"We were more successful in the Wady Hamâm, the south-west end of

the plain, the entrance from Hattin and the Buttauf, where we spent

three days in exploration. The cliffs, though reaching the height of

fifteen hundred feet, rise like terraces, with enormous masses of

_débris_, and the wood is half a mile wide. By the aid of Giacomo,

who proved himself an expert rope-climber, we reaped a good harvest

of griffons' eggs, some of the party being let down by ropes, while

those above were guided in working them by signals from others below

in the valley. It required the aid of a party of a dozen to capture

these nests. The idea of scaling the cliff with ropes was quite new

to some Arabs who were herding cattle above, and who could not,

excepting one little girl, be induced to render any assistance. She

proved herself most sensible and efficient in telegraphing.

"While capturing the griffons' nests, we were re-enacting a

celebrated siege in Jewish history. Close to us, at the head of the

cliffs which form the limits of the celebrated Plain of Hattin, were

the ruins of Irbid, the ancient Arbela, marked principally by the

remains of a synagogue, of which some marble shafts and fragments of

entablature, like those of Tell Hûm, are still to be seen, and were

afterwards visited by us.

"Hosea mentions the place apparently as a strong fortress: 'All thy

fortresses shall be spoiled, as Shalman spoiled Beth-arbel in the

day of battle' (Hos. x. 14). Perhaps the prophet here refers to the

refuges in the rocks below.

"The long series of chambers and galleries in the face of the

precipice are called by the Arabs, Kulat Ibn Maân, and are very

fully described by Josephus. These cliffs were the homes of a set

of bandits, who resided here with their families, and for years set

the power of Herod the Great at defiance. At length, when all other

attempts at scaling the fortress had failed, he let down soldiers at

this very spot in boxes, by chains, who attacked the robbers with

long hooks, and succeeded in rooting them all out.

"The rock galleries, though now only tenanted by griffons, are very

complete and perfect, and beautifully built. Long galleries wind

backwards and forwards in the cliff side, their walls being built

with dressed stone, flush with the precipice, and often opening

into spacious chambers. Tier after tier rise one after another

with projecting windows, connected by narrow staircases, carried

sometimes upon arches, and in the upper portions rarely broken away.

In many of the upper chambers to which we were let down, the dust of

ages had accumulated, undisturbed by any foot save that of the birds

of the air; and here we rested during the heat of the day, with the

plains and lake set as in a frame before us. We obtained a full

zoological harvest, as in three days we captured fourteen nests of

griffons."

Although these caverns and rocky passages are much more accessible

than most of the places whereon the Griffons build, the natives

never venture to enter them, being deterred not so much by their

height, as by their superstitious fears. The Griffons instinctively

found out that man never entered these caverns, and so took

possession of them.

As the young Griffons are brought up in these lofty and precipitous

places, it is evident that their first flight must be a dangerous

experiment, requiring the aid of the parent birds. At first the

young are rather nervous at the task which lies before them, and

shrink from trusting themselves to the air. The parents, however,

encourage them to use their wings, take short flights in order to

set them an example, and, when they at last venture from the nest,

accompany and encourage them in their first journey.

In flight it is one of the most magnificent birds that can be seen,

and even when perched it often retains a certain look of majesty and

grandeur. Sometimes, however, especially when basking in the sun, it

assumes a series of attitudes which are absolutely grotesque, and

convert the noble-looking bird into a positively ludicrous object.

At one moment it will sit all hunched up, its head sunk between its

shoulders, and one wing trailing behind it as if broken. At another

it will bend its legs and sit down on the ankle-joint, pushing its

feet out in front, and supporting itself by the stiff feathers of

its tail. Often it will touch nearly flat on the ground, partly

spread its wings, and allow their tips to rest on the earth, and

sometimes it will support nearly all the weight of its body on the

wings, which rest, in a half doubled state, on the ground. I have

before me a great number of sketches, taken in a single day, of

the attitudes assumed by one of these birds, every one of which is

strikingly different from the others, and transforms the whole shape

of the bird so much that it is scarcely recognisable as the same

individual.

[Illustration: tree]

[Illustration: eagle]

THE EAGLE.

Signification of the word _Asniyeh_--The Golden Eagle and its

habits--The Imperial Eagle--Its solitary mode of life--The

Short-toed Eagle--Its domestic habits and fondness for the

society of man--The Osprey, or Fishing Eagle--Its mode of

catching fish--Its distribution in Palestine.

As to the Eagle, rightly so called, there is little doubt that it

is one of the many birds of prey that seem to have been classed

under the general title of Asniyeh--the word which in the Authorized

Version of the Bible is rendered as Osprey. A similar confusion is

observable in the modern Arabic, one word, _ogab_, being applied

indiscriminately to all the Eagles and the large _falconidæ_.

The chief of the true Eagles, namely, the Golden Eagle (_Aquila

chrysaëtos_), is one of the inhabitants of Palestine, and is seen

frequently, though never in great numbers. Indeed, its predacious

habits unfit it for associating with its kind. Any animal which

lives chiefly, if not wholly, by the chase, requires a large

district in order to enable it to live, and thus twenty or thirty

eagles will be scattered over a district of twice the number of

miles. Like the lion among the mammalia, the Eagle leads an almost

solitary life, scarcely ever associating with any of its kind except

its mate and its young.

The whole of the Falconidæ, as the family to which the Eagles belong

is called, are very destructive birds, gaining their subsistence

chiefly by the chase, seldom feeding on carrion except when pressed

by hunger, or when the dead animal has only recently been killed.

Herein they form a complete contrast to the vultures, whose usual

food is putrefying carrion, and fresh meat the exception.

Destructive though the Eagles may be, they cannot be called cruel

birds, for, although they deprive many birds and beasts of life,

they effect their purpose with a single blow, sweeping down upon the

doomed creature with such lightning velocity, and striking it so

fiercely with their death-dealing talons, that almost instantaneous

death usually results.

When the Eagle pounces on a bird, the mere shock caused by the

stroke of the Eagle's body is almost invariably sufficient to cause

death, and the bird, even if a large one--such as the swan, for

example--falls dead upon the earth with scarcely a wound.

Smaller birds are carried off in the talons of their pursuers, and

are killed by the grip of their tremendous claws, the Eagle in no

case making use of its beak for killing its prey. If the great

bird carries off a lamb or a hare, it grasps the body firmly with

its claws, and then by a sudden exertion of its wonderful strength

drives the sharp talons deep into the vitals of its prey, and does

not loosen its grasp until the breath of life has fled from its

victim.

The structure by means of which the Eagle is enabled to use its

talons with such terrible effect is equally beautiful and simple,

deserving special mention.

Now, many observant persons have been struck with the curious

power possessed by birds which enables them to hold their position

upon a branch or perch even while sleeping. In many instances the

slumbering bird retains its hold of the perch by a single foot, the

other being drawn up and buried in the feathers.

As this grasp is clearly an involuntary one, it is evidently

independent of the mere will of the bird, and is due to some

peculiar formation.

On removing the skin from the leg of any bird, and separating the

muscles from each other, the structure in question is easily seen.

The muscles which move the leg and foot, and the tendons, or leaders

which form the attachment of the muscles to the bones, are so

arranged that whenever the bird bends its leg the foot is forcibly

closed, and is opened again when the leg is straightened.

A common chicken, as it walks along, closing its toes as it lifts

its foot from the ground and spreading them as the leg is unbent,

cannot do otherwise, as the tendons are shortened and lengthened as

each step is taken.

[Illustration: EAGLES.]

It will be seen, therefore, that when a bird falls asleep upon a

branch the legs are not only bent, but are pressed downwards by the

weight of the body; so that the claws hold the perch with a firm and

involuntary grasp which knows no fatigue, and which remains secure

as long as the pressure from above keeps the limbs bent.

To return to the Eagle. When, therefore, the bird desires to

drive his talons into the body of his prey, he needs only to sink

downwards with his whole weight, and the forcible bending of his

legs will contract the talons with irresistible force, without the

necessity of any muscular exertion.

Exertion, indeed, is never needlessly used by the Eagle, for it is

very chary of putting forth its great muscular powers, and unless

roused by the sight of prey, or pressed to fly abroad in search of

food, will sit upon a tree or point of rock for hours as motionless

as a stuffed figure.

The Golden Eagle is a truly magnificent bird in size and appearance.

A full-grown female measures about three feet six inches in length,

and the expanse of her wings is nine feet. The male bird is smaller

by nearly six inches. The colour of the bird is a rich blackish

brown on the greater part of the body, the head and neck being

covered with feathers of a golden red, which have earned for the

bird its customary name.

The Golden Eagle is observed to frequent certain favourite places,

and to breed regularly in the same spot, for a long series of years.

The nest is always made upon some high place, generally upon a ledge

of rock, and is most roughly constructed of sticks.

In hunting for their prey the Eagle and his mate assist each other.

It may be also mentioned here that Eagles keep themselves to a

single mate, and live together throughout their lives. Should,

however, one of them die or be killed, the survivor does not long

remain in a state of loneliness, but vanishes from the spot for a

longer or shorter time, and then returns with a new mate.

As rabbits and hares, which form a frequent meal for the Eagle, are

usually hidden under bushes and trees during the day, the birds are

frequently forced to drive them from their place of concealment;

this they have been observed to do in a very clever manner. One of

the Eagles conceals itself near the cover, and its companion dashes

among the bushes, screaming and making such a disturbance that the

terrified inmates rush out in hopes of escape, and are immediately

pounced upon by the watchful confederate.

The prey is immediately taken to the nest, and distributed to the

young after being torn to pieces by the parent birds.

Four or five species of Eagle are known to inhabit Palestine. There

is, for example, the Imperial Eagle (_Aquila mogilnik_), which may

be distinguished from the Golden Eagle by a white patch on the

shoulders, and the long, lancet-shaped feathers of the head and

neck. These feathers are of a fawn colour, and contrast beautifully

with the deep black-brown of the back and wings. It is not very

often seen, being a bird that loves the forest, and that does not

care to leave the shelter of the trees. It is tolerably common in

Palestine.

Then there are several of the allied species, of which the best

example is perhaps the Short-toed Eagle (_Circaëtus cinereus_), a

bird which is extremely plentiful in the Holy Land--so plentiful

indeed that, as Mr. Tristram remarks, there are probably twice as

many of the Short-toed Eagles in Palestine as of all the other

species put together. The genus to which this bird belongs does

not take rank with the true Eagles, but is supposed by systematic

naturalists to hold an intermediate place between the true Eagles

and the ospreys.

The Short-toed Eagle is seldom a carrion-eater, preferring to kill

its prey for itself. It feeds mostly on serpents and other reptiles,

and is especially fond of frogs. It is a large and somewhat heavily

built bird, lightness and swiftness being far less necessary than

strength in taking the animals on which it feeds. It is rather

more than two feet in length, and is a decidedly handsome bird,

the back being dark brown, and the under parts white, covered with

crescent-shaped black spots.

[Illustration: eagle]

[Illustration: EAGLE RETURNING TO THE NEST WITH HER PREY.]

THE OSPREY.

The Osprey, or Fishing Eagle--Its geographical range--Mode of

securing prey--Structure of its feet--Its power of balancing

itself in the air.

