twice its previous dimensions.

The front pair of wings, which alone were seen before they were

expanded, became comparatively insignificant, while the hinder

pair, which were before invisible, became the most prominent part

of the insect, their translucent folds being coloured with the most

brilliant hues, according to the species. The body seems to have

shrunk as the wings have increased, and to have diminished to half

its previous size, while the long legs that previously were so

conspicuous are stretched out like the legs of a flying heron.

All the Locusts are vegetable-feeders, and do great harm wherever

they happen to be plentiful, their powerful jaws severing even the

thick grass stems as if cut by scissors. But it is only when they

invade a country that their real power is felt. They come flying

with the wind in such vast multitudes that the sky is darkened as

if by thunder-clouds; and when they settle, every vestige of green

disappears off the face of the earth.

Mr. Gordon Cumming once saw a flight of these Locusts. They flew

about three hundred feet from the ground, and came on in thick,

solid masses, forming one unbroken cloud. On all sides nothing was

to be seen but Locusts. The air was full of them, and the plain was

covered with them, and for more than an hour the insect army flew

past him. When the Locusts settle, they eat with such voracity that

the sound caused by their jaws cutting the leaves and grass can be

heard at a great distance; and even the young Locusts, which have no

wings, and are graphically termed by the Dutch colonists of Southern

Africa "voet-gangers," or foot-goers, are little inferior in power

of jaw to the fully-developed insect.

As long as they have a favourable wind, nothing stops the progress

of the Locusts. They press forward just like the vast herds of

antelopes that cover the plains of Africa, or the bisons that once

blackened the prairies of America, and the progress of even the

wingless young is as irresistible as that of the adult insects.

Regiments of soldiers have in vain attempted to stop them. Trenches

have been dug across their path, only to be filled up in a few

minutes with the advancing hosts, over whose bodies the millions of

survivors continued their march. When the trenches were filled with

water, the result was the same; and even when fire was substituted

for water, the flames were quenched by the masses of Locusts that

fell into them. When they come to a tree, they climb up it in

swarms, and devour every particle of foliage, not even sparing the

bark of the smaller branches. They ascend the walls of houses that

come in the line of their march, swarming in at the windows, and

gnawing in their hunger the very woodwork of the furniture.

We shall now see how true to nature is the terrible prophecy of

Joel. "A day of darkness and of gloominess, a day of clouds and of

thick darkness, as the morning spread upon the mountains: a great

people and a strong; there hath not been ever the like, neither

shall be any more after it, even to the years of many generations.

[Illustration: LOCUSTS.]

"A fire devoureth before them; and behind them a flame burneth:

the land is as the garden of Eden before them, and behind them a

desolate wilderness; yea, and nothing shall escape them.

"And the Lord shall utter His voice before His army: for His camp is

very great" (Joel ii. 2-11).

Nothing can be more vividly accurate than this splendid description

of the Locust armies. First we have the darkness caused by them as

they fly like black clouds between the sun and the earth. Then comes

the contrast between the blooming and fertile aspect of the land

before they settle on it, and its utter desolation when they leave

it.

There is one passage in the Scriptures which at first sight seems

rather obscure, but is clear enough when we understand the character

of the insect to which it refers: "I am gone like the shadow when it

declineth: I am tossed up and down as the locust" (Ps. cix. 23).

Although the Locusts have sufficient strength of flight to remain

on the wing for a considerable period, and to pass over great

distances, they have little or no command over the direction of

their flight, and always travel with the wind, just as has been

mentioned regarding the quail. So entirely are they at the mercy

of the wind, that if a sudden gust arises the Locusts are tossed

about in the most helpless manner; and if they should happen to come

across one of the circular air-currents that are so frequently found

in the countries which they inhabit, they are whirled round and

round without the least power of extricating themselves.

In the account of the great plague of Locusts, the wind is mentioned

as the proximate cause both of their arrival and their departure.

See, for example, Exod. x. 12, 13:

"And the Lord said unto Moses, Stretch out thine hand over the land

of Egypt for the locusts, that they may come up upon the land of

Egypt, and eat every herb of the land, even all that the hail hath

left.

"And Moses stretched forth his rod over the land of Egypt, and the

Lord brought an east wind upon the land all that day, and all that

night; and when it was morning, the east wind brought the locusts."

Afterwards, when Moses was brought before Pharaoh, and entreated to

remove the plague which had been brought upon the land, the west

wind was employed to take the Locusts away, just as the east wind

had brought them.

"He went out from Pharaoh, and entreated the Lord.

"And the Lord turned a mighty strong west wind, which took away the

locusts, and cast them into the Red Sea; there remained not one

locust in all the coasts of Egypt" (Exod. x. 18, 19).

Modern travellers have given accounts of these Locust armies, which

exactly correspond with the sacred narrative. One traveller mentions

that, after a severe storm, the Locusts were destroyed in such

multitudes, that they were heaped in a sort of wall, varying from

three to four feet in height, fifty miles in length, and almost

unapproachable, on account of the odour of their decomposing bodies.

* * * * *

We now come to the use of Locusts as food.

Very few insects have been recognised as fit for human food, even

among uncivilized nations, and it is rather singular that the

Israelites, whose dietary was so scrupulously limited, should have

been permitted the use of the Locust. These insects are, however,

eaten in all parts of the world which they frequent, and in some

places form an important article of diet, thus compensating in some

way for the amount of vegetable food which they consume.

When their captors have roasted and eaten as many as they can manage

to devour, they dry the rest over the fires, pulverize them between

two stones, and keep the meal for future use, mixing it with water,

or, if they can get it, with milk.

We will now take a few accounts given by travellers of the present

day, selecting one or two from many. Mr. W. G. Palgrave, in his

"Central and Eastern Arabia," gives a description of the custom of

eating Locusts. "On a sloping bank, at a short distance in front, we

discerned certain large black patches, in strong contrast with the

white glisten of the soil around, and at the same time our attention

was attracted by a strange whizzing, like that of a flight of

hornets, close along the ground, while our dromedaries capered and

started as though struck with sudden insanity.

"The cause of all this was a vast swarm of locusts, here alighted

in their northerly wanderings from their birthplace in the Dahna;

their camp extended far and wide, and we had already disturbed their

outposts. These insects are wont to settle on the ground after

sunset, and there, half-stupified by the night chill, await the

morning rays, which warm them once more into life and movement.

"This time, the dromedaries did the work of the sun, and it would be

hard to say which of the two were the most frightened, they or the

locusts. It was truly laughable to see so huge a beast lose his wits

for fear at the flight of a harmless, stingless insect, for, of all

timid creatures, none equal this 'ship of the desert' for cowardice.

"But, if the beasts were frightened, not so their masters. I really

thought they would have gone mad for joy. Locusts are here an

article of food, nay, a dainty, and a good swarm of them is begged

of Heaven in Arabia....

"The locust, when boiled or fried, is said to be delicious, and

boiled and fried accordingly they are to an incredible extent.

However, I never could persuade myself to taste them, whatever

invitations the inhabitants of the land, smacking their lips over

large dishes full of entomological 'delicatesses,' would make me to

join them. Barakàt ventured on one for a trial. He pronounced it

oily and disgusting, nor added a second to the first: it is caviare

to unaccustomed palates.

"The swarm now before us was a thorough godsend for our Arabs, on no

account to be neglected. Thirst, weariness, all were forgotten, and

down the riders leaped from their starting camels. This one spread

out a cloak, that one a saddle-bag, a third his shirt, over the

unlucky creatures, destined for the morning meal. Some flew away,

whizzing across our feet; others were caught, and tied up in sacks."

Mr. Mansfield Parkyns, in his "Life in Abyssinia," mentions that the

true Abyssinian will not eat the Locust, but that the negroes and

Arabs do so. He describes the flavour as being something between

the burnt end of a quill and a crumb of linseed cake. The flavour,

however, depends much on the mode of cooking, and, as some say, on

the nature of the Locusts' food.

Signor Pierotti states, in his "Customs and Traditions of

Palestine," that Locusts are really excellent food, and that he was

accustomed to eat them, not from necessity, but from choice, and

compares their flavour to that of shrimps.

Dr. Livingstone makes a similar comparison. In Palestine, Locusts

are eaten either roasted or boiled in salt and water, but, when

preserved for future use, they are dried in the sun, their heads,

wings, and legs picked off, and their bodies ground into dust. This

dust has naturally a rather bitter flavour, which is corrected by

mixing it with camel's milk or honey, the latter being the favourite

substance.

We may now see that the food of John the Baptist was, like his

dress, that of a people who lived at a distance from towns, and

that there was no more hardship in the one than in the other.

