The Camel and its master--Occasional fury of the animal--A
boy killed by a Camel--Another instance of an infuriated
Camel--Theory respecting the Arab and his Camel--Apparent
stupidity of the Camel--Its hatred of a load, and mode of
expressing its disapprobation--Riding a Camel through the
streets--A narrow escape--Ceremony of weaning a young Camel--The
Camel's favourite food--Structure of the foot and adaptation
to locality--Difficulty in provisioning--Camel's hair and
skin--Sal-ammoniac and Desert fuel--The Camel and the needle's
eye--Straining at a gnat and swallowing a Camel.
We now come to the general characteristics of the Camel.
The Camels know their master well, some of them being much more
affectionate than others. But they are liable to fits of strange
fury, in which case even their own masters are not safe from them.
They are also of a revengeful nature, and have an unpleasant
faculty of treasuring up an injury until they can find a time of
repaying it. Signor Pierotti gives a curious example of this trait
of character. As he was going to the Jordan, he found a dead Camel
lying on the roadside, the head nearly separated from the body. On
inquiry he found that the animal had a master who ill-treated it,
and had several times tried to bite him. One evening, after the
Camels had been unloaded, the drivers lay down to sleep as usual.
The Camel made its way to its master, and stamped on him as he
slept. The man uttered one startled cry, but had no time for
another. The infuriated Camel followed up its attack by grasping his
throat in its powerful jaws, and shaking him to death. The whole
scene passed so rapidly, that before the other drivers could come to
the man's assistance he was hanging dead from the jaws of the Camel,
who was shaking him as a dog shakes a rat, and would not release
its victim until its head had been nearly severed from its body by
sword-cuts.
A similar anecdote is told by Mr. Palgrave, in his "Central and
Eastern Arabia:"--
"One passion alone he possesses, namely, revenge, of which he gives
many a hideous example; while, in carrying it out, he shows an
unexpected degree of forethoughted malice, united meanwhile with
all the cold stupidity of his usual character. One instance of this
I well remember--it occurred hard by a small town in the plain of
Baalbec, where I was at the time residing.
"A lad of about fourteen had conducted a large camel, laden
with wood, from that very village to another at half an hour's
distance or so. As the animal loitered or turned out of the way,
its conductor struck it repeatedly, and harder than it seems to
have thought he had a right to do. But, not finding the occasion
favourable for taking immediate quits, it 'bided its time,' nor was
that time long in coming.
"A few days later, the same lad had to re-conduct the beast, but
unladen, to his own village. When they were about half way on the
road, and at some distance from any habitation, the camel suddenly
stopped, looked deliberately round in every direction to assure
itself that no one was in sight, and, finding the road clear of
passers-by, made a step forward, seized the unlucky boy's head in
its monstrous mouth, and, lifting him up in the air, flung him down
again on the earth, with the upper part of his head completely torn
off, and his brains scattered on the ground. Having thus satisfied
its revenge, the brute quietly resumed its pace towards the village,
as though nothing were the matter, till some men, who had observed
the whole, though unfortunately at too great a distance to be able
to afford timely help, came up and killed it.
"Indeed, so marked is this unamiable propensity, that some
philosophers have ascribed the revengeful character of the Arabs
to the great share which the flesh and milk of the camel have in
their sustenance, and which are supposed to communicate, to those
who partake of them over-largely, the moral or immoral qualities of
the animal to which they belonged. I do not feel myself capable of
pronouncing an opinion on so intricate a question, but thus much I
can say, that the camel and its Bedouin master do afford so many and
such divers points of resemblance, that I do not think our Arab of
Shomer far in the wrong, when I once on a time heard him say, 'God
created the Bedouin for the camel, and the camel for the Bedouin.'"
The reader will observe that Mr. Palgrave in this anecdote makes
reference to the stupidity of the Camel. There is no doubt that the
Camel is by no means an intellectual animal; but it is very possible
that its stupidity may in a great measure be owing to the fact that
no one has tried to cultivate its intellectual powers. The preceding
anecdotes show clearly that the Camel must possess a strong memory,
and be capable of exercising considerable ingenuity.
Still it is not a clever animal. If its master should fall off its
back, it never dreams of stopping, as a well-trained horse would
do, but proceeds at the same plodding pace, leaving his master to
catch it if he can. Should it turn out of the way to crop some green
thorn-bush, it will go on in the same direction, never thinking
of turning back into the right road unless directed by its rider.