We now come to the Osprey itself (_Pandion haliaëtus_), which was

undoubtedly one of the birds grouped together under the collective

term Asniyeh. This word occurs only in the two passages in Deut.

xiv. and Lev. xi. which have been several times quoted already, and

need not be mentioned again.

This fine bird is spread over a very large range of country, and is

found in the New World as well as the Old. In consequence of its

peculiar habits, it is often called the Fishing Eagle.

The Osprey is essentially a fish-eater. It seems very strange that

a predacious bird allied to the eagles, none of which birds can

swim, much less dive, should obtain its living from the water. That

the cormorant and other diving birds should do so is no matter of

surprise, inasmuch as they are able to pursue the fish in their own

element, and catch them by superior speed. But any bird which cannot

dive, and which yet lives on fish, is forced to content itself

with those fish that come to the surface of the water, a mode of

obtaining a livelihood which does not appear to have much chance of

success. Yet the Osprey does on a large scale what the kingfisher

does on a small one, and contrives to find abundant food in the

water.

Its method of taking prey is almost exactly like that which is

employed by the kingfisher. When it goes out in search of food, it

soars into the air, and floats in circles over the water, watching

every inch of it as narrowly as a kestrel watches a stubble-field.

No sooner does a fish rise toward the surface to take a fly, or to

leap into the air for sport, than the Osprey darts downwards, grasps

the fish in its talons, drags the struggling prey from the water,

and with a scream of joy and triumph bears it away to shore, where

it can be devoured at leisure.

The bird never dives, neither does it seize the fish with its beak

like the kingfisher. It plunges but slightly into the water, as

otherwise it would not be able to use its strong wings and carry

off its prey. In order to enable the bird to seize the hard and

slippery body of the fish, it is furnished with long, very sharp,

and boldly-hooked talons, which force themselves into the sides of

the fish, and hold it as with grappling irons.

[Illustration: THE OSPREY SEARCHING FOR FISH.]

The flight of the Osprey is peculiarly easy and elegant, as might

be expected from a bird the length of whose body is only twenty-two

inches, and the expanse of wing nearly five feet and a half.

It is therefore able to hover over the water for long periods of

time, and can balance itself in one spot without seeming to move a

wing, having the singular facility of doing so even when a tolerably

strong breeze is blowing. It has even been observed to maintain its

place unmoved when a sharp squall swept over the spot.

Harmless though the Osprey be--except to the fish--it is a most

persecuted bird, being everywhere annoyed by rooks and crows, and,

in America, robbed by the more powerful white-headed eagle.

Such a scene is thus described by Wilson:

"Elevated on the high, dead limb of a gigantic tree that

commanded a wide view of the neighbouring shore and ocean, the

great white-headed eagle calmly surveys the motions of various

smaller birds that pursue their busy avocations below.

"The snow-white gulls slowly winnowing the air; the trains of

ducks streaming over the surface; silent and watchful cranes,

intent and wading, and all the winged multitude that subsist by

the bounty of this vast liquid magazine of nature.

"High over all these, hovers one whose action instantly arrests

the eagle's attention. By his wide curvature of wing and sudden

suspension in the air he knows him to be the Osprey, settling

over some devoted victim of the deep. The eyes of the eagle

kindle at the sight, and balancing himself with half-opened

wings on the branch, he watches the result.

"Down, rapid as an arrow, from heaven descends the Osprey, the

roar of its wings reaching the ear as it disappears in the

water, making the surges foam around! At this moment the eager

looks of the eagle are all ardour, and, levelling his neck for

flight, he sees the Osprey once more emerge, struggling with his

prey, and mounting in the air with screams of exultation.

"These are the signals for the eagle, who, launching into the

air, instantly gives chase, and soon gains on the Osprey; each

exerts his utmost to mount above the other, displaying in this

encounter the most elegant and sublime aërial evolutions.

[Illustration: SNATCHED FROM THE DEEP: THE OSPREY RISES WITH HIS

PREY.]

"The unencumbered eagle rapidly advances, and is just on the

point of reaching his opponent, when, with a sudden scream,

probably of despair and honest execration, the Osprey drops his

fish.

"The eagle, poising himself for a moment, as if to take a more

certain aim, descends like a whirlwind, snatches it in his

grasp ere it reaches the water, and bears his ill-gotten booty

silently away to the woods."

Although not very plentiful in Palestine, nor indeed in any other

country, the Osprey is seen throughout the whole of that country

where it can find a sufficiency of water. It prefers the sea-shore

and the rivers of the coast, and is said to avoid the Sea of Galilee.

THE KITE, OR VULTURE OF SCRIPTURE.

The word _Dayah_ and its signification--Dayah a collective term

for different species of Kites--The Common or Red Kite plentiful

in Palestine--Its piercing sight and habit of soaring--The Black

Kite of Palestine and its habits--The Egyptian Kite--The Raah or

Glede of Scripture--The Buzzards and their habits--The Peregrine

Falcon an inhabitant of Central Palestine, and the Lanner of the

eastern parts of the country.

In Lev. xi. 14 and Deut. xiv. 13, we find the Vulture among the list

of birds which the Jews were not permitted to eat. The word which

is translated as Vulture is _dayah_, and we find it occurring again

in Isaiah xxxiv. 15, "There shall the vultures also be gathered,

every one with her mate." There is no doubt, however, that this

translation of the word is an incorrect one, and that it ought to be

rendered as Kite. In Job xxviii. 7, there is a similar word, _ayah_,

which is also translated as Vulture, and which is acknowledged to

be not a Vulture, but one of the Kites: "There is a path which no

fowl knoweth, and which the vulture's eye hath not seen." Both these

words are nearly identical with modern Arabic terms which are

employed rather loosely to signify several species of Kite. Buxtorf,

in his Hebrew Lexicon, gives the correct rendering, translating

_dayah_ as _Milvus_, and the Vulgate in one or two places gives the

same translation, though in others it renders the word as Vulture.

[Illustration: THE KITE, OR VULTURE OF SCRIPTURE.]

Mr. Tristram, who has given much attention to this subject, is

inclined to refer the word _ayah_ to the Common Kite (_Milvus

regalis_), which was once so plentiful in this country, and is now

nearly extinct; and _dayah_ to the Black Kite (_Milvus atra_). He

founds this distinction on the different habits of the two species,

the Common or Red Kite being thinly scattered, and being in the

habit of soaring into the air at very great heights, and the latter

being very plentiful and gregarious.

We will first take the Red Kite.

This bird is scattered all over Palestine, feeding chiefly on the

smaller birds, mice, reptiles, and fish. In the capture of fish the

Kite is almost as expert as the osprey, darting from a great height

into the water, and bearing off the fish in its claws. The wings of

this bird are very long and powerful, and bear it through the air in

a peculiarly graceful flight. It is indeed in consequence of this

flight that it has been called the Glede, the word being derived

from its gliding movements.

The sight of this bird is remarkably keen and piercing, and, from

the vast elevation to which it soars when in search of food, it is

able to survey the face of the country beneath, and to detect the

partridge, quail, chicken, or other creature that will serve it for

food. This piercing sight and habit of soaring render the passage in

Job peculiarly appropriate to this species of Kite, though it does

not express the habits of the other. Should the Kite suspect danger

when forced to leave its nest, it escapes by darting rapidly into

the air, and soaring at a vast height above the trees among which

its home is made. From that elevation it can act as a sentinel, and

will not come down again until it is assured of safety.

* * * * *

Of the habits of the BLACK KITE (_Milvus atra_), Mr. Tristram

gives an admirable description. "The habits of the bird bear out

the allusion in Isa. xxxiv. 15, for it is, excepting during the

winter three months, so numerous everywhere in Palestine as to be

almost gregarious. It returns about the beginning of March, and

scatters itself over the whole country, preferring especially the

neighbourhood of valleys, where it is a welcome and unmolested

guest. It does not appear to attack the poultry, among whom it may

often be seen feeding on garbage. It is very sociable, and the

slaughter of a sheep at one of the tents will soon attract a large

party of black kites, which swoop down regardless of man and guns,

and enjoy a noisy scramble for the refuse, chasing each other in a

laughable fashion, and sometimes enabling the wily raven to steal

off with the coveted morsel during their contentions. It is the

butt of all the smaller scavengers, and is evidently most unpopular

with the crows and daws, and even rollers, who enjoy the amusement

of teasing it in their tumbling flight, which is a manœuvre most

perplexing to the kite."

The same writer proceeds to mention that the Black Kite unlike the

red species, is very careless about the position of its nest, and

never even attempts to conceal it, sometimes building it in a tree,

sometimes on a rock-ledge, and sometimes in a bush growing on the

rocks. It seems indeed desirous of making the nest as conspicuous as

possible, and hangs it all over with bits of cloth, strips of bark,

wings of birds, and even the cast skins of serpents.

Another species (_Milvus Ægyptiacus_) is sometimes called the Black

Kite from the dark hue of its plumage, but ought rather to retain

the title of Egyptian Kite. Unlike the black kite, this bird is

a great thief, and makes as much havoc among poultry as the red

kite. It is also a robber of other birds, and if it should happen

to see a weaker bird with food, it is sure to attack and rob it.

Like the black kite, it is fond of the society of man, and haunts

the villages in great numbers, for the purpose of eating the offal,

which in Oriental towns is simply flung into the streets to be

devoured by the dogs, vultures, kites, and other scavengers, without

whom no village would be habitable for a month.

* * * * *

Whether the word _raah_, which is translated as Glede in Deut. xiv.

13, among the list of birds which may not be eaten, is one of these

species of Kite, or a bird of a different group, is a very doubtful

point. This is the only passage in which the word occurs, and we

have but small grounds for definitely identifying it with any one

species. The Hebrew Bible retains the word Glede, but affixes a mark

of doubt to it, and several commentators are of opinion that the

word is a wrong reading of _dayah_, which occurs in the parallel

passage in Lev. xi. 14. The reading of the Septuagint follows this

interpretation, and renders it as Vulture in both cases. Buxtorf

translates the word _raah_ as Rook, but suggests that _dayah_ is the

correct reading.

Accepting, however, the word _raah_, we shall find that it is

derived from a root which signifies sight or vision, especially of

some particular object, so that a piercing sight would therefore be

the chief characteristic of the bird, which, as we know, is one of

the attributes of the Kites, together with other birds of prey, so

that it evidently must be classed among the group with which we are

now concerned. It has been suggested that, granting the _raah_ to

be a species distinct from the _dayah_, it is a collective term for

the larger falcons and buzzards, several species of which inhabit

Palestine, and are not distinctly mentioned in the Bible.

Several species of buzzard inhabit the Holy Land, and there is

no particular reason why they should be mentioned except by a

collective name. Some of the buzzards are very large birds, and

though their wings are short when compared with those of the

vultures and eagles, the flight of the bird is both powerful and

graceful. It is not, however, remarkable for swiftness, and never

was employed, like the falcon, in catching other birds, being

reckoned as one of the useless and cowardly birds of prey. In

consonance with this opinion, to compare a man to a buzzard was

thought a most cutting insult.

[Illustration: THE PEREGRINE FALCON, OR GLEDE OF SCRIPTURE.]

As a general rule, it does not chase its prey like the eagles or the

large-winged falcons, but perches on a rock or tree, watches for

some animal on which it can feed, pounces on it, and returns to its

post, the whole movements being very like those of the flycatcher.