Some commentators have tried to prove that he fed on the fruit of

the locust or carob tree--the same that is used in some countries

for feeding cattle; but there is not the least ground for such

an explanation. The account of his life, indeed, requires no

explanation; Locust-dust, mixed with honey, being an ordinary

article of food even at the present day.

[Illustration: locust]

[Illustration: flowers]

THE BEE.

The Honey Bee of Palestine--Abundance of Bees in the

Holy Land--Habitations of the wild Bee--The honey of

Scripture--Domesticated Bees and their hives--Stores of wild

honey--The story of Jonathan--The Crusaders and the honey.

Fortunately, there is no doubt about the rendering of the Hebrew

word _debôrah,_ which has always been acknowledged to be rightly

translated as "Bee."

The Honey Bee is exceedingly plentiful in Palestine, and in some

parts of the country multiplying to such an extent that the

precipitous ravines in which it takes up its residence are almost

impassable by human beings, so jealous are the Bees of their

domains. Although the Bee is not exactly the same species as that

of our own country, being the Banded Bee _(Apis fasciata),_ and not

the _Apis mellifica,_ the two insects very much resemble each other

in shape, colour, and habits. Both of them share the instinctive

dislike of strangers and jealousy of intrusion, and the Banded Bee

of Palestine has as great an objection to intrusion as its congener

in this country.

Several allusions are made in the Scriptures to this trait in the

character of the Bee. See, for example, Deut. i. 44: "And the

Amorites, which dwelt in that mountain, came out against you,

and chased you, as bees do, and destroyed you in Seir, even unto

Hormah." All those who have had the misfortune to offend Bees will

recognise the truth of this metaphor, the Amorites swarming out of

the mountain like wild Bees out of the rocky clefts which serve them

as hives, and chasing the intruder fairly out of their domains.

[Illustration: THE BEE]

A similar metaphor is employed in the Psalms: "They compassed me

about; yea, they compassed me about; but in the name of the Lord I

will destroy them.

"They compassed me about like bees, they are quick as the fire of

thorns, but in the name of the Lord I will destroy them."

The custom of swarming is mentioned in one of the earlier books of

Scripture. The reader will remember that, after Samson had killed

the lion which met him on the way, he left the carcase alone.

The various carnivorous beasts and birds at once discover such a

banquet, and in a very short time the body of a dead animal is

reduced to a hollow skeleton, partially or entirely covered with

skin, the rays of the sun drying and hardening the skin until it is

like horn.

In exceptionally hot weather, the same result occurs even in this

country. Some years before this account was written there was a

very hot and dry summer, and a great mortality took place among the

sheep. So many indeed died that at last their owners merely flayed

them, and left their bodies to perish. One of the dead sheep had

been thrown into a rather thick copse, and had fallen in a spot

where it was sheltered from the wind, and yet exposed to the fierce

heat of the summer's sun. The consequence was that in a few days

it was reduced to a mere shell. The heat hardened and dried the

external layer of flesh so that not even the carnivorous beetles

could penetrate it, while the whole of the interior dissolved into

a semi-putrescent state, and was rapidly devoured by myriads of

blue-bottles and other larvæ.

It was so thoroughly dried that scarcely any evil odour clung to

it, and as soon as I came across it the story of Samson received a

simple elucidation. In the hotter Eastern lands, the whole process

would have been more rapid and more complete, and the skeleton of

the lion, with the hard and horny skin strained over it, would

afford exactly the habitation of which a wandering swarm of Bees

would take advantage. At the present day swarms of wild Bees often

make their habitations within the desiccated bodies of dead camels

that have perished on the way.

As to the expression "hissing" for the Bee, the reader must bear in

mind that a sharp, short hiss is the ordinary call in Palestine,

when one person desires to attract the attention of another. A

similar sound, which may perhaps be expressed by the letters _tst_,

prevails on the Continent at the present day. Signor Pierotti

remarks that the inhabitants of Palestine are even now accustomed to

summon Bees by a sort of hissing sound.

Whether the honey spoken of in the Scriptures was obtained from wild

or domesticated Bees is not very certain, but, as the manners of the

East are much the same now as they were three thousand years ago,

it is probable that Bees were kept then as they are now. The hives

are not in the least like ours, but are cylindrical vases of coarse

earthenware, laid horizontally, much like the bark hives employed in

many parts of Southern Africa.

In some places the hives are actually built into the walls of the

houses, the closed end of the cylinder projecting into the interior,

while an entrance is made for the Bees in the other end, so that the

insects have no business in the house. When the inhabitants wish to

take the honey, they resort to the operation which is technically

termed "driving" by bee-masters.

They gently tap the end within the house, and continue the tapping

until the Bees, annoyed by the sound, have left the hive. They then

take out the circular door that closes the end of the hive, remove

as much comb as they want, carefully put back those portions which

contain grubs and bee-bread, and replace the door, when the Bees

soon return and fill up the gaps in the combs. As to the wasteful,

cruel, and foolish custom of "burning" the Bees, the Orientals never

think of practising it.

In many places the culture of Bees is carried out to a very great

extent, numbers of the earthenware cylinders being piled on one

another, and a quantity of mud thrown over them in order to defend

them from the rays of the sun, which would soon melt the wax of the

combs.

In consequence of the geographical characteristics of the Holy Land,

which supplies not only convenient receptacles for the Bees in the

rocks, but abundance of thyme and similar plants, vast stores of

bee-comb are to be found in the cliffs, and form no small part of

the wealth of the people.

The abundance of wild honey is shown by the memorable events

recorded in 1 Sam. xiv. Saul had prohibited all the people

from eating until the evening. Jonathan, who had not heard the

prohibition, was faint and weary, and, seeing honey dripping on the

ground from the abundance and weight of the comb, he took it up on

the end of his staff, and ate sufficient to restore his strength.

Thus, if we refer again to the history of John the Baptist and his

food, we shall find that he was in no danger of starving for want

of nourishment, the Bees breeding abundantly in the desert places

he frequented, and affording him a plentiful supply of the very

material which was needed to correct the deficiencies of the dried

locusts which he used instead of bread.

The expression "a land flowing with milk and honey" has become

proverbial as a metaphor expressive of plenty. Those to whom the

words were spoken understood it as something more than a metaphor.

In the work to which reference has already been made Signor Pierotti

writes as follows:--"Let us now see how far the land could be said

to flow with milk and honey during the latter part of its history

and at the present day.

"We find that honey was abundant in the time of the Crusades, for

the English, who followed Edward I. to Palestine, died in great

numbers from the excessive heat, and from eating too much fruit and

honey.

"At the present day, after traversing the country in every

direction, I am able to affirm that in the south-east and

north-east, where the ancient customs of the patriarchs are most

fully preserved, and the effects of civilization have been felt

least, milk and honey may still be said to flow, as they form a

portion of every meal, and may even be more abundant than water,

which fails occasionally in the heat of summer.... I have often

eaten of the comb, which I found very good and of delicious

fragrance."

* * * * *

The Bee represented in the illustration is the common Bee of

Palestine, _Apis fasciata_. The lowest figure in the corner, with

a long body and shut wings, is the queen. The central figure

represents the drone, conspicuous by means of his large eyes, that

almost join each other at the top of the head, and for his thicker

and stouter body, while the third figure represents the worker Bee.

Near them is shown the entrance to one of the natural hives which

are so plentiful in the Holy Land, and are made in the "clefts of

the rocks." A number of Bees are shown issuing from the hole.

[Illustration: THE HORNET AND ITS NEST.]

THE HORNET.

The Tzirah or Hornet of Scripture--Travellers driven

away by Hornets--The Hornet used as a metaphor--Oriental

symbolism--Sting of the Hornet.

Still keeping to the hymenopterous insects, we come to the Hornet.

There are three passages in which occurs the word _tzirah_, which

has been translated as Hornet. In every case when the word is

mentioned the insect is employed in a metaphorical sense. See, for

example, Exod. xxiii. 27, 28: "I will send my fear before thee, and

will destroy all the people to whom thou shalt come; and I will make

all thine enemies turn their backs unto thee.

"And I will send hornets before thee, which shall drive out the

Hivite, the Canaanite, and the Hittite, from before thee."

The Hornet affords a most appropriate image for such a promise

as was made to the Israelites, and was one which they must

have thoroughly comprehended. The Hornets of Palestine and the

neighbouring countries are far more common than our own Hornets

here, and they evidently infested some parts to such an extent that

they gave their name to those spots. Thus the word _Zoreah_, which

is mentioned in Josh. xv. 33, signifies the "place of Hornets."

They make their nests in various ways; some species placing them

underground, and others disposing them as shown in the illustration,

and merely sheltering them from the elements by a paper cover.