Should the Camel stray, "it is a thousand to one that he will never
find his way back to his accustomed home or pasture, and the first
man who picks him up will have no particular shyness to get over;
... and the losing of his old master and of his former cameline
companions gives him no regret, and occasions no endeavour to find
them again."
He has the strongest objection to being laden at all, no matter
how light may be the burden, and expresses his disapprobation by
growling and groaning, and attempting to bite. So habitual is this
conduct that if a kneeling Camel be only approached, and a stone as
large as a walnut laid on its back, it begins to remonstrate in its
usual manner, groaning as if it were crushed to the earth with its
load.
The Camel never makes way for any one, its instinct leading it to
plod onward in its direct course. What may have been its habits in
a state of nature no one can tell, for such a phenomenon as a wild
Camel has never been known in the memory of man. There are wild
oxen, wild goats, wild sheep, wild horses, and wild asses, but there
is no spot on the face of the earth where the Camel is found except
as the servant of man. Through innate stupidity, according to Mr.
Palgrave, it goes straight forwards in the direction to which its
head happens to be pointed, and is too foolish even to think of
stopping unless it hears the signal for halt.
As it passes through the narrow streets of an Oriental city, laden
with goods that project on either side, and nearly fill up the
thoroughfare, it causes singular inconvenience, forcing every one
who is in front of it to press himself closely to the wall, and
to make way for the enormous beast as it plods along. The driver
or rider generally gives notice by continually calling to the
pedestrians to get out of the way, but a laden Camel rarely passes
through a long street without having knocked down a man or two, or
driven before it a few riders on asses who cannot pass between the
Camel and the wall.
One source of danger to its rider is to be found in the low archways
which span so many of the streets. They are just high enough to
permit a laden Camel to pass under them, but are so low that they
leave no room for a rider. The natives, who are accustomed to this
style of architecture, are always ready for an archway, and, when
the rider sees an archway which will not allow him to retain his
seat, he slips to the ground, and remounts on the other side of the
obstacle.
Mr. Kennard had a very narrow escape with one of these arch ways.
"I had passed beneath one or two in perfect safety, without being
obliged to do more than just bend my head forward, and was in
the act of conversing with one of my companions behind, and was
therefore in a happy state of ignorance as to what was immediately
before me, when the shouting and running together of the people in
the street on either side made me turn my head quickly, but only
just in time to feel my breath thrown back on my face against the
keystone of a gateway, beneath which my camel, with too much way on
him to be stopped immediately, had already commenced to pass.
"With a sort of feeling that it was all over with me, I threw
myself back as far as I could, and was carried through in an almost
breathless state, my shirt-studs actually scraping along against the
stonework. On emerging again into the open street, I could hardly
realize my escape, for if there had been a single projecting stone
to stop my progress, the camel would have struggled to get free, and
my chest must have been crushed in."
It will be seen from these instances that the charge of stupidity
is not an undeserved one. Still the animal has enough intellect to
receive all the education which it needs for the service of man, and
which it receives at a very early age. The ordinary Camel of burden
is merely taught to follow its conductor, to obey the various words
and gestures of command, and to endure a load. The Deloul, however,
is more carefully trained. It is allowed to follow its mother for
a whole year in perfect liberty. Towards the expiration of that
time the young animal is gradually stinted in its supply of milk,
and forced to browse for its nourishment. On the anniversary of its
birth, the young Deloul is turned with its head towards Canopus,
and its ears solemnly boxed, its master saying at the same time,
"Henceforth drinkest thou no drop of milk." For this reason the
newly-weaned Camel is called Lathim, or the "ear-boxed." It is then
prevented from sucking by a simple though cruel experiment. A wooden
peg is sharpened at both ends, and one end thrust into the young
animal's nose. When it tries to suck, it pricks its mother with
the projecting end, and at the same time forces the other end more
deeply into the wound, so that the mother drives away her offspring,
and the young soon ceases to make the attempt.
The food of the Camel is very simple, being, in fact, anything that
it can get. As it proceeds on its journey, it manages to browse as
it goes along, bending its long neck to the ground, and cropping
the scanty herbage without a pause. Camels have been known to
travel for twenty successive days, passing over some eight hundred
miles of ground, without receiving any food except that which they
gathered for themselves by the way. The favourite food of the Camel
is a shrub called the ghada, growing to six feet or so in height,
and forming a feathery tuft of innumerable little green twigs, very
slender and flexible. It is so fond of this shrub that a Camel can
scarcely ever pass a bush without turning aside to crop it; and even
though it be beaten severely for its misconduct, it will repeat the
process at the next shrub that comes in sight.