This sluggishness of disposition, and the soft and almost owl-like

plumage, have been the means of bringing the bird into contempt

among falconers.

As to the large falcons, which seem to be included in the term

_raah_, the chief of them is the Peregrine Falcon (_Falco

peregrinus_), which is tolerably common in the Holy Land. In his

"Land of Israel," Mr. Tristram gives several notices of this bird,

from which we may take the following picture from a description of

a scene at Endor. "Dreary and desolate looked the plain, though of

exuberant fertility. Here and there might be seen a small flock of

sheep or herd of cattle, tended by three or four mounted villagers,

armed with their long firelocks, and pistols and swords, on the

watch against any small party of marauding cattle-lifters.

"Griffon vultures were wheeling in circles far over the rounded top

of Tabor; and here and there an eagle was soaring beneath them in

search of food, but at a most inconvenient distance from our guns.

Hariers were sweeping more rapidly and closely over the ground,

where lambs appeared to be their only prey; and a noble peregrine

falcon, which in Central Palestine does not give place to the more

eastern lanner, was perched on an isolated rock, calmly surveying

the scene, and permitting us to approach and scrutinize him at our

leisure."

The habit of perching on the rock, as mentioned above, is very

characteristic of the Peregrine Falcon, who loves the loftiest and

most craggy cliffs, and makes its nest in spots which can only be

reached by a bold and experienced climber. The nests of this bird

are never built in close proximity, the Peregrine preferring to have

its home at least a mile from the nest of any other of its kinsfolk.

Sometimes it makes a nest in lofty trees, taking possession of the

deserted home of some other bird; but it loves the cliff better

than the tree, and seldom builds in the latter when the former is

attainable.

In the passage from the "Land of Israel" is mentioned the LANNER

FALCON (_Falco lanarius_), another of the larger falcons to which

the term _raah_ may have been applied.

This bird is much larger than the Peregrine Falcon, and, indeed, is

very little less than the great gerfalcon itself. It is one of the

birds that were reckoned among the noble falcons; and the female,

which is much larger and stronger than the male, was employed for

the purpose of chasing the kite, whose long and powerful wings could

not always save it from such a foe.

Although the Lanner has been frequently mentioned among the British

birds, and the name is therefore familiar to us, it is not even

a visitor of our island. The mistake has occurred by an error in

nomenclature, the young female Peregrine Falcon, which is much

larger and darker than the male bird, having been erroneously called

by the name of Lanner.

[Illustration: THE LANNER FALCON.]

In the illustration, a pair of Lanner Falcons are depicted as

pursuing some of the rock-pigeons which abound in Palestine, the

attitudes of both birds being taken from life.

[Illustration: hawk]

THE HAWK.

The Netz or Hawk--Number of species probably grouped under

that name--Rare occurrence of the word--The Sparrow-Hawk and

its general habits--Its place of nesting--The Kestrel, or

Wind-hover--Various names by which it is known in England--Its

mode of feeding and curious flight--The Hariers--Probable

derivation of the name--Species of Harier known to inhabit

Palestine--Falconry apparently unknown to the ancient Jews.

There is no doubt that a considerable number of species are grouped

together under the single title Netz, or Hawk, a word which is

rightly enough translated. That a great number of birds should have

been thus confounded together is not surprising, seeing that even

in this country and at the present time, the single word Hawk may

signify any one of at least twelve different species. The various

falcons, the hariers, the kestrel, the sparrow-hawk, and the

hobbies, are one and all called popularly by the name of Hawk, and

it is therefore likely that the Hebrew word Netz would signify as

many species as the English word Hawk. From them we will select one

or two of the principal species.

In the first place, the word is of very rare occurrence. We only

find it three times. It first occurs in Lev. xi. 16, in which it is

named, together with the eagle, the ossifrage, and many other birds,

as among the unclean creatures, to eat which was an abomination. It

is next found in the parallel passage in Deut. xiv. 15, neither of

which portions of Scripture need be quoted at length.

That the word _netz_ was used in its collective sense is very

evident from the addition which is made to it in both cases. The

Hawk, "after its kind," is forbidden, showing therefore that

several kinds or species of Hawk were meant. Indeed, any specific

detail would be quite needless, as the collective term was quite a

sufficient indication, and, having named the vultures, eagles, and

larger birds of prey, the simple word _netz_ was considered by the

sacred writer as expressing the rest of the birds of prey.

We find the word once more in that part of the Bible to which we

usually look for any reference to natural history. In Job xxxix. 26,

we have the words, "Doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom, and turn [or

stretch] her wings toward the south?" The precise signification of

this passage is rather doubtful, but it is generally considered to

refer to the migration of several of the Hawk tribe. That the bird

in question was distinguished for its power of flight is evident

from the fact that the sacred poet has selected that one attribute

as the most characteristic of the Netz.

Taking first the typical example of the Hawks, we find that the

SPARROW-HAWK (_Accipiter nisus_) is plentiful in Palestine, finding

abundant food in the smaller birds of the country. It selects for

its nest just the spots which are so plentiful in the Holy Land,

_i.e._ the crannies of rocks, and the tops of tall trees. Sometimes

it builds in deserted ruins, but its favourite spot seems to be

the lofty tree-top, and, in default of that, the rock-crevice. It

seldom builds a nest of its own, but takes possession of that which

has been made by some other bird. Some ornithologists think that

it looks out for a convenient nest, say of the crow or magpie, and

then ejects the rightful owner. I am inclined to think, however,

that it mostly takes possession of a nest that is already deserted,

without running the risk of fighting such enemies as a pair of angry

magpies. This opinion is strengthened by the fact that the bird

resorts to the same nest year after year.

It is a bold and dashing bird, though of no great size, and

when wild and free displays a courage which it seems to lose in

captivity. As is the case with so many of the birds, the female is

much larger than her mate, the former weighing about six ounces, and

measuring about a foot in length, and the latter weighing above nine

ounces, and measuring about fifteen inches in length.

[Illustration: KESTREL HOVERING OVER A FIELD IN SEARCH OF PREY.]

The most plentiful of the smaller Hawks of Palestine is the COMMON

KESTREL. This is the same species which is known under the names of

Kestrel, Wind-hover, and Stannel Hawk.

It derives its name of Wind-hover from its remarkable habit of

hovering, head to windward, over some spot for many minutes

together. This action is always performed at a moderate distance

from the ground; some naturalists saying that the Hawk in question

never hovers at an elevation exceeding forty feet, while others,

myself included, have seen the bird hovering at a height of twice as

many yards. Generally, however, it prefers a lower distance, and is

able by employing this manœuvre to survey a tolerably large space

beneath. As its food consists in a very great measure of field-mice,

the Kestrel is thus able by means of its telescopic eyesight to see

if a mouse rises from its hole; and if it should do so, the bird

drops on it and secures it in its claws.

[Illustration: THE WIND-HOVER, OR KESTREL.]

Unlike the sparrow-hawk, the Kestrel is undoubtedly gregarious, and

will build its nest in close proximity to the habitations of other

birds, a number of nests being often found within a few yards of

each other. Mr. Tristram remarks that he has found its nest in the

recesses of the caverns occupied by the griffon vultures, and that

the Kestrel also builds close to the eagles, and is the only bird

which is permitted to do so. It also builds in company with the

jackdaw.

Several species of Kestrel are known, and of them at least two

inhabit the Holy Land, the second being a much smaller bird than

the Common Kestrel, and feeding almost entirely on insects, which

it catches with its claws, the common chafers forming its usual

prey. Great numbers of these birds live together, and as they rather

affect the society of mankind, they are fond of building their nests

in convenient crannies in the mosques or churches. Independently of

its smaller size, it may be distinguished from the Common Kestrel by

the whiteness of its claws.

The illustration is drawn from a sketch taken from life. The bird

hovered so near a house, and remained so long in one place, that the

artist fixed a telescope and secured an exact sketch of the bird

in the peculiar attitude which it is so fond of assuming. After a

while, the Kestrel ascended to a higher elevation, and then resumed

its hovering, in the attitude which is shown in the upper figure. In

consequence of the great abundance of this species in Palestine, and

the peculiarly conspicuous mode of balancing itself in the air while

in search of prey, we may feel sure that the sacred writers had it

specially in their minds when they used the collective term Netz.

It is easily trained, and, although in the old hawking days it was

considered a bird which a noble could not carry, it can be trained

to chase the smaller birds as successfully as the falcons can be

taught to pursue the heron. The name Tinnunculus is supposed by some

to have been given to the bird in allusion to its peculiar cry,

which is clear, shrill, and consists of a single note several times

repeated.

On page 444 the reader may see a representation of a pair of HARIER

HAWKS flying below the rock on which the peregrine falcon has

perched, and engaged in pursuing one of the smaller birds.

They have been introduced because several species of Harier are

to be found in Palestine, where they take, among the plains and

lowlands, the place which is occupied by the other hawks and falcons

among the rocks.

The name of Harier appears to be given to these birds on account of

their habit of regularly quartering the ground over which they fly

when in search of prey, just like hounds when searching for hares.

This bird is essentially a haunter of flat and marshy lands, where

it finds frogs, mice, lizards, on which it usually feeds. It does

not, however, confine itself to such food, but will chase and kill

most of the smaller birds, and occasionally will catch even the

leveret, the rabbit, the partridge, and the curlew.

When it chases winged prey, it seldom seizes the bird in the air,

but almost invariably keeps above it, and gradually drives it to

the ground. It will be seen, therefore, that its flight is mostly

low, as suits the localities in which it lives, and it seldom

soars to any great height, except when it amuses itself by rising

and wheeling in circles together with its mate. This proceeding

generally takes place before nest-building. The usual flight is a

mixture of that of the kestrel and the falcon, the Harier sometimes

poising itself over some particular spot, and at others shooting

forwards through the air with motionless wings.

Unlike the falcons and most of the hawks, the Harier does not as a

rule perch on rocks, but prefers to sit very upright on the ground,

perching generally on a mole-hill, stone, or some similar elevation.

Even its nest is made on the ground, and is composed of reeds,

sedges, sticks, and similar matter, materials that can be procured

from marshy land. The nest is always elevated a foot or so from the

ground, and has occasionally been found on the top of a mound more

than a yard in height. It is, however, conjectured that in such

cases the mound is made by one nest being built upon the remains of

another. The object of the elevated nest is probably to preserve the

eggs in case of a flood.

At least five species of Hariers are known to exist in the Holy

Land, two of which are among the British birds, namely, the Marsh

Harier (_Circus æruginosus_), sometimes called the Duck Hawk and

the Moor Buzzard, and the Hen Harier (_Circus cyaneus_), sometimes

called the White Hawk, Dove Hawk, or Blue Hawk, on account of the

plumage of the male, which differs greatly according to age; and the

Ring-tailed Hawk, on account of the dark bars which appear on the

tail of the female. All the Hariers are remarkable for the circlet

of feathers that surrounds the eyes, and which resembles in a lesser

degree the bold feather-circle around the eye of the owl tribe.

* * * * *

Before taking leave of the Hawks, it is as well to notice the entire

absence in the Scriptures of any reference to falconry. Now, seeing

that the art of catching birds and animals by means of Hawks is a

favourite amusement among Orientals, as has already been mentioned

when treating of the gazelle (page 168), and knowing the unchanging

character of the East, we cannot but think it remarkable that no

reference should be made to this sport in the Scriptures.