Such nests as these would easily be disturbed by the animals which

accompanied the Israelites on their journeys, even if the people

were careful to avoid them. In such a case, the irritated insects

rush out at the intruders; and so great is the terror of their

stings, that men and beasts fly promiscuously in every direction,

each only anxious to escape from the winged foes.

The recollection of such scenes would necessarily dwell in the

memory of those who had taken part in them, and cause the metaphor

to impress itself strongly upon them.

It is needless to say that the passages in question might be literal

statements of facts, and that the various nations were actually

driven out of their countries by Hornets. Let the insects be brought

upon the land in sufficient numbers, and neither man nor beast

could stay in it. It is not likely, however, that such a series of

miracles, far exceeding the insect-plagues of Egypt, would have been

worked without frequent references to them in the subsequent books

of the Scriptures; and, moreover, the quick, short, and headlong

flight of the attack of Hornets is a very different thing from

the emigration which is mentioned in the Scriptures, and the long

journeys which such a proceeding involved.

[Illustration: ANTS ON THE MARCH.]

THE ANT.

The Ant of Scripture--Habit of laying up stores of food--The

Ants of Palestine, and their habits--The Agricultural or

Mound-making Ant--Preparing ground, sowing, tending, reaping,

and storing the crop--Different habits of Ants--The winged Ants.

One of the best-known and most frequently quoted passages of

Scripture is found in Proverbs, chap. vi. 6-8: "Go to the ant, thou

sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise:

"Which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler,

"Provideth her meat in the summer, and gathereth her food in the

harvest."

* * * * *

In Palestine Ants abound, and the species are tolerably numerous.

Among them are found some species which do convey seeds into their

subterranean home; and if their stores should be wetted by the heavy

rains which sometimes prevail in that country, bring them to the

outer air, as soon as the weather clears up, and dry them in the

sun.

The writer of the Proverbs was therefore perfectly right when he

alluded to the vegetable stores within the nest, and only spoke

the truth when he wrote of the Ant that it was exceeding wise. Any

one who wishes to test the truth of his words can easily do so by

watching the first Ants' nest which he finds, the species of the Ant

not being of much consequence. The nests of the Wood-Ant are perhaps

the best suited for investigation, partly because the insect and its

habitation are comparatively large, and, secondly, because so much

of the work is done above-ground.

The most wonderful Ant in the world is one which hitherto is only

known in some parts of America. Its scientific name is _Atta

malefaciens_, and it has been called by various popular names, such

as the Mound-making Ant and the Agricultural Ant on account of its

habits, and the Stinging Ant on account of the pungency of its

venom. This characteristic has gained for it the scientific name of

_malefaciens_, or villanous.

The habits of this Ant were studied in Texas by Dr. Lincecum for

the space of twelve years, and the result of his investigations was

communicated to the Linnæan Society by C. Darwin, Esq. It is so

extraordinary an account that it must be given the narrator's own

words:--

"The species which I have named 'Agricultural' is a large brownish

ant. It dwells in what may be termed paved cities, and, like a

thrifty, diligent, provident farmer, makes suitable and timely

arrangements for the changing seasons. It is, in short, endowed

with skill, ingenuity, and untiring patience sufficient to enable

it successfully to contend with the varying exigencies which it may

have to encounter in the life-conflict.

"When it has selected a situation for its habitation, if on ordinary

dry ground, it bores a hole, around which it raises the surface

three and sometimes six inches, forming a low circular mound having

a very gentle inclination from the centre to the outer border, which

on an average is three or four feet from the entrance. But if the

location is chosen on low, flat, wet land liable to inundation,

though the ground may be perfectly dry at the time the ant sets to

work, it nevertheless elevates the mound, in the form of a pretty

sharp cone, to the height of fifteen to twenty inches or more, and

makes the entrance near the summit. Around the mound in either case

the ant clears the ground of all obstructions, levels and smooths

the surface to the distance of three or four feet from the gate of

the city, giving the space the appearance of a handsome pavement, as

it really is.

"Within this paved area not a blade of any green thing is allowed to

grow, except a single species of grain-bearing grass. Having planted

this crop in a circle around, and two or three feet from, the centre

of the mound, the insect tends and cultivates it with constant care,

cutting away all other grasses and weeds that may spring up amongst

it and all around outside of the farm-circle to the extent of one or

two feet more.

"The cultivated grass grows luxuriantly, and produces a heavy

crop of small, white, flinty seeds, which under the microscope

very closely resemble ordinary rice. When ripe, it is carefully

harvested, and carried by the workers, chaff and all, into the

granary cells, where it is divested of the chaff and packed away.

The chaff is taken out and thrown beyond the limits of the paved

area.

"During protracted wet weather, it sometimes happens that the

provision stores become damp, and are liable to sprout and spoil.

In this case, on the first fine day the ants bring out the damp and

damaged grain, and expose it to the sun till it is dry, when they

carry it back and pack away all the sound seeds, leaving those that

had sprouted to waste.

"In a peach-orchard not far from my house is a considerable

elevation, on which is an extensive bed of rock. In the sand-beds

overlying portions of this rock are fine cities of the Agricultural

ants, evidently very ancient. My observations on their manners

and customs have been limited to the last twelve years, during

which time the enclosure surrounding the orchard has prevented the

approach of cattle to the ant-farms. The cities which are outside

of the enclosure as well as those protected in it are, at the

proper season, invariably planted with the ant-rice. The crop may

accordingly always be seen springing up within the circle about the

1st of November every year.

"Of late years, however, since the number of farms and cattle has

greatly increased, and the latter are eating off the grass much

closer than formerly, thus preventing the ripening of the seeds, I

notice that the Agricultural ant is placing its cities along the

turn-rows in the fields, walks in gardens, inside about the gates,

&c., where they can cultivate their farms without molestation from

the cattle.

"There can be no doubt of the fact, that the particular species of

grain-bearing grass mentioned above is intentionally planted. In

farmer-like manner the ground upon which it stands is carefully

divested of all other grasses and weeds during the time it is

growing. When it is ripe the grain is taken care of, the dry stubble

cut away and carried off, the paved area being left unencumbered

until the ensuing autumn, when the same 'ant-rice' reappears within

the same circle, and receives the same agricultural attention as was

bestowed upon the previous crop; and so on year after year, as I

_know_ to be the case, in all situations where the ants' settlements

are protected from graminivorous animals."

In a second letter, Dr. Lincecum, in reply to an inquiry from Mr.

Darwin, whether he supposed that the Ants plant seeds for the

ensuing crop, says, "I have not the slightest doubt of it. And

my conclusions have not been arrived at from hasty or careless

observation, nor from seeing the ants do something that looked a

little like it, and then guessing at the results. I have at all

seasons watched the same ant-cities during the last twelve years,

and I know that what I stated in my former letter is true. I visited

the same cities yesterday, and found the crop of ant-rice growing

finely, and exhibiting also the signs of high cultivation, and not

a blade of any other kind of grass or weed was to be seen within

twelve inches of the circular row of ant-rice."

The economical habits of this wonderful insect far surpass anything

that Solomon has written of the Ant, and it is not too much to say

that if any of the Scriptural writers had ventured to speak of an

Ant that not only laid up stores of grain, but actually prepared

the soil for the crop, planted the seed, kept the ground free from

weeds, and finally reaped the harvest, the statement would have been

utterly disbelieved, and the credibility not only of that particular

writer but of the rest of Scripture severely endangered.

As may be inferred from the above description, the habits of Ants

vary greatly according to their species and the climate in which

they live. All, however, are wonderful creatures; and whether we

look at their varied architecture, their mode of procuring food,

the system of slave-catching adopted by some, the "milking" of

aphides practised by others, their astonishing mode of communicating

thought to each other, and their perfect system of discipline, we

feel how true were the words of the royal naturalist, that the Ants

are "little upon earth, but are exceeding wise."

[Illustration: ANT OF PALESTINE.]

There is one point of their economy in which all known species

agree. Only those which are destined to become perfectly developed

males and females attain the winged state. Before they assume the

transitional or pupal condition, each spins around itself a slight

but tough silken cocoon, in which it lies secure during the time

which is consumed in developing its full perfection of form.

When it is ready to emerge, the labourer Ants aid in freeing it

from the cocoon, and in a short time it is ready to fly. Millions of

these winged ants rise into the air, seeking their mates, and, as

they are not strong on the wing, and are liable to be tossed about

by every gust of wind, vast numbers of them perish. Whole armies of

them fall into the water and are drowned or devoured by fish, while

the insectivorous birds hold great festival on so abundant a supply

of food. As soon as they are mated they bend their wings forward,

snap them off, and pass the rest of their lives on the ground.