[Illustration: PASSING A CAMEL IN A NARROW STREET OF AN EASTERN
CITY.]
It also feeds abundantly on the thorn-bushes which grow so
plentifully in that part of the world; and though the thorns are an
inch or two in length, very strong, and as sharp as needles, the
hard, horny palate of the animal enables it to devour them with
perfect ease.
[Illustration: MOSES AT THE BURNING BUSH.]
There are several species of these thorn-shrubs, which are scattered
profusely over the ground, and are, in fact, the commonest growth
of the place. After they die, being under the fierce sun of that
climate, they dry up so completely, that if a light be set to them
they blaze up in a moment, with a sharp cracking sound and a roar
of flame, and in a moment or two are nothing but a heap of light
ashes. No wonder was it that when Moses saw the thorn-bush burning
without being consumed he was struck with awe at the miracle. These
withered bushes are the common fuel of the desert, giving out a
fierce but brief heat, and then suddenly sinking into ashes. "For as
the crackling of thorns under a pot, so is the laughter of the fool"
(Eccl. vii. 6).
The dried and withered twigs of these bushes are also eaten by the
Camel, which seems to have a power of extracting nutriment from
every sort of vegetable substance. It has been fed on charcoal, and,
as has been happily remarked, could thrive on the shavings of a
carpenter's workshop.
[Illustration: AN ARAB ENCAMPMENT.]
Still, when food is plentiful, it is fed as regularly as can be
managed, and generally after a rather peculiar manner. "Our guide,"
writes Mr. Hamilton, in the work which has already been mentioned,
"is an elderly man, the least uncouth of our camel-drivers. He
has three camels in the caravan, and it was amusing to see his
preparations for their evening's entertainment. The table-cloth, a
circular piece of leather, was duly spread on the ground; on this he
poured the quantity of dourrah destined for their meal, and calling
his camels, they came and took each its place at the feast. It is
quaint to see how each in his turn eats, so gravely and so quietly,
stretching his long neck into the middle of the heap, then raising
his head to masticate each mouthful; all so slowly and with such
gusto, that we could swear it was a party of epicures sitting in
judgment on one of Vachette's _chefs d'œuvre_."
The foregoing passages will show the reader how wonderfully adapted
is the constitution of the Camel for the country in which it lives,
and how indispensable it is to the inhabitants. It has been called
"the ship of the desert," for without the Camel the desert would be
as impassable as the sea without ships. No water being found for
several days' journey together, the animal is able to carry within
itself a supply of water which will last it for several days, and,
as no green thing grows far from the presence of water, the Camel is
able to feed upon the brief-lived thorn-shrubs which have sprung up
and died, and which, from their hard and sharp prickles, are safe
from every animal except the hard-mouthed Camel.
But these advantages would be useless without another--_i. e._ the
foot. The mixed stones and sand of the desert would ruin the feet
of almost any animal, and it is necessary that the Camel should be
furnished with a foot that cannot be split by heat like the hoof of
a horse, that is broad enough to prevent the creature from sinking
into the sand, and is tough enough to withstand the action of the
rough and burning soil.
Such a foot does the Camel possess. It consists of two long toes
resting upon a hard elastic cushion with a tough and horny sole.
This cushion is so soft that the tread of the huge animal is as
noiseless as that of a cat, and, owing to the division of the toes,
it spreads as the weight comes upon it, and thus gives a firm
footing on loose ground. The foot of the moose-deer has a similar
property, in order to enable the animal to walk upon the snow.
In consequence of this structure, the Camel sinks less deeply into
the ground than any other animal; but yet it does sink in it, and
dislikes a deep and loose sand, groaning at every step, and being
wearied by the exertion of dragging its hard foot out of the
holes into which they sink. It is popularly thought that hills are
impracticable to the Camel; but it is able to climb even rocky
ground from which a horse would recoil. Mr. Marsh, an American
traveller, was much surprised by seeing a caravan of fifty camels
pass over a long ascent in Arabia Petræa. The rock was as smooth as
polished marble, and the angle was on an average fifteen degrees;
but the whole caravan passed over it without an accident.
[Illustration: ON THE MARCH.]