It is true that in Palestine itself there would be but little scope

for falconry, the rough hilly ground and abundance of cultivated

soil rendering such an amusement almost impossible. Besides, the use

of the falcon implies that of the horse, and, as we have already

seen, the horse was scarcely ever used except for military purposes.

Had, therefore, the experience of the Israelites been confined

to Palestine, there would have been good reason for the silence

of the sacred writers on this subject. But when we remember that

the surrounding country is well adapted for falconry, that the

amusement is practised there at the present day, and that the

Israelites passed so many years as captives in other countries, we

can but wonder that the Hawks should never be mentioned as aids

to bird-catching. We find that other bird-catching implements are

freely mentioned and employed as familiar symbols, such as the gin,

the net, the snare, the trap, and so forth; but that there is not

a single passage in which the Hawks are mentioned as employed in

falconry.

[Illustration: BARN OWL.]

THE OWL.

The words which have been translated as Owl--Use made of the

Little Owl in bird-catching--Habits of the bird--The Barn,

Screech, or White Owl a native of Palestine--The Yanshûph, or

Egyptian Eagle Owl--Its food and nest.

In various parts of the Old Testament there occur several words

which are translated as OWL in the Authorized Version, and in most

cases the rendering is acknowledged to be the correct one, while in

one or two instances there is a difference of opinion on the subject.

In Lev. xi. 16, 17, we find the following birds reckoned among

those which are an abomination, and which might not be eaten by the

Israelites: "The owl, and the night-hawk, and the cuckoo, and the

hawk after his kind;

"And the little owl, and the cormorant, and the great owl."

It is very likely that the Little Owl here mentioned is identical

with the Boomah of the Arabs. It is a bird that is common in Europe,

where it is much valued by bird-catchers, who employ it as a means

of attracting small birds to their traps. They place it on the top

of a long pole, and carry it into the fields, where they plant the

pole in the ground. This Owl has a curious habit of swaying its

body backwards and forwards, and is sure to attract the notice of

all the small birds in the neighbourhood. It is well known that the

smaller birds have a peculiar hatred to the Owl, and never can pass

it without mobbing it, assembling in great numbers, and so intent

on their occupation that they seem to be incapable of perceiving

anything but the object of their hatred. Even rooks, magpies, and

hawks are taken by this simple device.

Whether or not the Little Owl was used for this object by the

ancient inhabitants of Palestine is rather doubtful; but as they

certainly did so employ decoy birds for the purpose of attracting

game, it is not unlikely that the Little Owl was found to serve as a

decoy. We shall learn more about the system of decoy-birds when we

come to the partridge.

The Little Owl is to be found in almost every locality, caring

little whether it takes up its residence in cultivated grounds, in

villages, among deserted ruins, or in places where man has never

lived. As, however, it is protected by the natives, it prefers

the neighbourhood of villages, and may be seen quietly perched in

some favourite spot, not taking the trouble to move unless it be

approached closely. And to detect a perched Owl is not at all an

easy matter, as the bird has a way of selecting some spot where

the colours of its plumage harmonize so well with the surrounding

objects that the large eyes are often the first indication of its

presence. Many a time I have gone to search after Owls, and only

been made aware of them by the sharp angry snap that they make when

startled.

The common and well-known Barn Owl, also inhabits Palestine. Like

the Little Owl, it affects the neighbourhood of man, though it may

be found in ruins and similar localities. An old ruined building

is sure to be tenanted by the Barn Owl, whose nightly shrieks very

often terrify the belated wanderer, and make him fancy that the

place is haunted by disturbed spirits. Such being the habits of the

bird, it is likely that in the East, where popular superstition has

peopled every well with its jinn and every ruin with its spirit, the

nocturnal cry of this bird, which is often called the Screech Owl

from its note, should be exceedingly terrifying, and would impress

itself on the minds of sacred writers as a fit image of solitude,

terror, and desolation.

[Illustration: THE LITTLE OWL.]

The Screech Owl is scarcely less plentiful in Palestine than the

Little Owl, and, whether or not it be mentioned under a separate

name, is sure to be one of the birds to which allusion is made in

the Scriptures.

* * * * *

Another name now rises before us: this is the Yanshûph, translated

as the Great Owl, a word which occurs not only in the prohibitory

passages of Leviticus and Deuteronomy, but in the Book of Isaiah. In

that book, ch. xxxiv. ver. 10, 11, we find the following passage:

"From generation to generation it shall lie waste; none shall pass

through it for ever and ever.

[Illustration: CAUGHT NAPPING.]

"But the cormorant and the bittern shall possess it; the owl

(_yanshûph_) also and the raven shall dwell in it: and He shall

stretch out upon it the line of confusion, and the stones of

emptiness." The Jewish Bible follows the same reading.

It is most probable that the Great Owl or Yanshûph is the EGYPTIAN

EAGLE OWL (_Bubo ascalaphus_), a bird which is closely allied to the

great Eagle Owl of Europe (_Bubo maximus_), and the Virginian Eared

Owl (_Bubo Virginianus_) of America. This fine bird measures some

two feet in length, and looks much larger than its real size, owing

to the thick coating of feathers which it wears in common with all

true Owls, and the ear-like feather tufts on the top of its head,

which it can raise or depress at pleasure. Its plumage is light

tawny.

This bird has a special predilection for deserted places and ruins,

and may at the present time be seen on the very spots of which the

prophet spoke in his prediction. It is very plentiful in Egypt,

where the vast ruins are the only relics of a creed long passed away

or modified into other forms of religion, and its presence only

intensifies rather than diminishes the feeling of loneliness that

oppresses the traveller as he passes among the ruins.

The European Eagle Owl has all the habits of its Asiatic congener.

It dwells in places far from the neighbourhood of man, and during

the day is hidden in some deep and dark recess, its enormous eyes

not being able to endure the light of day. In the evening it issues

from its retreat, and begins its search after prey, which consists

of various birds, quadrupeds, reptiles, fish, and even insects when

it can find nothing better.

On account of its comparatively large dimensions, it is able to

overcome even the full-grown hare and rabbit, while the lamb and the

young fawn occasionally fall victims to its voracity. It seems never

to chase any creature on the wing, but floats silently through the

air, its soft and downy plumage deadening the sound of its progress,

and suddenly drops on the unsuspecting prey while it is on the

ground.

The nest of this Owl is made in the crevices of rocks, or in ruins,

and is a very large one, composed of sticks and twigs, lined with a

tolerably large heap of dried herbage, the parent Owls returning to

the same spot year after year. Should it not be able to find either

a rock or a ruin, it contents itself with a hollow in the ground,

and there lays its eggs, which are generally two in number, though

occasionally a third egg is found. The Egyptian Eagle Owl does much

the same thing, burrowing in sand-banks, and retreating, if it fears

danger, into the hollow where its nest has been made.

[Illustration:

RAVEN.

BARN OWL.

EAGLE OWL.

]

[Illustration: A FAMILY COUNCIL.]

In the large illustration the two last-mentioned species are given.

The Egyptian Eagle Owl is seen with its back towards the spectator,

grasping in its talons a dead hare, and with ear-tufts erect is

looking towards the Barn Owl, which is contemplating in mingled

anger and fear the proceedings of the larger bird. Near them is

perched a raven, in order to carry out more fully the prophetic

words, "the owl also and the raven shall dwell in it."

[Illustration: owl]

[Illustration: night-hawk]

THE NIGHT-HAWK.

Different interpretations of the word Tachmâs--Probability

that it signifies the Nightjar--Various names of the bird--Its

remarkable jarring cry, and wheeling flight--Mode of

feeding--Boldness of the bird--Deceptive appearance of its size.

We next come to the vexed question of the word Tachmâs which is

rendered in the Authorized Version as NIGHT-HAWK.

This word only occurs among the list of prohibited birds (see Lev.

xi. 16, and Deut. xiv. 15), and has caused great controversies among

commentators. The balance of probability seems to lie between two

interpretations,--namely, that which considers the word _tachmâs_

to signify the Night-hawk, and that which translates it as Owl. For

both of these interpretations much is to be said, and it cannot be

denied that of the two the latter is perhaps the preferable. If so,

the White or Barn Owl is probably the particular species to which

reference is made.

Still, many commentators think that the Night-hawk or Nightjar is

the bird which is signified by the word _tachmâs_; and, as we have

already treated of the owls, we will accept the rendering of the

Authorized Version. Moreover, the Jewish Bible follows the same

translation, and renders _tachmâs_ as Night-hawk, but affixes the

mark of doubt.

[Illustration: THE NIGHT-HAWK.]

It is not unlikely that the Jews may have reckoned this bird among

the owls, just as is the case with the uneducated among ourselves,

who popularly speak of the Nightjar as the Fern Owl, Churn Owl, or

Jar Owl, the two last names being given to it on account of its

peculiar cry. There are few birds, indeed, which have received a

greater variety of popular names, for, besides the Goatsucker and

the five which have already been mentioned, there are the Wheel-bird

and Dor-hawk, the former of these names having been given to the

bird on account of its wheeling round the trees while seeking for

prey, and the latter on account of the dor-beetles on which it

largely feeds.

This curious variety of names is probably due to the very

conspicuous character of the Nightjar, its strange, jarring,

weird-like cry forcing itself on the ear of the least attentive, as

it breaks the silence of night. It hardly seems like the cry of

a bird, but rather resembles the sound of a pallet falling on the

cogs of a rapidly-working wheel. It begins in the dusk of evening,

the long, jarring note being rolled out almost interminably, until

the hearer wonders how the bird can have breath enough for such a

prolonged sound. The hearer may hold his breath as long as he can,

take a full inspiration, hold his breath afresh, and repeat this

process over and over again, and yet the Nightjar continues to trill

out its rapid notes without a moment's cessation for breath, the

sound now rising shrill and clear, and now sinking as if the bird

were far off, but never ceasing for an instant.

This remarkable cry has caused the uneducated rustics to look upon

the bird with superstitious dread, every one knowing its cry full

well, though to many the bird is unknown except by its voice. It is

probable that, in the days when Moses wrote the Law, so conspicuous

a bird was well known to the Jews, and we may therefore conjecture

that it was one of those birds which he would specially mention by

name.

The general habits of the Nightjar are quite as remarkable as its

note. It feeds on the wing, chasing and capturing the various moths,

beetles, and other insects that fly abroad by night. It may be seen

wheeling round the branches of some tree, the oak being a special

favourite, sometimes circling round it, and sometimes rising high

in the air, and the next moment skimming along the ground. Suddenly

it will disappear, and next moment its long trilling cry is heard

from among the branches of the tree round which it has been flying.

To see it while singing is almost impossible, for it has a habit of

sitting longitudinally on the branch, and not across it, like most

birds, so that the outline of its body cannot be distinguished from

that of the bough of which it is seated. As suddenly as it began,

the sound ceases, and simultaneously the bird may be seen wheeling

again through the air with its noiseless flight.