In consequence of the destruction that takes place among the winged

Ants, the Arabs have a proverb which is applied to those who are

over-ambitious: "If God purposes the destruction of an ant, He

permits wings to grow upon her."

THE CRIMSON WORM.

The scarlet or crimson of Scripture--The Coccus or Cochineal of

Palestine compared with that of Mexico--Difference between the

sexes--Mode of preparing the insect.

We now come to another order of insects.

Just as the purple dye was obtained from a shell-fish, the scarcely

less valuable crimson or scarlet was obtained from an insect. This

is an insect popularly known as the Crimson Worm. It is closely

allied to the cochineal insect of Mexico, which gives a more

brilliant dye, and has at the present day nearly superseded the

native insect. It is, however, still employed as a dye in some parts

of the country.

Like the cochineal insect of Mexico, the female is very much larger

than her mate, and it is only from her that the dye is procured. At

the proper season of year the females are gathered off the trees

and carefully dried, the mode of drying having some effect upon the

quality of the dye. During the process of drying the insect alters

greatly, both in colour and size, shrinking to less than half its

original dimensions, and assuming a greyish brown hue instead of

a deep red. When placed in water it soon gives out its colouring

matter, and communicates to the water the rich colour with which

we are familiar under the name of carmine, or crimson. This latter

name, by the way, is only a corruption of the Arabic _kermes_, which

is the name of the insect.

[Illustration: THE CRIMSON WORM.]

The reader will remember that this was one of the three sacred

colours--scarlet, purple, and blue--used in the vestments of the

priests and the hangings of the tabernacle, the white not taking

rank as a colour.

THE CLOTHES MOTH.

The Moth of Scripture evidently the Clothes Moth--Moths and

garments--Accumulation of clothes in the East--Various uses of

the hoarded robes--The Moths, the rust, and the thief.

One of the insects mentioned by name in the Scriptures is the MOTH,

by which we must always understand some species of Clothes Moth.

These are as plentiful and destructive in Palestine as in this

country.

Several references are made to the Moth in the Scriptures, and

nearly all have reference to its destructive habits. The solitary

exceptions occur in the Book of Job, "Behold, He put no trust in His

servants; and His angels He charged with folly: how much less in

them that dwell in houses of clay, whose foundation is in the dust,

which are crushed before the moth?"

In the New Testament reference is made several times to the Moth.

"Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and rust

doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal" (Matt. vi.

19).

Even to ourselves these passages are significant enough, but to the

Jews and the inhabitants of Palestine they possessed a force which

we can hardly realize in this country. In the East large stores of

clothing are kept by the wealthy, not only for their own use, but

as presents to others. At a marriage feast, for example, the host

presents each of the guests with a wedding garment. Clothes are also

given as marks of favour, and a present of "changes of raiment,"

_i.e._ suits of clothing, is one of the most common gifts. As at the

present day, there was anciently no greater mark of favour than for

the giver to present the very robe which he was wearing, and when

that robe happened to be an official one, the gift included the rank

which it symbolized. Thus Joseph was invested with royal robes, as

well as with the royal ring (Gen. xli. 42). Mordecai was clothed in

the king's robes: "Let the royal apparel be brought which the king

useth to wear, and the horse the king rideth upon, and the crown

royal which is set upon his head.

[Illustration: MORDECAI IS LED THROUGH THE CITY UPON THE KING'S

HORSE.]

"And let this apparel and horse be delivered to the hand of one of

the king's most noble princes, that they may array the man withal

whom the king delighteth to honour, and bring him on horseback

through the street of the city, and proclaim before him, Thus shall

it be done to the man whom the king delighteth to honour." (Esther

vi. 8, 9.)

The loose clothing of the East requires no fitting, as is the case

with the tight garments of the West; any garment fits any man: so

that the powerful and wealthy could lay up great stores of clothing,

knowing that they would fit any person to whom they were given. An

allusion to this practice of keeping great stores of clothing is

made in Job xxvii. 26: "Though he heap up silver as the dust, and

prepare raiment as the clay;

"He may prepare it, but the just shall put it on, and the innocent

shall divide the silver."

So large was the supply of clothing in a wealthy man's house, that

special chambers were set apart for it, and a special officer,

called the "keeper of the garments" (2 Chron. xxxiv. 22), was

appointed to take charge of them.

Thus, when a man was said to have clothing, the expression was a

synonym for wealth and power. See Isa. iii. 6: "When a man shall

take hold of his brother of the house of his father, saying, Thou

hast clothing, be thou our ruler."

The reader will now see how forcible was the image of the Moth and

the garments, that is used so freely in the Scriptures. The Moth

would not meddle with garments actually in use, so that a poor man

would not be troubled with it. Only those who were rich enough to

keep stores of clothing in their houses need fear the Moth.

THE SILKWORM MOTH.

Probability that the Hebrews were acquainted with Silk--Present

cultivation of the Silkworm--The Silk-farms of the

Lebanon--Silkworms and thunder.

In the Authorized Version there are several passages wherein silk

is mentioned, but it is rather doubtful whether the translation be

correct or not, except in one passage of the Revelation: "And the

merchants of the earth shall weep and mourn over her; for no man

buyeth their merchandise any more:

"The merchandise of gold, and silver, and precious stones, and of

pearls, and fine linen, and purple, and silk." (xviii. 11, 12.)

That the Hebrews were acquainted with silk from very early times is

nearly certain, but it is probable that until comparatively late

years they only knew the manufactured material, and were ignorant

of the source whence it was derived. As to the date at which silk

was introduced into Palestine, nothing certain is known; but it is

most likely that Solomon's fleets brought silk from India, together

with the other valuables which are mentioned in the history of that

monarch.

At the present day silk is largely cultivated, and the silk-farmers

of the Lebanon are noted for the abundance of the crop which is

annually produced. The greatest care is taken in rearing the worms.

An excellent account of these farms is given by Mr. G. W. Chasseaud

in his "Druses of the Lebanon:"--

"Proceeding onward, and protected from the fierce heat of the sun's

rays by the pleasant shade of mountain pines, we were continually

encountering horseloads of cocoons, the fruit of the industry of the

Druse silk-rearer. The whole process, from hatching the silkworms'

eggs till the moment that the worm becomes a cocoon, is one series

of anxiety and labour to the peasant. The worms are so delicate that

the smallest change of temperature exposes them to destruction, and

the peasant can never confidently count upon reaping a harvest until

the cocoon is fairly set."

After a long and interesting description of the multiplied and

ceaseless labours of the silk-grower in providing food for the

armies of caterpillars and sheltering them from the elements, the

writer proceeds as follows:--

"The peasant is unwilling to permit of our remaining and watching

operations. Traditional superstition has inculcated in him a dread

of the evil eye. If we stop and admire the wisdom displayed by the

worm, it will, in his opinion, be productive of evil results; either

the cocoon will be badly formed, or the silk will be worthless. So,

first clearing the place of all intruders, he puts a huge padlock on

the door, and, locking the _khlook_ (room in which the silkworms are

kept), deposits the key in his _zinnar,_ or waistband.

"Next week he will come and take out the cocoons, and, separating

them from the briars, choose out a sufficiency for breeding

purposes, and all the rest are handed over to the women of his

family. These first of all disentangle the cocoon from the rich and

fibrous web with which it is enveloped, and which constitutes an

article of trade by itself. The cocoons are then either reeled off

by the peasant himself or else sold to some of the silk factories

of the neighbourhood, where they are immediately reeled off, or are

suffocated in an oven, and afterwards, being well aired and dried,

piled up in the magazines of the factory.

"Such is a brief account or history of these cocoons, of which we

were continually encountering horseload after horseload.

"As you will perceive, unless suffering from a severe cold in

the head, the odour arising from these cocoons is not the most

agreeable; but this arises partly from the neglect and want of

care of the peasants themselves, who, reeling off basketful after

basketful of cocoons, suffer the dead insects within to be thrown

about and accumulate round the house, where they putrefy and emit

noxious vapours."

[Illustration: BUTTERFLIES OF PALESTINE.

SYRIAN GRAYLING.

SYRIAN ORANGE-TIP.

SYRIAN SWALLOW-TAIL.

]

Although our limits will not permit the cultivation of the

Silkworm to be described more fully, it may here be added that all

silk-growers are full of superstition regarding the welfare of the

caterpillars, and imagine that they are so sensitive that they will

die of fear. The noise of a thunderclap is, in their estimation,

fatal to Silkworms; and the breeders were therefore accustomed to

beat drums within the hearing of the Silkworms, increasing the

loudness of the sound, and imitating as nearly as possible the crash

and roll of thunder, so that the caterpillars might be familiar with

the sound if the thunderstorm should happen to break near them.

FLIES.