The soil that a Camel most hates is a wet and muddy ground, on
which it is nearly sure to slip. If the reader will look at a Camel
from behind, he will see that the hinder legs are close together
until the ankle-joint, when they separate so widely that the feet
are set on the ground at a considerable distance from each other.
On dry ground this structure increases the stability of the animal
by increasing its base; but on wet ground the effect is singularly
unpleasant. The soft, padded feet have no hold, and slip sideways
at every step, often with such violence as to dislocate a joint and
cause the death of the animal. When such ground has to be traversed,
the driver generally passes a bandage round the hind legs just below
the ankle-joint, so as to prevent them from diverging too far.
It must be remarked, however, that the country in which the animal
lives is essentially a dry one, and that moist and muddy ground
is so exceptional that the generality of Camels never see it in
their lives. Camels do not object to mud an inch or two deep,
provided that there is firm ground below; and they have been seen
to walk with confident safety over pavements covered with mud and
half-frozen snow.
The animals can ford rivers well enough, provided that the bed be
stony or gravelly; but they are bad swimmers, their round bodies and
long necks being scarcely balanced by their legs, so that they are
apt to roll over on their sides, and in such a case they are sure
to be drowned. When swimming is a necessity, the head is generally
tied to the stern of a boat, or guided by the driver swimming in
front, while another often clings to the tail, so as to depress the
rump and elevate the head. It is rather curious that the Camels of
the Sahara cannot be safely entrusted to the water. They will swim
the river readily enough; but they are apt to be seized with illness
afterwards, and to die in a few hours.
We now come to some other uses of the Camel.
Its hair is of the greatest importance, as it is used for many
purposes. In this country, all that we know practically of the
Camel's hair is that it is employed in making brushes for painters;
but in its own land the hair plays a really important part. At the
proper season it is removed from the animal, usually by being pulled
away in tufts, but sometimes by being shorn, and it is then spun by
the women into strong thread.
From this thread are made sundry fabrics where strength is required
and coarseness is not an objection. The "black tents" of the Bedouin
Arabs, similar to those in which Abraham lived, are made of Camel's
hair, and so are the rugs, carpets, and cordage used by the nomad
tribes. Even mantles for rainy or cold weather are made of Camel's
hair, and it was in a dress of this coarse and rough material that
St. John the Baptist was clad. The best part of the Camels hair is
that which grows in tufts on the back and about the hump, the fibre
being much longer than that which covers the body. There is also a
little very fine under-wool which is carefully gathered, and, when a
sufficient quantity is procured, it is spun and woven into garments.
Shawls of this material are even now as valuable as those which are
made from the Cachmire goat.
[Illustration: HAIR OF THE CAMEL.]
The skin of the Camel is made into a sort of leather. It is simply
tanned by being pegged out in the sun and rubbed with salt.
Sandals and leggings are made of this leather, and in some places
water-bottles are manufactured from it, the leather being thicker
and less porous than that of the goat, and therefore wasting less of
the water by evaporation. The bones are utilized, being made into
various articles of commerce.
So universally valuable is the Camel that even its dung is important
to its owners. Owing to the substances on which the animal feeds,
it consists of little but macerated fragments of aromatic shrubs.
It is much used as poultices in case of bruises or rheumatic pains,
and is even applied with some success to simple fractures. It is
largely employed for fuel, and the desert couriers use nothing else,
their Camels being furnished with a net, so that none of this useful
substance shall be lost. For this purpose it is carefully collected,
mixed with bits of straw, and made into little rolls, which are
dried in the sun, and can then be laid by for any time until they
are needed.
Mixed with clay and straw, it is most valuable as a kind of mortar
or cement with which the walls of huts are rendered weather-proof,
and the same material is used in the better-class houses to make a
sort of terrace on the flat roof. This must be waterproof in order
to withstand the wet of the rainy season, and no material answers
the purpose so well as that which has been mentioned. So strangely
hard and firm is this composition, that stoves are made of it. These
stoves are made like jars, and have the faculty of resisting the
power of the inclosed fire. Even after it is burned it has its uses,
the ashes being employed in the manufacture of sal-ammoniac.
* * * * *
There are two passages in the New Testament which mention the Camel
in an allegorical sense. The first of these is the proverbial saying
of our Lord, "A rich man shall hardly enter into the kingdom of
heaven. Again I say unto you, It is easier for a camel to go through
the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom
of God" (Matt. xix. 23, 24).