Being a very bold bird, and not much afraid of man, it allows a

careful observer to watch its movements clearly. I have often stood

close to the tree round which several Nightjars were circling, and

seen them chase their prey to the ground within a yard or two of

the spot on which I was standing. The flight of the Nightjar is

singularly graceful. Swift as the swallow itself, it presents a

command of wing that is really wonderful, gliding through the air

with consummate ease, wheeling and doubling in pursuit of some

active moth, whose white wings glitter against the dark background,

while the sober plumage of its pursuer is scarcely visible, passing

often within a few feet of the spectator, and yet not a sound or a

rustle will reach his ears. Sometimes the bird is said to strike

its wings together over its back, so as to produce a sharp snapping

sound, intended to express anger at the presence of the intruder. I

never, however, heard this sound, though I have watched the bird so

often.

Owing to the soft plumage with which it is clad, this bird, like

the owls, looks larger than really is the case. It is between ten

and eleven inches in length, with an expanse of wing of twenty

inches, and yet weighs rather less than three ounces. Its large

mouth, like that of the swallow tribe, opens as far as the eyes,

and is furnished with a set of _vibrissæ_ or bristles, which remind

the observer of the "whale-bone" which is set on the jaw of the

Greenland whale.

[Illustration: trees and bird]

[Illustration: swallow]

THE SWALLOW.

Identification of the smaller birds--Oriental indifference to

natural history--Use of collective terms--The Swallow--The Bird

of Liberty--Swallows and Swifts--Variety of small birds found in

Palestine--The Swallows of Palestine.

Difficult as is the identification of the mammalia mentioned in the

Bible, that of the birds is much more intricate.

Some of the larger birds can be identified with tolerable certainty,

but when we come to the smaller and less conspicuous species,

we are at once lost in uncertainty, and at the best can only

offer conjectures. The fact is, the Jews of old had no idea of

discriminating between the smaller birds, unless they happened to be

tolerably conspicuous by plumage or by voice. We need not be much

surprised at this. The Orientals of the present day do precisely the

same thing, and not only fail to discriminate between the smaller

birds, but absolutely have no names for them.

By them, the shrikes, the swallows, the starlings, the thrushes,

the larks, the warblers, and all the smaller birds, are called by

a common title, derived from the twittering sound of their voices,

only one or two of them having any distinctive titles. They look

upon the birds much as persons ignorant of entomology look at a

collection of moths. There is not much difficulty in discriminating

between the great hawk-moths, and perhaps in giving a name to one or

two of them which are specially noticeable for any peculiarity of

form or colour; but when they come to the "Rustics," the "Carpets,"

the "Wainscots," and similar groups, they are utterly lost; and,

though they may be able to see the characteristic marks when the

moths are placed side by side, they are incapable of distinguishing

them separately, and, to their uneducated eyes, twenty or thirty

species appear absolutely alike.

I believe that there is no country where a knowledge of practical

natural history is so widely extended as in England, and yet how few

educated persons are there who, if taken along a country lane, can

name the commonest weed or insect, or distinguish between a sparrow,

a linnet, a hedge-sparrow, and a chaffinch. Nay, how many are there

who, if challenged even to repeat the names of twelve little birds,

would be unable to do so without some consideration, much less to

know them if the birds were placed before them.

Such being the case in a country where the capability of observation

is more or less cultivated in every educated person, we may well

expect that a profound ignorance on the subject should exist in

countries where that faculty is absolutely neglected as a matter of

education. Moreover, in England, there is a comparatively limited

list of birds, whereas in Palestine are found nearly all those which

are reckoned among British birds, and many other species besides.

Those which reside in England reside also for the most part in

Palestine, while the greater part of the migratory birds pass, as we

might expect, into the Holy Land and the neighbouring countries.

If then we put together the two facts of an unobservant people and a

vastly extended fauna, we shall not wonder that so many collective

terms are used in the Scriptures, one word often doing duty for

twenty or thirty species. The only plan, therefore, which can be

adopted, is to mention generally the birds which were probably

grouped under one name, and to describe briefly one or two of the

most prominent.

It is, however, rather remarkable that the song of birds does not

appear to be noticed by the sacred writers. We might expect that

several of the prophets, especially Isaiah, the great sacred poet,

who drew so many of his images from natural objects, would have

found in the song of birds some metaphor expressive of sweetness

or joy. We might expect that in the Book of Job, in which so many

creatures are mentioned, the singing of birds would be brought as

prominently forward as the neck clothed with thunder of the horse,

the tameless freedom of the wild ass, the voracity of the vulture,

and the swiftness of the ostrich. We might expect the song of birds

to be mentioned by Amos, the herdman of Tekoa, who introduces into

his rugged poem the roar of the old lion and the wail of the cub,

the venom of the serpent hidden in the wattled wall of the herdman's

hut, and the ravages of the palmer-worm among the olives. Above all,

we might expect that in the Psalms there would be many allusions

to the notes of the various birds which have formed such fruitful

themes for the poets of later times. There are, however, in the

whole of the Scriptures but two passages in which the song of birds

is mentioned, and even in these only a passing allusion is made.

One of them occurs in Psalm civ. 12: "By them (_i.e._ the springs

of water) shall the fowls of the heaven have their habitation,

which sing among the branches." This passage is perhaps rendered

more closely in the Jewish Bible: "Over them dwell the fowls of the

heaven; they let their voices resound (or give their voice) from

between the foliage."

The other occurs in Eccles. xii. 4: "And the doors shall be shut in

the streets, when the sound of the grinding is low, and he shall

rise up at the voice of the bird, and all the daughters of music

shall be brought low." The word which is here translated as "bird,"

is that which is rendered in some places as "sparrow," in others

as "fowl," and in others as "bird." Even in these passages, as the

reader will have noticed, no marks of appreciation are employed, and

we hear nothing of the sweetness, joyousness, or mournfulness of the

bird's song.

* * * * *

We will now proceed to the words which have been translated as

Swallow in the Authorized Version.

These are two in number, namely, _derôr_ and _agar_. Hebraists are,

however, agreed that the latter word has been wrongly applied, the

translators having interchanged the signification of two contiguous

words.

We will therefore first take the word _deror_. This word signifies

liberty, and is well applied to the Swallow, the bird of freedom.

It is remarkable, by the way, how some of the old commentators have

contrived to perplex themselves about a very simple matter. One of

them comments upon the bird as being "so called, because it has

the liberty of building in the houses of mankind." Another takes a

somewhat similar view of the case, but puts it in a catechetical

form: "Why is the swallow called the bird of liberty? Because it

lives both in the house and in the field." It is scarcely necessary

to point out to the reader that the "liberty" to which allusion is

made is the liberty of flight, the bird coming and going at its

appointed times, and not being capable of domestication.

[Illustration: LOST FROM THE FLOCK.]

Several kinds of Swallow are known in Palestine, including the true

Swallows, the martins, and the swifts, and, as we shall presently

see, it is likely that one of these groups was distinguished by a

separate name. Whether or not the word _deror_ included other birds

beside the Swallows is rather doubtful, though not at all unlikely;

and if so, it is probable that any swift-winged insectivorous bird

would be called by the name of Deror, irrespective of its size or

colour.

The bee-eaters, for example, are probably among the number of the

birds grouped together under the word _deror_, and we may conjecture

that the same is the case with the sunbirds, those bright-plumed

little beings that take in the Old World the place occupied by the

humming-birds in the New, and often mistaken for them by travellers

who are not acquainted with ornithology. One of these birds, the

_Nectarinia Oseæ_, is described by Mr. Tristram as "a tiny little

creature of gorgeous plumage, rivalling the humming-birds of America

in the metallic lustre of its feathers--green and purple, with

brilliant red and orange plumes under its shoulders."

In order to account for the singular variety of animal life which

is to be found in Palestine, and especially the exceeding diversity

of species among the birds, we must remember that Palestine is a

sort of microcosm in itself, comprising within its narrow boundaries

the most opposite conditions of temperature, climate, and soil.

Some parts are rocky, barren, and mountainous, chilly and cold at

the top, and acting as channels through which the winds blow almost

continuously. The cliffs are full of holes, rifts, and caverns, some

natural, some artificial, and some of a mixed kind, the original

caverns having been enlarged and improved by the hand of man.

As a contrast to this rough and ragged region, there lie close

at hand large fertile plains, affording pasturage for unnumbered

cattle, and of a tolerably equable temperature, so that the animals

which are pastured in it can find food throughout the year. Through

the centre of Palestine runs the Jordan, fertilizing its banks with

perpetual verdure, and ending its course in the sulphurous and

bituminous waters of the Dead Sea, under whose waves the ruins of

the wicked cities are supposed to lie. Westward we have the shore of

the Mediterranean with its tideless waves of the salt sea, and on

the eastward of the mountain range that runs nearly parallel to the

sea is the great Lake of Tiberias, so large as to have earned the

name of the Sea of Galilee.

[Illustration: THE SWALLOW AND SWIFT.]

Under these favourable conditions, therefore, the number of species

which are found in Palestine is perhaps greater than can be seen

in any other part of the earth of the same dimensions, and it

seems probable that for this reason, among many others, Palestine

was selected to be the Holy Land. If, for example, the Christian

Church had been originated under the tropics, those who lived in a

cold climate could scarcely have understood the language in which

the Scriptures must necessarily have been couched. Had it, on the

contrary, taken its rise in the Arctic regions, the inhabitants

of the tropics and temperate regions could not have comprehended

the imagery in which the teachings of Scripture must have been

conveyed. But the small and geographically insignificant Land of

Palestine combines in itself many of the characteristics which

belong respectively to the cold, the temperate, and the hot regions

of the world, so that the terms in which the sacred writings are

couched are intelligible to a very great proportion of the world's

inhabitants.

[Illustration: VIEW OF THE SEA OF GALILEE.]

This being the case, we naturally expect to find that several

species of the Swallow are inhabitants of Palestine, if so migratory

a bird can be said to be an inhabitant of any one country.

[Illustration: THE SWALLOW'S FAVOURITE HAUNT.]

The chief characteristic of the Swallow, the "bird of freedom,"

is that it cannot endure captivity, but is forced by instinct to

pass from one country to another for the purpose of preserving

itself in a tolerably equable temperature, moving northwards as the

spring ripens into summer, and southwards as autumn begins to sink

into winter. By some marvellous instinct it traces its way over

vast distances, passing over hundreds of miles where nothing but

the sea is beneath it, and yet at the appointed season returning

with unerring certainty to the spot where it was hatched. How it

is guided no one knows, but the fact is certain, that Swallows,

remarkable for some peculiarity by which they could be at once

identified, have been observed to leave the country on their

migration, and to return in the following year to the identical nest

whence they started.

Its habit of making its nest among the habitations of mankind is

mentioned in a well-known passage of the Psalms: "The sparrow hath

found an house, and the swallow a nest for herself, where she may

lay her young, even Thine altars, O Lord of Hosts, my King and my

God" (Ps. lxxxiv. 3). The Swallow seems in all countries to have

enjoyed the protection of man, and to have been suffered to build

in peace under his roof. We find the same idea prevalent in the New

World as well as the Old, and it is rather curious that the presence

of the bird should so generally be thought to bring luck to a house.

In some parts of our country, a farmer would not dare to kill a

Swallow or break down its nest, simply because he thinks that if

he did so his cows would fail to give their due supply of milk.

The connexion between the milking of a cow in the field and the

destruction of a Swallow's nest in the house is not very easy to

see, but nevertheless such is the belief. This idea ranks with that

which asserts the robin and the wren to be the male and female of

the same species, and to be under some special divine protection.