Flies of Scripture--Annoyance caused by the House-fly--Flies

and ophthalmia--Signor Pierotti's account of the Flies--The

sovereign remedy against Flies--Causes of their prevalence.

There are two Hebrew words which are translated as "fly." One is

_zebub_, and the other is _arob_, the latter being applied to the

flies which were brought upon Egypt in the great plague. It is

probable that some different species is here signified, but there

is no certainty in the matter. Any species, however, would be a

sufficient plague if they exceeded the usual number which infest

Egypt, and which at first make the life of a foreigner a burden to

him. They swarm in such myriads, that he eats flies, drinks flies,

and breathes flies.

Not the least part of the nuisance is, that they cluster in the eyes

of those who are affected with the prevalent ophthalmia, which is so

fertile a cause of blindness, and so convey the infection with them.

A stranger is always struck with the appearance of the children, who

have quantities of these pests upon and about their eyes, and yet

seem perfectly unaffected by a visitation which would wellnigh drive

a European mad.

Signor Pierotti writes feelingly on the subject:--

"These insects sometimes cause no slight suffering in Palestine, as

I can vouch from my own experience. However large or however small

they may be, a rabid and restless foe, they attack alike, and make

themselves insufferable in a thousand ways, in every season and

place, in the house and in the field, by day and by night.

"While I was encamped near the tents of the Bedawîn, in the

neighbourhood of the Jordan, and to the south of Hebron, flies were

brought in such numbers by the east wind that all, beasts and men,

were in danger of being choked by them, as they crept into our

ears, noses, and mouths, and all over our bodies. My servant and I

were the first to fly from the pest, as we were spotted all over

like lepers with the eruption caused by their bites: the Bedawîn

themselves were not slow to follow our example.

"The flies, therefore, still infest Palestine as they did of old,

except that they are not now so numerous as to compel the chiefs of

the villages or tribes (answering to the kings of the Pentateuch and

Joshua) to evacuate the country before them.

"The Philistines had a special deity whom they invoked against these

pests, Baalzebub, the God of Flies, whose temple was at Ekron.

The reason of this is evident at the present day, for the ancient

country of the Philistines is infested with insect plagues, as I

experienced to my cost.

"As, however, we had no faith in Baalzebub, we were obliged to arm

ourselves with fly-traps and stoical patience. Many travellers bring

with them a perfect druggist's shop from Europe as a protection

against these nuisances, and leave behind them this only efficacious

remedy, patience. This I strongly recommend; it is very portable,

very cheap, and equally useful in all climates.

"It is especially valuable in the case of the insects, as they

are found everywhere in greater or less numbers; especially in

the dwellings, where they are nourished by the carrion that lies

about, the heaps of rubbish, the filth of the streets, the leakage

of cesspools and sewers, the dirt in the houses, the filthy

clothing worn by the people, and the kind of food they eat. Though

the country of Baalzebub is deserted and enslaved, the flies are

still abundant and free, self-invited guests at the table, unasked

assistants in the kitchen, tasting everything, immolating themselves

in their gastronomic ardour, and forming an undesired seasoning in

every dish."

GNATS.

The Gnat of Scripture--Straining out the Gnat and swallowing the

camel, a typographical error--Probable identity of the Gnat and

the mosquito.

It has already been stated that only one species of fly is mentioned

by name in the Scriptures. This is the Gnat, the name of which

occurs in the familiar passage, "Ye blind guides, which strain at a

gnat and swallow a camel" (Matt, xxiii. 24).

[Illustration: NOXIOUS FLIES OF PALESTINE.

MOSQUITO. CAMEL FLY. ]

I may again mention here that the words "strain at" ought to have

been printed "strain out," the substitution of one for the other

being only a typographical error. The allusion is made to a custom

which is explained by reference to the preceding article on the

fly. In order to avoid taking flies and other insects into the mouth

while drinking, a piece of thin linen stuff was placed over the cup,

so that if any insects, as was usually the case, had got into the

liquid, they would be "strained out" by the linen.

Whether or not any particular species of insect was signified by the

word "gnat" is very doubtful, and in all probability the word is

only used to express the contrast between the smallest known insects

and the largest known beasts. Gnats, especially those species which

are popularly known by the word "mosquito," are very plentiful in

many parts of Palestine, especially those which are near water, and

are as annoying there as in other lands which they inhabit.

THE LOUSE.

Insect parasites--The plague of Lice--Its effect on the

magicians or priests--The Hebrew word _Chinnim_--Probability

that it may be represented by "tick"--Habits of the ticks, their

dwellings in dust, and their effects on man and beast.

We close the history of insects mentioned in Scripture with two

parasites of a singularly disagreeable character.

With respect to the former of them, we find it mentioned in the

account of the great plagues of Egypt. After the two plagues of the

waters and the frogs, both of which were imitated by the magicians,

i.e. the priests, a third was brought upon Egypt, which affected the

magicians even more than the people, for a reason which we shall

presently see:--

"And the Lord said unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Stretch out thy rod,

and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice, throughout

all the land of Egypt.

"And they did so; for Aaron stretched out his hand with his rod,

and smote the dust of the earth, and it became lice in man and in

beast; all the dust of the land became lice throughout all the land

of Egypt.

"And the magicians did so with their enchantments to bring forth

lice, but they could not: so there were lice upon man and upon

beast."

Now it is hardly possible to conceive a calamity which would have

told with greater effect upon the magicians, by whose advice Pharoah

had resisted the requests of Moses and Aaron.

Living in a land where all, from the highest to the lowest, were

infested with parasites, the priests were so much in advance of the

laity that they were held polluted if they harboured one single

noxious insect upon their persons, or in their clothing. The

clothing, being linen, could be kept clean by frequent washing,

while the possibility of the body being infested by parasites was

prevented by the custom of shaving the whole of the body, from the

crown of the head to the sole of the foot, at least once in every

three days.

It may easily be imagined, therefore, how terrible this visitation

must have been to such men. As swine to the Pharisee, as the flesh

of cattle to the Brahmin, so was the touch of a parasite to the

Egyptian priest. He was degraded in his own estimation and in

that of his fellows. He could perform no sacred offices: so that,

in fact, all the idolatrous worship of Egypt ceased until this

particular plague had been withdrawn.

We now come to a consideration of the insect which is signified by

the Hebrew word _chinnim_. Sir Samuel Baker is of opinion that the

word ought to have been translated as "ticks," and for the following

reasons:--

After quoting the passage which relates to the stretching of Aaron's

rod over the dust, and the consequence of that action, he proceeds

as follows: "Now the louse that infests the human body and hair has

no connexion whatever with dust, and, if subjected to a few hours'

exposure to the dry heat of the burning sand, it would shrivel and

die. But a tick is an inhabitant of the dust, a dry horny insect,

without any apparent moisture in its composition. It lives in hot

sand and dust, where it cannot possibly obtain nourishment until

some wretched animal should lie down upon the spot, and become

covered with these horrible vermin.

"I have frequently seen dry desert places so infested with ticks

that the ground was perfectly alive with them, and it would have

been impossible to have rested upon the earth. In such spots, the

passage in Exodus has frequently seemed to me as bearing reference

to these vermin, which are the greatest enemy to man and beast.

It is well known that from the size of a grain of sand, in their

natural state, they will distend to the size of a hazel nut after

having preyed for some days on the body of an animal."

Granting that this suggestion be the correct one, as it certainly

is the most consistent both with actual facts and with the words of

Holy Writ, the plague would lose none of its intensity, but would,

if anything, be more horrible. Only those who have suffered from

them can appreciate the miseries caused by the attack of these

ticks, which cling so tightly that they can scarcely be removed

without being torn in pieces, and without leaving some portion of

their head beneath the skin of their victim. Man and beast suffer

equally from them, as is implied in the words of Scripture, and,

unless they are very cautiously removed, painful and obstinate is

the result of their bites.

THE FLEA.

Prevalence of the Flea in the East, and the annoyance caused by

them to travellers-Fleas of the Lebanon--The Bey's bedfellows--The

Pasha at the bath--Use of the word in Scripture.

This active little pest absolutely swarms in the East. The

inhabitants are so used to the Fleas that either the insects do not

touch them, or by long custom they become so inured to their attack

that the bites are not felt.

But every traveller in Eastern lands has a tale to tell about the

Fleas, which seem to be accepted as one of the institutions of

the country, and to be contemplated with perfect equanimity. Miss

Rogers, for example, in her "Domestic Life in Palestine," mentions

how she was obliged to stand upon a box in order to be out of the

reach of a large company of Fleas that were hopping about on the

floor!