Whatever may be the origin of this superstition, whether it be

derived from some forgotten source, or whether it be the natural

result of the confiding nature of the bird, the Swallow enjoys at

the present day the protection of man, and builds freely in his

houses, and even his places of worship. The heathen temples, the

Mahometan mosques, and the Christian churches are alike inhabited by

the Swallow, who seems to know her security, and often places her

nest where a child might reach it.

The bird does not, however, restrict itself to the habitations of

man, though it prefers them; and in those places where no houses

are to be found, and yet where insects are plentiful, it takes

possession of the clefts of rocks, and therein makes its nest.

Many instances are known where the Swallow has chosen the most

extraordinary places for its nest. It has been known to build year

after year on the frame of a picture, between the handles of a pair

of shears hung on the wall, on a lamp-bracket, in a table-drawer, on

a door-knocker, and similar strange localities.

The swiftness of flight for which this bird is remarkable is noticed

by the sacred writers. "As the bird by wandering, as the swallow

by flying, so the curse causeless shall not come" (Prov. xxvi. 2).

This passage is given rather differently in the Jewish Bible, though

the general sense remains the same: "As the bird is ready to flee,

as the swallow to fly away; so a causeless execration, it shall not

come." It is possible, however, that this passage may allude rather

to the migration than the swiftness of the bird.

[Illustration: SWALLOWS AT HOME.]

THE HOOPOE, OR LAPWING OF SCRIPTURE.

The "Dukiphath" of Scripture--Various interpretations of the

word--The Hoopoe--Its beauty and ill reputation--The unpleasant

odour of its nest--Food of the Hoopoe--Its beautiful nest, and

remarkable gestures--A curious legend of Solomon and the Hoopoe.

In the two parallel chapters, Lev. xi. and Deut. xiv., there occurs

the name of a bird which is translated in the Authorized Version,

Lapwing: "And the stork, the heron after her kind, the lapwing, and

the bat."

The Hebrew word is _dukiphath_, and various interpretations have

been proposed for it, some taking it to be the common domestic fowl,

others the cock-of-the-woods, or capercailzie, while others have

preferred to translate it as Hoopoe. The Jewish Bible retains the

word lapwing, but adds the mark of doubt. Commentators are, however,

agreed that of all these interpretations, that which renders the

word as HOOPOE (_Upupa epops_) is the best.

There would be no particular object in the prohibition of such a

bird as the lapwing, or any of its kin, while there would be very

good reasons for the same injunction with regard to the Hoopoe.

In spite of the beauty of the bird, it has always had rather an ill

reputation, and, whether in Europe or Asia, its presence seems to

be regarded by the ignorant with a kind of superstitious aversion.

This universal distaste for the Hoopoe is probably occasioned by an

exceedingly pungent and disagreeable odour which fills the nest of

the bird, and which infects for a considerable time the hand which

is employed to take the eggs.

The nest is, moreover, well calculated for retaining any unpleasant

smell, being generally made in the hollow of a tree, and having

therefore but little of that thorough ventilation which is found in

nearly all nests which are built on boughs and sprays.

The food of the Hoopoe consists almost entirely of insects They

have been said to feed on earth-worms; but this notion seems to be

a mistaken one, as in captivity they will not touch an earth-worm

so long as they can procure an insect. Beetles of various kinds

seem to be their favourite food, and when the beetles are tolerably

large--say, for example, as large as the common cockchafer and

dor-beetle--the bird beats them into a soft mass before it attempts

to eat them. Smaller beetles are swallowed without any ceremony. The

various boring insects which make their home in decaying wood are

favourite articles of diet with the Hoopoe, which digs them out of

the soft wood with its long curved beak.

It has already been mentioned that the nest is usually made in the

hollow of a tree. In many parts of the country however, hollow trees

cannot be found, and in that case the Hoopoe resorts to clefts in

the rock, or even to holes in old ruins.

The bird is a peculiarly conspicuous one, not only on account of

its boldly-barred plumage and its beautiful crest, but by its cry

and its gestures. It has a way of elevating and depressing its

crest, and bobbing its head up and down, in a manner which could

not fail to attract the attention even of the most incurious, the

whole aspect and expression of the bird varying with the raising and

depressing of the crest.

Respecting this crest there is a curious old legend. As is the case

with most of the Oriental legends, it introduces the name of King

Solomon, who, according to Oriental notions, was a mighty wizard

rather than a wise king, and by means of his seal, on which was

engraven the mystic symbol of Divinity, held sway over the birds,

the beasts, the elements, and even over the Jinns and Afreets,

_i.e._ the good and evil spirits, which are too ethereal for the

material world and too gross for the spiritual, and therefore hold

the middle place between them.

On one of his journeys across the desert, Solomon was perishing from

the heat of the sun, when the Hoopoes came to his aid, and flew in

a dense mass over his head, thus forming a shelter from the fiery

sunbeams. Grateful for this assistance, the monarch told the Hoopoes

to ask for a boon, and it should be granted to them. The birds,

after consulting together, agreed to ask that from that time every

Hoopoe should wear a crown of gold like Solomon himself. The request

was immediately granted, and each Hoopoe found itself adorned with

a royal crown. At first, while their honours were new, great was

the joy of the birds, who paused at every little puddle of water to

contemplate themselves, bowing their heads over the watery mirror so

as to display the crown to the best advantage.

Soon, however, they found cause to repent of their ambition. The

golden crown became heavy and wearisome to them, and, besides, the

wealth bestowed on the birds rendered them the prey of every fowler.

The unfortunate Hoopoes were persecuted in all directions for the

sake of their golden crowns which they could neither take off nor

conceal.

At last, the few survivors presented themselves before Solomon, and

begged him to rescind his fatal gift, which he did by substituting a

crest of feathers for the crown of gold. The Hoopoe, however, never

forgets its former grandeur, and is always bowing and bending itself

as it used to do when contemplating its golden crown in the water.

[Illustration: lapwing]

[Illustration: EASTERN HOUSE-TOP.]

THE SPARROW.

The Sparrow upon the house top--Architecture of the East--Little

birds exposed for sale in the market--The two Sparrows sold for

a farthing--Bird-catching--The net, the snare, and the trap.

We have already discussed the signification of the compound word

_tzippor-deror_, and will now take the word _tzippor_ alone.

Like many other Hebrew terms, the word is evidently used in a

collective sense, signifying any small bird that is not specially

designated. In several portions of Scripture it is translated as

Sparrow, and to that word we will at present restrict ourselves.

On turning to Ps. cii. 5-7, we find that the word is used as an

emblem of solitude and misery: "By reason of the voice of my

groaning, my bones cleave to my skin.

"I am like a pelican of the wilderness: I am like an owl of the

desert,

"I watch, and am as a sparrow alone upon the house-top."

The word which is here translated as "Sparrow" is _tzippor_, the

same which is rendered as "bird" in Lev. xiv. 4. The Hebrew Bible

more consistently uses the collective term "bird" in both instances,

and renders the passage as, "I watch, and am as a lonely bird upon a

roof."

Now, any one who knows the habits of the Sparrow is perfectly aware

that it is a peculiarly sociable bird. It is quarrelsome enough with

its fellows, and always ready to fight for a stray grain or morsel

of food; but it is exceedingly gregarious, assembling together in

little parties, enlivening the air with its merry though unmusical

twitterings.

This cosmopolitan bird is plentiful in the coast towns of Palestine,

where it haunts the habitations of men with the same dauntless

confidence which it displays in this country. It is often seen upon

roofs or house-tops, but is no more apt to sit alone in Palestine

than it is here. On the contrary, the Sparrows collect in great

numbers on the house-tops, attracted by the abundant supply of food

which it finds there. This requires some little explanation.

The house-tops of the East, instead of being gabled and tiled as

among ourselves, to allow the rain to run off, are quite flat,

and serve as terraces or promenades in the evening, or even for

sleeping-places; and from the house-tops proclamations were made.

See, for example, 1 Sam. ix. 25: "And when they were come down from

the high place into the city, Samuel communed with Saul upon the top

of the house"--this being the ordinary place which would be chosen

for a conversation. In order to keep out the heat of the mid-day

sun, tents were sometimes pitched upon these flat house-tops. (See

2 Sam. xvi. 22.) Reference to the use of the house-tops as places

for conversation are made in the New Testament. See, for example,

Matt. x. 27: "What I tell you in darkness, that speak ye in light;

and what ye hear in the ear, that preach ye upon the house-tops."

Another passage of a similar nature occurs in Luke xii. 3:

"Therefore whatsoever ye have spoken in darkness shall be heard in

the light, and that which ye have spoken in the ear in closets shall

be proclaimed on the house-tops."

These roofs, instead of being built with sloping rafters like those

to which we are accustomed in this country, are made with great

beams of wood laid horizontally, and crossed by planks, poles, and

brushwood packed tightly together. As this roof would not keep out

the rain, it is covered with a thick layer of clay mixed with straw,

and beaten down as hard as possible. This covering has constantly

to be renewed, as, even in the best made roofs, the heavy rains are

sure to wash away some portion of the clay covering, which has to be

patched up with a fresh supply of earth. A stone roller is generally

kept on the roof of each house for the purpose of making a flat and

even surface.

The earth which is used for this purpose is brought from the

uncultivated ground, and is full of various seeds. As soon as the

rains fall, these seeds spring up, and afford food to the Sparrows

and other little birds, who assemble in thousands on the house-tops,

and then peck away just as they do in our own streets and farm-yards.

It is now evident that the "sparrow alone and melancholy upon the

house-tops" cannot be the lively, gregarious Sparrow which assembles

in such numbers on these favourite feeding-places. We must therefore

look for some other bird, and naturalists are now agreed that we may

accept the BLUE THRUSH (_Petrocossyphus cyaneus_) as the particular

Tzippor, or small bird, which sits alone on the house-tops.

The colour of this bird is a dark blue, whence it derives its

popular name. Its habits exactly correspond with the idea of

solitude and melancholy. The Blue Thrushes never assemble in flocks,

and it is very rare to see more than a pair together. It is fond of

sitting on the tops of houses, uttering its note, which, however

agreeable to itself, is monotonous and melancholy to a human ear.

In connexion with the passage already quoted, "What ye hear in

the ear, that preach ye upon the house-tops," I will take the

opportunity of explaining the passage itself, which scarcely seems

relevant to the occasion unless we understand its bearings. The

context shows that our Lord was speaking of the new doctrines which

He had come to teach, and the duty of spreading them, and alludes

to a mode of religious teaching which was then in vogue.

The long captivity of the Jews in Babylon had caused the Hebrew

language to be disused among the common people, who had learned

the Chaldaic language from their captors. After their return to

Palestine, the custom of publicly reading the Scriptures was found

to be positively useless, the generality of the people being

ignorant of the Hebrew language.

[Illustration: READING THE LAW TO THE PEOPLE AFTER THE RETURN FROM

CAPTIVITY.]

Accordingly, the following modification was adopted. The roll of

the Scriptures was brought out as usual, and the sacred words read,

or rather chanted. After each passage was read, a doctor of the law

whispered its meaning into the ear of a Targumista or interpreter,

who repeated to the people in the Chaldaic language the explanation

which the doctor had whispered in Hebrew. The reader will now see

how appropriate is the metaphor, the whispering in the ear and

subsequent proclamation being the customary mode of imparting

religious instruction.