Mr. Urquhart, experienced Orientalist as he was, found on one

occasion that the Fleas were too strong for him. He had forgotten

his curtain, and was invaded by armies of Fleas, that marched

steadily up the bed and took possession of their prey. The people

were quite amused at his complaints, and said that their Bey could

not sleep without a couple of hundred of them in his bosom. Mr.

Urquhart suggests that these little creatures act as a wholesome

irritant to the skin, and says that the last two mouthfuls of every

meal are for the benefit of the Fleas.

In order to show the perfect indifference with which the presence of

these little pests is regarded, I quote a passage from Mr. Farley's

"Druses of the Lebanon." He was in a Turkish bath, and was much

amused at a scene which presented itself.

"A man, whose skin resembled old discoloured vellum, was occupying

himself with the somewhat undignified pursuit of pursuing with great

eagerness something that, from the movement of his hands, seemed

continually to elude him, jumping about and taking refuge in the

creases and folds of his shirt, that was spread out over his lap as

he sat cross-legged on his bedstead like a tailor on his board. This

oddity was no less a dignitary than a Pasha."

[Illustration: SCORPION.]

THE SCORPION.

mud walls--Venom of the Scorpion--Scorpions at sea--The Scorpion

whip, and its use--The Scorpion Pass.

Scorpions are exceedingly common in Palestine, and to a novice

are a constant source of terror until he learns to be accustomed

to them. The appearance of the Scorpion is too well known to need

description, every one being aware that it is in reality a kind of

spider that has the venom claw at the end of its body, and not in

its jaw. As to the rendering of the word _akrabbim_ as "Scorpions,"

there has never been any doubt.

These unpleasant creatures always manage to insinuate themselves in

some crevice, and an experienced traveller is cautious where the

Scorpions are plentiful, and will never seat himself in the country

until he has ascertained that no Scorpions are beneath the stones

on or near which he is sitting. Holes in walls are favourite places

of refuge for the Scorpion, and are very plentiful, the mud walls

always tumbling down in parts, and affording homes for Scorpions,

spiders, snakes, and other visitors.

The venom of the Scorpion varies much in potency according to the

species and size of the creature, some of the larger Scorpions being

able to render a man ill for a considerable time, and even to kill

him if he should be a sensitive subject. So much feared were the

Scorpions that one of the chief privileges of the Apostles and their

immediate followers was their immunity from the stings of Scorpions

and the bite of venomous serpents.

It is said, however, that after a person has been stung once by a

Scorpion, he suffers comparatively little the second time, and that

if he be stung three or four times, the only pain that he suffers

arises from the puncture. Sailors also say that after a week at

sea the poison of the Scorpion loses its power, and that they care

nothing for the Scorpions which are sure to come on board inside the

bundles of firewood.

Those passages which mention the venom of the Scorpion are numerous,

though most, if not all, of them occur in the New Testament. See

Rev. ix. 5: "And to them it was given that they should not kill

them, but that they should be tormented five months, and their

torment was as the torment of a scorpion, when he striketh a man."

Also ver. 10 of the same chapter: "And they had tails like unto

scorpions: and there were stings in their tails: and their power was

to hurt men five months."

There is, also, the well-known saying of our Lord, "If a son shall

ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion?" (Luke xi. 12.) And in the

preceding chapter of the same Evangelist Scorpions are classed with

serpents in their power of injury: "Behold, I give unto you power

to tread on serpents and scorpions, and over all the power of the

enemy; and nothing shall by any means hurt you."

* * * * *

There is another reference to the Scorpion in the Old Testament,

which requires an explanation. It forms part of the rash counsel

given to Rehoboam by his friends: "My father made your yoke heavy,

and I will add to your yoke; my father also chastised you with

whips, but I will chastise you with scorpions."

The general tenor of this passage is evident enough, namely, that

he intended to be far more severe than his father had been. But his

words assume a new force when we remember that there was a kind of

whip called a Scorpion. This terrible instrument was made for the

express purpose of punishing slaves, so that the mere mention of it

was an insult. It consisted of several thongs, each of which was

loaded with knobs of metal, and tipped with a metal hook, so that it

resembled the jointed and hooked tail of the Scorpion. This dreadful

instrument of torture could kill a man by a few blows, and it was

even used in combats in the amphitheatre, a gladiator armed with a

Scorpion being matched against one armed with a spear.

THE SPIDER.

Spiders of Palestine.

There are very many species of Spider in Palestine; some which spin

webs, like the common Garden Spider, some which dig subterranean

cells and make doors in them, like the well-known Trap-door Spider

of Southern Europe, and some which have no webs, but chase their

prey upon the ground, like the Wolf and Hunting Spiders.

THE HORSE LEECH.

Signification of the word Alukah--Leeches in Palestine--The

horse and the Leech.

In Prov. xxx. 15 there is a word which only occurs once in the

Scriptures. This is _alukah,_ which is translated as horse-leech.

"The horseleech hath two daughters, crying, Give, give."

The Leeches are very common in Palestine, and infest the rivers to

such an extent that they enter the nostrils of animals who come to

drink, and cause great annoyance and even danger. The following

anecdote, related by Mr. H. Dixon in his "Holy Land," gives us a

good idea of the prevalence of the Leeches, and the tenacity with

which they retain their hold:--

"At Beit-Dejan, on a slight twist in the road, we find the wheel and

well, and hear a delicious plash and rustle in the troughs. To slip

from my seat to dip Sabeah's nose into the fluid is the work of a

second; but no sooner has she lapped up a mouthful of water, than

one sees that the refuse falling back from her lips into the tank is

dabbled and red. Opening her mouth, I find a gorged leech dangling

from her gum. But the reptile being swept off, and the mare's nose

dipt into the cooling stream, the blood still flows from between her

teeth, and, forcing them open, I find two other leeches lodged in

the roof of her mouth.

"Poor little beast! how grateful and relieved she seems, how gay,

how gentle, when I have torn these suckers from her flesh, and

soused the water about her wounds; and how my hunting-whip yearns

to descend upon the shoulders of that laughing and careless Nubian

slave!"

Persons passing through the river are also attacked by them, and, if

they have a delicate skin, suffer greatly.

[Illustration: CORAL.]

SPONGE AND CORAL.

Use of the Sponge in Scripture--Probability that the ancient

Jews were acquainted with it--Sponges of the Mediterranean--The

Coral, and its value--Signification of the word _Ramoth_.

There is little to be said on either of these subjects.

Sponge is only mentioned with reference to the events of the

Crucifixion, where it is related that a soldier placed a sponge upon

hyssop, dipped it in vinegar (_i.e._ the acid wine issued to the

Roman soldiers), and held it to the Lord's lips. There is little

doubt that the ancient Hebrews were fully aware of the value of the

Sponge, which they could obtain from the Mediterranean which skirted

all their western coasts.

* * * * *

The Coral is mentioned in two passages of Scripture: "No mention

shall be made of coral, or of pearls" (Job xxviii. 18). The second

occurrence of the word is in Ezek. xxvii. 16: "They occupied in thy

fairs with emeralds, purple, and broidered work, and fine linen, and

coral, and agate."

This Coral, which is described as being brought from Syria, was

probably that of the Red Sea, where the Coral abounds, and where it

attains the greatest perfection.

[Illustration: roses]

THE END.

INDEX.

A. PAGE

Addax, 171-173

Adder, 628

Ant, 671

agricultural, 672

habits of, 674

cocoon, 675

Aoudad, 212-215

Ape, 387

brought by Solomon, 389

worshipped in India, 390-395

Apis, 145

Ass, 315

domesticated, 315

royal, 316

treatment of, 319

saddle, 321

in Cairo, 323

uses of, 326

wild, 328

B.

Badger, 96

skins for tabernacle, 96-112

skins for robes and sandals, 97

nocturnal in habits, 100

Barbel, long-headed, 639

Bat, 401

Bear, Syrian, 103

omnivorous, 106

a dangerous enemy, 108

robbed of whelps, 110

mode of fighting, 110

Beden, 233-237

Bee, 664

banded, 664

hives, 667

honey, 667

Behemoth, 372

food, 376

hunted, 380

Bison, 160

Bittern, 536

haunts waste places, 538

cry, 538

nest, 540

Blue thrush, 481

Boer hunting the lion, 36-41

Bottles, skin, 221-225

Bubale, 173-175

Buffalo, 149

Bull, 142

wild, 152

hunted with nets, 153

C.