If the reader will now turn to Matt. x. 29, he will find that the

word "sparrow" is used in a passage which has become very familiar

to us. "Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing? and one of them

shall not fall on the ground without your Father.

"But the very hairs of your head are all numbered.

"Fear ye not therefore, ye are of more value than many sparrows."

The same sentences are given by St. Luke (xii. 6), in almost the

same words.

[Illustration: THE BLUE THRUSH, OR SPARROW OF SCRIPTURE.]

Now the word which is translated as "Sparrow" is _strouthion_, a

collective word, signifying a bird of any kind. Without the addition

of some epithet, it was generally used to signify any kind of small

bird, though it is occasionally employed to signify even so large

a creature as an eagle, provided that the bird had been mentioned

beforehand. Conjoined with the word "great," it signifies the

ostrich; and when used in connexion with a word significative of

running, it is employed as a general term for all cursorial birds.

In the passages above quoted it is used alone, and evidently

signifies any kind of little bird, whether it be a sparrow or not.

Allusion is made by our Lord to a custom, which has survived to

the present day, of exposing for sale in the markets the bodies

of little birds. They are stripped of their feathers, and spitted

together in rows, and always have a large sale.

Various birds are sold in this manner, little if any distinction

being made between them, save perhaps in respect of size, the larger

species commanding a higher price than the small birds. In fact,

they are arranged exactly after the manner in which the Orientals

sell their "kabobs," _i.e._ little pieces of meat pierced by wooden

skewers.

It is evident that to supply such a market it is necessary that

the birds should be of a tolerably gregarious nature, so that a

considerable number can be caught at a time. Nets were employed for

this purpose, and we may safely infer that the forms of the nets

and the methods of using them were identical with those which are

employed in the same country at the present day.

The fowlers supply themselves with a large net supported on two

sticks, and, taking a lantern with them fastened to the top of a

pole, they sally out at night to the places where the small birds

sleep.

Raising the net on its sticks, they lift it to the requisite height,

and hold the lantern exactly opposite to it, so as to place the

net between the birds and the lantern. The roosting-places are

then beaten with sticks or pelted with stones, so as to awaken the

sleeping birds. Startled by the sudden noise, they dash from their

roosts, instinctively make towards the light, and so fall into the

net. Bird-catching with nets is several times mentioned in the Old

Testament, but in the New the net is only alluded to as used for

taking fish.

Beside the net, several other modes of bird-catching were used by

the ancient Jews, just as is the case at the present day. Boys, for

example, who catch birds for their own consumption, and not for the

market, can do so by means of various traps, most of which are made

on the principle of the noose, or snare. Sometimes a great number

of hair-nooses are set in places to which the birds are decoyed, so

that in hopping about many of them are sure to become entangled in

the snares. Sometimes the noose is ingeniously suspended in a narrow

passage which the birds are likely to traverse, and sometimes a

simple fall-trap is employed.

We now pass to another division of the subject. In Ps. lxxxiv. 1-3,

we come upon a passage in which the Sparrow is again mentioned: "How

amiable are Thy tabernacles, O Lord of hosts!

"My soul longeth, yea, even fainteth for the courts of the Lord; my

heart and my flesh crieth out for the living God.

"Yea, the sparrow hath found an house, and the swallow a nest for

herself, where she may lay her young, even Thine altars, O Lord of

hosts, my King, and my God."

[Illustration: THE TREE-SPARROW, OR SPARROW OF SCRIPTURE.]

It is evident that we have in this passage a different bird from the

Sparrow that sitteth alone upon the house-tops; and though the same

word, _tzippor_, is used in both cases, it is clear that whereas

the former bird was mentioned as an emblem of sorrow, solitude,

and sadness, the latter is brought forward as an image of joy and

happiness. "Blessed are they," proceeds the Psalmist, "that dwell

in Thy house: they will be still praising Thee.... For a day in Thy

courts is better than a thousand. I had rather be a doorkeeper in

the house of my God, than to dwell in the tents of wickedness."

According to Mr. Tristram, this is probably one of the species to

which allusion is made by the Psalmist. While inspecting the ruins

in the neighbourhood of the Temple, he came upon an old wall. "Near

this gate I climbed on to the top of the wall, and walked along for

some time, enjoying the fine view at the gorge of the Kedron, with

its harvest crop of little white tombs. In a chink I discovered a

sparrow's nest (_Passer cisalpinus_, var.) of a species so closely

allied to our own that it is difficult to distinguish it, one of the

very kind of which the Psalmist sung.... The swallows had departed

for the winter, but the sparrow has remained pertinaciously through

all the sieges and changes of Jerusalem."

The same traveller thinks that the TREE SPARROW (_Passer montanus_)

may be the species to which the sacred writer refers, as it is even

now very plentiful about the neighbourhood of the Temple. In all

probability we may accept both these birds as representatives of the

Sparrow which found a home in the Temple. The swallow is separately

mentioned, possibly because its migratory habits rendered it a

peculiarly conspicuous bird; but it is probable that many species of

birds might make their nests in a place where they felt themselves

secure from disturbance, and that all these birds would be mentioned

under the collective and convenient term of Tzipporim.

[Illustration: sparrows]

[Illustration: old tree]

THE CUCKOO.

The Cuckoo only twice mentioned in Scripture--The common

species, and the Great Spotted Cuckoo--Depositing the egg.

Only in two instances is the word CUCKOO found in the Authorized

Version of the Bible, and as they occur in parallel passages they

are practically reduced to one. In Lev. xi. 16 we find it mentioned

among the birds that might not be eaten, and the same prohibition is

repeated in Deut. xiv. 15, the Jews being ordered to hold the bird

in abomination.

It is rather remarkable that the Arabic name for the bird is exactly

the same as ours, the peculiar cry having supplied the name. Its

habit of laying its eggs in the nests of other birds is well known,

together with the curious fact, that although so large a bird,

measuring more than a foot in length, its egg is not larger than

that of the little birds, such as the hedge-sparrow, robin, or

redstart.

[Illustration: THE GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO.]

Besides this species, another Cuckoo inhabits Palestine, and is

much more common. This is the GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO (_Oxylophus

glandarius_). The birds belonging to this genus have been separated

from the other Cuckoos because the feathers on the head are formed

into a bold crest, in some species, such as Le Vaillant's Cuckoo,

reminding the observer of the crest of the cockatoo. This fine bird

measures nearly sixteen inches in length, and can be distinguished,

not only by the crested head, but by the reddish grey of the throat

and chest, and the white tips of the wing and tail feathers.

This species lays its eggs in the nests of comparatively large

birds, such as the rooks, crows, and magpies.

[Illustration: NOAH RECEIVES THE DOVE.]

THE DOVE.

Parallel between the lamb and the Dove--The Dove and the olive

branch--Abram's sacrifice, and its acceptance--The Dove-sellers

of the Temple--The Rock Dove and its multitudes.

In giving the Scriptural history of the Doves and Pigeons, we

shall find ourselves rather perplexed in compressing the needful

information into a reasonable space. There is no bird which plays

a more important part, both in the Old and the New Testaments, or

which is employed so largely in metaphor and symbol.

The Doves and Pigeons were to the birds what were the sheep and

lambs to the animals, and, like them, derived their chief interest

from their use in sacrifice. Both the lamb and the young pigeon

being emblems of innocence, both were used on similar occasions, the

latter being in many instances permitted when the former were too

expensive for the means of the offerer. As to the rendering of the

Hebrew words which have been translated as Pigeon, Dove, and Turtle

Dove, there has never been any discussion. The Hebrew word _yonâh_

has always been acknowledged to signify the Dove or Pigeon, and the

word _tôr_ to signify the Turtle Dove. Generally, the two words are

used in combination, so that _tor-yonâh_ signifies the Turtle Dove.

Though the interpretation of the word _yonâh_ is universally

accepted, there is a little difficulty about its derivation, and

its signification apart from the bird. Some have thought that it is

derived from a root signifying warmth, in allusion to the warmth of

its affection, the Dove having from time immemorial been selected as

the type of conjugal love. Others, among whom is Buxtorf, derive it

from a word which signifies oppression, because the gentle nature of

the Dove, together with its inability to defend itself, cause it to

be oppressed, not only by man, but by many rapacious birds.

* * * * *

The first passage in which we hear of the Dove occurs in the earlier

part of Genesis. Indeed, the Dove and the raven are the first

two creatures that are mentioned by any definite names, the word

_nachosh_, which is translated as "serpent" in Gen. iii. 1, being

a collective word signifying any kind of serpent, whether venomous

or otherwise, and not used for the purpose of designating any

particular species.

Turning to Gen. viii. 8, we come to the first mention of the Dove.

The whole passage is too familiar to need quoting, and it is only

needful to say that the Dove was sent out of the ark in order that

Noah might learn whether the floods had subsided, and that, after

she had returned once, he sent her out again seven days afterwards,

and that she returned, bearing an olive-branch (or leaf, in the

Jewish Bible). Seven days afterwards he sent the Dove for the third

time, but she had found rest on the earth, and returned no more.

It is not within the province of this work to treat, except in the

most superficial manner, of the metaphorical signification of the

Scriptures. I shall, therefore, allude but very slightly to the

metaphorical sense of the passages which record the exit from the

ark and the sacrifice of Noah. Suffice it to say that, putting

entirely aside all metaphor, the characters of the raven and the

Dove are well contrasted. The one went out, and, though the trees

were at that time submerged, it trusted in its strong wings, and

hovered above the watery expanse until the flood had subsided. The

Dove, on the contrary, fond of the society of man, and having none

of the wild, predatorial habits which distinguish the raven, twice

returned to its place of refuge, before it was finally able to find

a resting-place for its foot.

After this, we hear nothing of the Dove until the time of Abraham,

some four hundred years afterwards, when the covenant was made

between the Lord and Abram, when "he believed in the Lord, and it

was counted to him for righteousness." In order to ratify this

covenant he was ordered to offer a sacrifice, which consisted of a

young heifer, a she-goat, a ram, a turtle-dove, and a young dove or

pigeon. The larger animals were severed in two, but the birds were

not divided, and between the portions of the sacrifice there passed

a lamp of fire as a symbol of the Divine presence.

In after days, when the promise that the seed of Abram should be as

the stars of heaven for multitude had been amply fulfilled, together

with the prophecy that they should be "strangers in a land that was

not theirs," and should be in slavery and under oppression for many

years, the Dove was specially mentioned in the new law as one of the

creatures that were to be sacrificed on certain defined occasions.

Even the particular mode of offering the Dove was strictly defined.

See Lev. i. 14-17: "If the burnt sacrifice for his offering to the

Lord be of fowls, then he shall bring his offering of turtle-doves,

or of young pigeons.

"And the priest shall bring it unto the altar, and wring off his

head, and burn it on the altar; and the blood thereof shall be wrung

out at the side of the altar.

"And he shall pluck away his crop with his feathers, and cast it

beside the altar, on the east part, by the place of the ashes.

"And he shall cleave it with the wings thereof, but shall not divide

it asunder: and the priest shall burn it upon the altar, upon the

wood that is upon the fire."

Here we have a repetition not only of the sacrifice of Abram, but

of the mode in which it was offered, care being taken that the body

of the bird should not be divided. There is a slight, though not

very important variation in one or two portions of this passage.

For example, the wringing off the head of the bird is, literally,

pinching off, and had to be done with the thumb nail; and the

passage which is by some translators rendered as the crop and the

feathers, is by others translated as the crop and its contents--a

reading which seems to be more consonant with the usual ceremonial

of sacrifice than the other.

As a general rule, the pigeon was only sanctioned as a sacrificial

animal in case one of more value could not be afforded; and so much

care was taken in this respect, that with the exception of the two

"sparrows" (_tzipporim_) that were enjoined as part of the sacrifice

by which the cleansed leper was received back among the people (Lev.

xiv. 4), no bird might be offered in sacrifice unless it belonged to

the tribe of pigeons.

It was in consequence of the poverty of the family that the

Virgin Mary brought two young pigeons when she came to present

her new-born Son in the Temple. For those who were able to

afford it, the required sacrifice was a lamb of the first year

for a burnt-offering, and a young pigeon or Turtle Dove for a

sin-offering. But "if she be not able to bring a lamb, then she

shall bring two turtles, or two young pigeons, the one for the

burnt-offering and the other for a sin-offering." The extraordinary

value which all Israelites set upon the first-born son is well

known, both parents even changing their own names, and being called

respectively the father and mother of Elias, or Joseph, as the case

may be. If the parents who had thus attained the summit of their

wishes possessed a lamb, or could have obtained one, they would most

certainly have offered it in the fulness of their joy, particularly

when, as in the case of Mary, there was such cause for rejoicing;

and the fact that they were forced to substitute a second pigeon for

the lamb is a proof of their extreme poverty.

While the Israelites were comparatively a small and compact nation,

dwelling around their tabernacle, the worshippers could easily offer

their sacrifices, bringing them from their homes to the altar. But

in process of time, when the nation had become a large and scattered

one, its members residing at great distances, and only coming to the

Temple once or twice in the year to offer their sacrifices, they

would have found that for even the poor to carry their pigeons with

them would have greatly increased the trouble, and in many cases

have been almost impossible.

For the sake of convenience, therefore, a number of dealers

established themselves in the outer courts of the Temple, for the

purpose of selling Doves to those who came to sacrifice. Sheep and

oxen were also sold for the same purpose, and, as offerings of money

could only be made in the Jewish coinage, money-changers established

themselves for the purpose of exchanging foreign money brought from

a distance for the legal Jewish shekel. That these people exceeded

their object, and endeavoured to overreach the foreign Jews who were

ignorant of the comparative value of money and goods, is evident

from the fact of their expulsion by our Lord, and the epithets which

were applied to them.

[Illustration: JESUS DRIVES OUT OF THE TEMPLE THE MONEY-CHANGERS AND

THOSE WHO SOLD DOVES.]

According to some old writers, the Dove was considered as having a

superiority over other birds in the instinctive certainty with which

it finds its way from one place to another. At the present time,

our familiarity with the variety of pigeon known as the Carrier has

taught us that the eye is the real means employed by the pigeon

for the direction of its flight. Those who fly pigeons for long

distances always take them several times over the same ground,

carrying them to an increasing distance at every journey, so that

the birds shall be able to note certain objects which serve them as

landmarks.

Bees and wasps have recourse to a similar plan. When a young wasp

leaves its nest for the first time, it does not fly away at once,

but hovers in front of the entrance for some time, getting farther

and farther away from the nest until it has learned the aspect of

surrounding objects. The pigeon acts in precisely the same manner,

and so completely does it depend upon eyesight that, if a heavy fog

should come on, the best-trained pigeon will lose its way.

[Illustration: THE ROCK DOVE.]

The old writers, however, made up their minds that the pigeon found

its way by scent, which sense alone, according to their ideas, could

guide it across the sea. They were not aware of the power possessed

by birds of making their eyes telescopic at will, or of the enormous

increase of range which the sight obtains by elevation. A pigeon at

the elevation of several hundred yards can see to an astonishing

distance, and there is no need of imagining one sense to receive

a peculiar development when the ordinary powers of another are

sufficient to obtain the object.

That dove-cotes were in use among the earlier Jews is well known. An

allusion to the custom of keeping pigeons in cotes is seen in Isa.

lx. 8: "Who are these that fly as a cloud, and as the doves to their

windows?" or, as the Jewish Bible translates the passage, "as the

doves to their apertures?" In this passage the sacred writer utters

a prophecy concerning the coming of the world to the Messiah, the

Gentiles flocking to Him as the clouds of pigeons fly homeward to

their cotes.

[Illustration: BLUE ROCK PIGEONS.]

The practice of pigeon-keeping has survived to the present day, the

houses of wealthy men being furnished with separate pigeon-houses

for the protection and shelter of these popular birds.

In the Holy Land are found all the species of Pigeons with which

we are familiar, together with one or two others. First, there is

the Rock Pigeon, or Blue Rock Dove, which is acknowledged to be the

origin of our domestic breeds of Pigeons, with all their infinite

variety of colour and plumage. This species, though plentiful in

Palestine, is not spread over the whole of the land, but lives

chiefly on the coast and in the higher parts of the country. In

these places it multiplies in amazing numbers, its increase being

almost wholly unchecked by man, on account of the inaccessible

cliffs in which it lays its eggs and nurtures its young, its only

enemies being a few of the birds and beasts of prey, which can

exercise but a trifling influence on these prolific birds.

Mr. Tristram, while visiting the Wady (or Valley) Seimûn, which lies

near the Lake of Gennesaret, witnessed an amusing example of the

vast number of these Pigeons.

"No description can give an adequate idea of the myriads of rock

pigeons. In absolute clouds they dashed to and fro in the ravine,

whirling round with a rush and a whirr that could be felt like a

gust of wind. It was amusing to watch them upset the dignity and the

equilibrium of the majestic griffon as they swept past him. This

enormous bird, quietly sailing along, was quite turned on his back

by the sudden rush of wings and wind."

In Palestine these birds are taken in nets, into which they are

decoyed by a very effective though cruel device.

When one of these birds is trapped or snared, it is seized by its

capturers, who spare its life for the sake of using it as a decoy.

They blind it by sewing its eyelids together, and then fasten it to

a perch among trees. The miserable bird utters plaintive cries, and

continually flaps its wings, thus attracting others of its kind, who

settle on the surrounding branches and are easily taken, their whole

attention being occupied by the cries of their distressed companion.

We now come to the Turtle Doves, several of which inhabit the Holy

Land; but, as they are similar in habits, we will confine ourselves

to the common species, with which we are so familiar in this

country. Its migratory habits are noticed in the sacred writings.

See the following passage in the Song of Solomon:

"Lo, the winter is past, the rain is over and gone; the flowers

appear on the earth; the time of the singing of birds is come, and

the voice of the turtle is heard in our land" (Cant. ii. 11, 12).

The prophet Jeremiah also refers to the migration of this bird:

"Yea, the stork in the heaven knoweth her appointed times; and the

turtle, and the crane, and the swallow observe the time of their

coming; but my people know not the judgment of the Lord" (viii. 7).

Beside this species, there is the Collared Turtle Dove, one variety

of which is known as the Barbary Dove. It is a large species,

measuring more than a foot in length. Another species is the Palm

Turtle, so called from its habit of nesting on palm-trees, when it

is obliged to build at a distance from the habitations of man. It is

a gregarious bird, several nests being generally found on one tree,

and even, when it cannot find a palm, it will build among the thorns

in multitudes. Like the common Dove, it is fond of the society of

man, and is sure to make its nest among human habitations, secure in

its knowledge that it will not be disturbed.

[Illustration: THE TURTLE DOVE.]

It is rather a small bird, being barely ten inches in length, and

having no "collar" on the neck, like the two preceding species.

[Illustration: chickens]

POULTRY.

Poultry plentiful in Palestine at the present day--The

Domestic Fowl unknown in the early times of Israel--The

eating and gathering of eggs--References to Poultry in the

New Testament--The egg and the scorpion--The fatted fowl of

Solomon--The hen brooding over her eggs--Poultry prohibited

within Jerusalem--The cock-crowing.

At the present day, poultry are plentiful both in Palestine and

Syria, and that they were bred in the time of the Apostles is

evident from one or two references which are made by our Lord. How

long the Domestic Fowl had been known to the Jews is extremely

uncertain, and we have very little to guide us in our search.

That it was unknown to the Jews during the earlier period of their

history is evident from the utter silence of the Old Testament on

the subject. A bird so conspicuous and so plentiful would certainly

have been mentioned in the Law of Moses had it been known to the

Israelites; but, in all its minute and detailed provisions, the Law

is silent on the subject.

Neither the bird itself nor its eggs are mentioned, although there

are a few references to eggs, without signifying the bird which

laid them. The humane provision in Deut. xxii. 6, 7, refers not to

a domesticated, but to a wild bird: "If a bird's nest chance to be

before thee in any tree, or on the ground, whether they be young

ones, or eggs, and the dams sitting upon the young, or upon the

eggs, thou shalt not take the dam with the young: but thou shalt in

any wise let the dam go, and take the young to thee; that it may be

well with thee, that thou mayest prolong thy days."

[Illustration: THE DOMESTIC FOWL.]

There is but one passage in the Old Testament which has ever been

conjectured to refer to the Domestic Fowl. It occurs in 1 Kings iv.

22, 23: "And Solomon's provision for one day was thirty measures of

fine flour, and threescore measures of meal,

"Ten fat oxen, and twenty oxen out of the pastures, and an hundred

sheep, besides harts, and roebucks, and fallow-deer, and fatted

fowl."

Many persons think that the fatted fowl mentioned in the

above-quoted passage were really Domestic Fowl, which Solomon

had introduced into Palestine, together with various other birds

and animals, by means of his fleet. There may be truth in this

conjecture, but, as there can be no certainty, we will pass from the

Old Testament to the New.

We are all familiar with the passages in which the Domestic Fowl

is mentioned in the New Testament. There is, for example, that

touching image employed by our Lord when lamenting over Jerusalem:

"O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest the prophets, and stonest

them that are sent unto thee; how often would I have gathered

thy children together, as a hen doth gather her brood under her

wings, and ye would not!" The reference is evidently made to the

Domesticated Fowl, which in the time of our Lord was largely bred in

the Holy Land.

Some writers have taken objection to this statement in consequence

of a Rabbinical law which prohibited poultry from being kept within

the walls of Jerusalem, lest in their search for food they should

scratch up any impurity which had been buried, and so defile the

holy city. But it must be remembered that in the time of Christ

Jerusalem belonged practically to the Romans, who held it with a

garrison, and who, together with other foreigners, would not trouble

themselves about any such prohibition, which would seem to them, as

it does to us, exceedingly puerile, not to say unjustifiable.

That the bird was common in the days of our Lord is evident from the

reference to the "cock-crowing" as a measure of time.

[Illustration: chickens]

[Illustration: peacock]

THE PEACOCK.

The foreign curiosities imported by Solomon--The word _Tucciyim_

and its various interpretations--Identity of the word with

the Cingalese name of the Peacock--Reasons why the Peacock

should have been brought to Solomon--Its subsequent neglect and

extirpation.