Calf, 134

fatted, 135

worshipped, 146, 148

Camel, 248

Arabian, 248

Bactrian, 248, 286-290

milk of, 251

power of carrying water, 252

flesh, 254

as beast of burden, 255-258

riding, 259-268

speed, 269

malice of, 273

food, 277-280

foot, 280

hair and skin, 283

needle's eye, 284

Caspian emys, 580

hibernates, 581

terror to horses, 581

legends, 582

Cattle, 132

Cerastes, 624

Chameleon, 602

strength of grasp, 607

eyes, 607

change of color, 608

Chamois, 211

Chariots, 300-311

Chetah, 42

Cobra di capello, 616

Cockatrice, 628

Coney, 366

ruminant, 368

watchful, 370

Coral, 695

Cormorant, 563

fishing, 564

voracious, 565

in China, 565

nests, 566

Coryphene, 641

Crane, 549

Crocodile, 585

description in Job, 586

worshipped by Egyptians, 589

seizing its prey, 592

eggs, 595

hunting, 598

Cuckoo, 487

great spotted, 488

Cyprius, 602

D.

Deer, 238

hunted, 244

watchfulness of, 244-246

Deloul, 268

Dhubb, 583

Dishon, 171

Dove, 489

turtle, 489, 496

Noah's, 490

in sacrifice, 491

carrier, 493

blue rock, 495

collared turtle, 497

palm, 497

Barbary, 497

E.

Eagle, 430

golden, 433

short-toed, 434

Egret, 548

Egyptian mastigure, 583

Elephant, 349

ivory, 349

in war, 352

in hunting, 362

F.

Falcon, peregrine, 445

lanner, 445

Fallow deer, 173-175

Field-mouse, 121-124

Fishes, 635-648

apostolic fishermen, 635

as food, 637

manner of catching, 643

as symbols, 646

Flea, 688

Flies, 683

god of, 684

Frogs, 630

plague of, 631

green, 632

edible, 632

Fox, 76

plentiful in Palestine, 77

feeds upon the slain, 78

Samson's foxes, 78-85

G.

Gazelle, 163

mode of defence, 165

manner of capture, 166

chase of, 166-170

Gecko, 605

Gier-eagle, 419

Gnats, 685

Goad, 137

Goat, 217

as food, 217-219

milking-scene, 220

hair for clothing, 220

skin bottles, 221-225

kneading-troughs, 225

scapegoat, 226

intractable, 227

separated from sheep, 227-229

H.

Hamster, 124

Hare, 126

not a ruminant, 127

two species in Palestine, 131

Hart, 255

Hawk, 447

sparrow, 448

harrier, 451

white, 453

dove, 453

blue, 453

ring-tailed, 453

night, 462

Herdsmen, 144

Arab, 177

Heron, 542

as food, 542

sociable, 544

flight, 546

nest, 547

Hind, 255

Hippopotamus, 374

Honey, 667

Hoopoe, 476

legend of, 477

Hornet, 669

Horse, 291

Arab, 291

hoofs, 295

sale of Arab, 296-300

chariots, 300

Horse-leech, 693

House-top, 480

Hyacinthine gallinule, 560

Hyæna, 85

as scavenger, 86-88

haunting graves, 88

odour of, 89

superstitions concerning, 90

Hyrax, 366

I.

Ibex, 233-236

Ibis, white or sacred, 562

Ichneumon, 596

Insects, 657

Ivory, 349-352

J.

Jackal, 76

Jerboa, 125

K.

Kestrel, 449

Kite, 440

red, 441

black, 442

Kneading-troughs, 225

L.

Lämmergeier, 411

food, 414

bone-breaker, 414

Lapwing, 476

Leviathan, 585

Lizard, 602

Locust, 657

swarms, 658

plague of, 660

as food, 661

Louse, 686

Lump-fish, 641

M.

Mole, 114

hard to capture, 116

frequents ruins, 117

food, 118

Molluscs, 648

Monitor, 605

Nilotic, 610

land, 610

Monkey, 387

Mosquito, 686

Mouflon, 215

Mouse, 119

voracity, 119

Mule, 333

ridden by kings, 335

perverse, 336

Muræna, 639

Moth, clothes, 678

silkworm, 680

N.

Night-hawk, 462

Nightjar, 462

cry, 464

Nile-perch, 647

Nineveh, sculptures of, 34

O.

Oryx, 154-156

Osprey, 436

fishing, 436

flight, 438

Ossifrage, 411

Ostrich, 523

neglect of young, 526-528

nest in sand, 526

chase, 529

scent, 530

speed, 531

as food, 532

eggs, 534

cry, 531

Ounce, 42

Owl, 454

use in bird-catching, 455

little, 455

barn, 455

screech, 456

great, 456

Egyptian eagle, 458

European eagle, 458

Virginian eared, 458

Ox, 133

stalled, 133

yoke, 136

plough, 136

goad, 137

threshing, 138

cart, 139

pasturage, 141

worshipped, 148

P.

Palestine, 470

Partridge, 505

desert, 507

Passover, 204

Samaritan, 205-210

Peacock, 501

Pearl, 653

Pelican, 567

pouch, 569

feeding young, 570

legends, 570

flight, 572

crested, 573

Pigeon, 489

Plough, 136

Porcupine, 113

Poultry, 498

Purple dye, 649

Pygarg, 171

Q.

Quail, 509

sent to Israelites, 510

flight, 511

as food, 511

mode of capture, 512

R.

Rams' horns, 201-203

Raven, 516

in ark, 516

sent to Elijah, 518

notices of, in Talmud, 519

ashy-necked, 520

in Jerusalem, 520

S.

Scheltopusic, 603

Scorpion, 690

Serpents, 613

motion, 614

poison, 615

sluggish, 620

anecdotes of, 620

Sheat-fishes, 637

Sheep, 177

pasturage, 177

watering, 180

names, 186

folds, 189-191

dogs, 191

broad-tailed, 194

uses of, 197

in sacrifice, 203

Shepherds, 185

sling, 185

care of flock, 188

Shephiphon, 624

Silkworm, 681

Skink, 603

Snail, 652

Snake, glass, 603

dart, 616

charmer, 617

Sparrow, 479

on house-tops, 480

value of, 483

caught with nets, 484

nests, 485

tree, 486

Spider, 692

Sponge, 694

Star-gazer, 647

Stork, 553

sacred, 554

migratory, 556

care of young, 557

black, 558

Sucking-fish, 640

Surmullet, 648

Swallow, 466

swift, 470, 474

Swan, 560

Swine, 337

prohibited to Jews, 337

hated, 338

wild, 334

T.

Threshing, 138

Tortoise, 577

as food, 577

slow-motioned, 579

Toxicoa, 627

Tunny, 641

U.

Unicorn, 158

a real animal, 159

V.

Viper, horned, 624

sand, 627

Vulture, Egyptian, 419

scavengers, 421

griffon, 423

W.

Wanderoo, 395-400

Weasel, 92

fond of eggs, 94

story of owl and weasel, 94

Wild bull, 152

goat, 233

ass, 328

boar, 344

Wind-hover, 449

Wolf, 69

only mentioned symbolically, 69

hunting in packs, 71

fierceness of, 71

special enemy of sheep, 72

tamed by a monk, 75

Wool, 199

Worm, crimson, 676

Y.

Yoke, 136

=THE

HOME EDITION

OF THE

Story of the Bible=

=Surpasses in Value and Completeness All Former Editions

of this Standard Work.=

It contains fine Colored Illustrations.

It contains a Map of the Bible Lands.

It contains a Steel Plate Engraving after Rembrandt (engraved

expressly for the Frontispiece).

It is printed on extra heavy paper, and bound in rich and

attractive style.

=THE HOME EDITION of the Story of the Bible.=

Gives admirers of the book an opportunity to procure it in a

handsomer form, either for presentation to friends or for use at

home.

The COVER of this edition bears an appropriate and ornamental

design in gold and color. The INSIDE is no less attractive than

the outside. On opening it, the ILLUMINATED PRESENTATION PAGE

first meets the eye. This is followed by the beautiful STEEL PLATE

ENGRAVING OF JACOB'S DREAM, as a Frontispiece. A double page COLORED

MAP comes next, showing countries and places mentioned in the Bible.

SIX RICHLY COLORED PLATES, with 300 ENGRAVINGS, illustrating the

principal scenes and events narrated in the book, are distributed

throughout its pages, from beginning to end.

=FOR SALE

by the same Dealer from whom this book is obtained.=

=The Story of the Gospel.=

=By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the "Story of the Bible."=

=360 Pages. 16mo. With 150 Illustrations, and a Frontispiece in

Colors.=

=The New Testament in simple form for Children. Written in

Language easy to understand. Printed in large, plain type, and

filled with Pictures.=

=100th THOUSAND NOW SELLING.=

The Author of the "STORY OF THE BIBLE," after publishing that work,

found that a smaller and still simpler book on the New Testament

alone, was needed.

He therefore prepared the "STORY OF THE GOSPEL," which contains the

Life of Christ written in a style easily understood by children, and

illustrated by a large number of excellent wood engravings.

=_From Rev. M. A. GOODELL, Northwood, Iowa._=

I am much pleased with the "STORY OF THE GOSPEL." The

illustrations are excellent. The Story is told in beautiful

language, and in such a way that very difficult points are made

plain even to children. It is also a good commentary on the Word

for older persons, and should be in every family.

I lent my copy of the "STORY OF THE GOSPEL" to the teacher of

the Primary Department in our public school, who used it instead

of the Bible in opening school, and after a few days said she

could not do without it.

=FOR SALE

by the same Dealer from whom this book is obtained.=

=FIRST STEPS

FOR LITTLE FEET IN GOSPEL PATHS.=

=328 Pages. 16mo. With Colored Frontispiece and

140 Illustrations.=

By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the "Story of the Bible."

There still remained one class of learners whose wants were not

supplied by either the STORY OF THE BIBLE or the STORY OF THE

GOSPEL. These were the little ones in the Nursery, the Infant

School, and the Kinder-Garten. For their instruction the author

has prepared a third book, FIRST STEPS FOR LITTLE FEET IN GOSPEL

PATHS. This book is arranged on a different plan from either of the

preceding. Instead of being divided into Chapters, it consists of

separate passages or Lessons, most of them quite short, and each one

complete in itself. Each Lesson is followed by Questions so simple

that the little hearers, if attentive when the passage is read, may

readily answer them.

=From Robert W. Fenwick, President of the Washington Fröebel

Society, Washington, D. C.=

TO THE PUBLISHER: I am the grateful recipient of a nicely-bound,

well-printed and illustrated work entitled "First Steps." Upon

an examination of it, I feel that every Kinder-Garten teacher

should possess this gem of a book for little children. Its

simple presentation of great truths and facts, in words as well

as in pictures, should be brought home to the heart of every

child by the parent or teacher; and, this done, the coming

generation will be wiser and better than the past. I am thankful

(as President of the Washington Fröebel Society, having under

its care the Bethany Free Kinder-Garten) that this book has

reached me.

=FOR SALE by the same Dealer from whom this book is obtained.=

=NEW LIGHTS=

--ON--

OLD PATHS.

By Charles Foster, Author of the "Story of the Bible," Etc.

=QUARTO, 496 PAGES. 350 ILLUSTRATIONS.=

The author of the stories contained in this beautiful book has given

life and power of speech to many of the inanimate objects which we

meet in every-day life.

The Well in the Yard, the Gate and Gate-Post, the Brook and

Water-Wheel, with other familiar things, give their impressions, in

these charming and original tales, of what takes place around them,

and speak to one another with audible voice.

If the reader will listen to what they say, he will learn some

valuable lessons, and perhaps receive advice that will help him in

days to come.

Many familiar places and oft-trodden paths will be given a new

interest by reading some of the stories contained in this book.

Objects that have been familiar for years, and which have never

caused a moment's reflection as they were carelessly passed by,

will now have a new significance, and whenever seen will connect

themselves with the imaginary parts they play in this volume.

In appearance the book is an unusually handsome one, being

TASTEFULLY BOUND AND PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. It contains =350=

PICTURES which in artistic merit, interest, and faithful portrayal

of the scenes described in the text, are unsurpassed by any book of

its class.

Office of Charles Foster's Publications, 118 S. Seventh St.,

Philadelphia, Pa.

[Illustration: cover New Lights on Old Paths]

NEW LIGHTS

--ON--

OLD PATHS.

By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the "Story of the Bible," Etc.

=QUARTO, 496 PAGES. 350 ILLUSTRATIONS.=

Office of Charles Foster's Publications, 118 S. Seventh St.,

Philadelphia, Pa.

=BIBLE PICTURES

--AND--

WHAT THEY TEACH US.=

Containing 312 Illustrations from the Old and New Testaments,

WITH BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS

By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the "Story of the Bible."

=Quarto, 232 Pages, 312 Engravings, printed on extra heavy calendered

paper, and bound in English cloth, black side stamp, gilt

title on back.=

The Collection of Bible Pictures contained in this book is probably

one of the most complete that has ever been brought together in one

volume.

In preparing the work, the greatest care has been observed to use

only such designs as will adequately illustrate the Bible scenes and

fittingly portray the principal events in Bible history.

It has been a matter of great difficulty to obtain so large a

number of pictures of the necessary merit, as illustrations of

Bible subjects present peculiar difficulties to the artist. While

preserving the freedom of style and vigor of treatment necessary

to give life to his designs and reality to the varied scenes of

the Scripture narrative, he must preserve for them a feeling of

reverence and endow them with a dignity worthy of their sacred

character.

A large number of the pictures in this book are reproduced from

designs by foreign artists who have been celebrated for their skill

in this branch of art. Others are by artists in this country. All

the pictures have been personally selected by, or else drawn under

the direction of, the author, who has spent years of labor and

thousands of dollars in forming this collection.

Many of the engravings in "BIBLE PICTURES" were first obtained and

used for illustrating the "Story of the Bible" and the "Story of the

Gospel," two former books by the same author. Other new engravings

have been added, and the whole set, THREE HUNDRED AND TWELVE in

number, are now brought together in this one volume, in which the

broad pages (8 × 9-3/4 inches), fine, heavy paper and careful

printing, display their artistic excellence to the best advantage.

The book forms a complete pictorial history of the main portion of

the Bible. Many parts are so fully illustrated that the narrative

can be followed and understood by merely looking at the series of

pictures which illustrate them, so that children unable to read may

obtain a fair idea of the nature and sequence of Bible events, by

simply turning over the pages. The book, however, is by no means

merely a picture book. A lucid and brief explanation, written by the

author of the "Story of the Bible," accompanies each picture, on the

same page, or on the page immediately facing it, so that the picture

and the explanation appear simultaneously to the eye.

=FOR SALE by the same Dealer from whom this book is obtained.=

[Illustration: cover Bible Pictures]

=BIBLE PICTURES,=

AND

WHAT THEY TEACH US.

A Book containing 312 Illustrations from the Old and New Testaments,

with brief descriptions.

By CHARLES FOSTER, Author of the "Story of the Bible," etc.

Quarto, 232 Pages, 312 Engravings, printed on extra heavy calendered

paper and bound in English cloth, ornamental side and back

stamp.

Charles Foster's Publications, 118 S. Seventh St., Philadelphia, Pa.

=--THE--

STORY OF THE BIBLE ANIMALS.=

=704 Pages. 300 Illustrations.=

This book contains a description of each animal mentioned in the

Bible, and tells of its appearance, its habits and the use to which

it was put by mankind.

The importance of understanding the nature of these animals, as a

means of making clear the Scriptures, will be readily seen when

it is remembered how frequently they are mentioned in the Bible,

and how different many of them must be from those which we are

accustomed to see.

Some passages in the Bible which have formerly possessed little

or no meaning to the ordinary reader will have a new significance

after the "=Story of the Bible Animals=" has been read, and the

descriptions which it contains of the animals of the East, and the

habits of Eastern people, have become familiar.

The book is not only interesting and instructive from the stories

which it contains on the ever-popular subject of Natural History,

but it also presents a vivid description of life in the Bible lands.

It describes the appearance at the present time of many of the

places mentioned in the Bible, as well as the manners and customs of

the people who dwell there.

Adventures of modern travellers in these unfamiliar and

seldom-trodden paths form an important part of the book and are of

absorbing interest, presenting to the reader a graphic picture of

life in the Holy Land as it is to-day.

In the never-changing East this is in many respects a counterpart

of the times in which the Bible was written. The Arab as he speeds

across the desert upon his swift dromedary, or sits at the door of

his tent watching his flocks and herds, retains many of the customs

which prevailed in the time of Abraham.

The wild animals of these countries still roam through the forests

and are hunted and slain by mankind. The crocodile and hippopotamus

of the Nile are yet found in that mighty river, and yield their

lives to the courage and skill of modern hunters as did those of old.

These scenes are vividly portrayed in the "=Story of the Bible

Animals=" by travellers who have taken an active part in the

adventures which they narrate, and who are thus able to adequately

describe incidents that will be new and strange to most readers.

The book is also a valuable commentary on many portions of the

Bible, for without some knowledge of the matters upon which it

treats, the point of many passages of Scripture must either be

entirely missed or else wrongly interpreted.

=Office of Charles Foster's Publications, 118 S. Seventh St.,

Philadelphia, Pa.=

* * * * *

Transcriber's note:

Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note.

Irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as

printed.

The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up

paragraphs, thus the page number of the illustration might not match

the page number in the List of Illustrations.

End of Project Gutenberg's Story of the Bible Animals, by J. G. Wood