Now, this well-known but scarcely understood passage requires some
little dissection. If the reader will refer to the context, he will
see that this saying was spoken in allusion to the young and wealthy
man who desired to be one of the disciples, but clung too tightly
to his wealth to accept the only conditions on which he could be
received. His possessions were a snare to him, as was proved by his
refusal to part with them at Christ's command. On his retiring,
the expression was used, "that a rich man shall hardly (or, with
difficulty) enter the kingdom of heaven;" followed by the simile of
the Camel and the needle's eye.
Now, if we are to take this passage literally, we can but draw one
conclusion from it, that a rich man can no more enter heaven than a
camel pass through the eye of a needle, i.e. that it is impossible
for him to do so. Whereas, in the previous sentence, Christ says not
that it is impossible, but difficult (δυσκόλως) for him to do so. It
is difficult for a man to use his money for the service of God,
the only purpose for which it was given him, and the difficulty
increases in proportion to its amount. But wealth in itself is no
more a bar to heaven than intellect, health, strength, or any other
gift, and, if it be rightly used, is one of the most powerful tools
that can be used in the service of God. Our Lord did not condemn
all wealthy men alike. He knew many; but there was only one whom He
advised to sell his possessions and give them to the poor as the
condition of being admitted among the disciples.
[Illustration: CAMEL GOING THROUGH A "NEEDLE'S EYE."]
We will now turn to the metaphor of the Camel and the needle's eye.
Of course it can be taken merely as a very bold metaphor, but it
may also be understood in a simpler sense, the sense in which it
was probably understood by those who heard it. In Oriental cities,
there are in the large gates small and very low apertures called
metaphorically "needle's-eyes," just as we talk of certain windows
as "bull's-eyes." These entrances are too narrow for a Camel to
pass through them in the ordinary manner, especially if loaded.
When a laden Camel has to pass through one of these entrances, it
kneels down, its load is removed, and then it shuffles through on
its knees. "Yesterday," writes Lady Duff-Gordon from Cairo, "I saw a
camel go through the eye of a needle, _i.e._ the low-arched door of
an enclosure. He must kneel, and bow his head to creep through; and
thus the rich man must humble himself."
There is another passage in which the Camel is used by our Lord in
a metaphorical sense. This is the well-known sentence: "Ye blind
guides, which strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel" (Matt. xxiii.
24). It is remarkable that an accidental misprint has robbed this
passage of its true force. The real translation is: "which strain
_out_ the gnat, and swallow the camel." The Greek word is διυλίζω,
which signifies to filter thoroughly; and the allusion is made to
the pharisaical custom of filtering liquids before drinking them,
lest by chance a gnat or some such insect which was forbidden as
food might be accidentally swallowed.
THE BACTRIAN CAMEL.
General description of the animal--Its use in mountain
roads--Peculiar formation of the foot--Uses of a mixed
breed--Its power of enduring cold--Used chiefly as a beast
of draught--Unfitness for the plough--The cart and mode of
harnessing--The load which it can draw--Camel-skin ropes--A
Rabbinical legend.
The second kind of Camel--namely, the Bactrian species--was probably
unknown to the Jews until a comparatively late portion of their
history. This species was employed by the Assyrians, as we find by
the sculptures upon the ruins, and if in no other way the Jews would
become acquainted with them through the nation by whom they were
conquered, and in whose land they abode for so long.
The Bactrian Camel is at once to be distinguished from that which
has already been described by the two humps and the clumsier and
sturdier form. Still the skeletons of the Bactrian and Arabian
species are so similar that none but a very skilful anatomist
can distinguish between them, and several learned zoologists
have expressed an opinion, in which I entirely coincide, that the
Bactrian and Arabian Camels are but simple varieties of one and the
same species, not nearly so dissimilar as the greyhound and the
bulldog.
[Illustration: A REST IN THE DESERT.]
Unlike the one-humped Camel, the Bactrian species is quite at home
in a cold climate, and walks over ice as easily as its congener does
over smooth stone. It is an admirable rock-climber, and is said even
to surpass the mule in the sureness of its tread. This quality is
probably occasioned by the peculiar structure of the foot, which has
an elongated toe projecting beyond the soft pad, and forming a sort
of claw. In the winter time the riders much prefer them to horses,
because their long legs enable them to walk easily through snow,
in which a horse could only plunge helplessly, and would in all
probability sink and perish.
A mixed breed of the one-humped and the Bactrian animals is thought
to be the best for hill work in winter time, and General Harlan
actually took two thousand of these animals in winter time for a
distance of three hundred and sixty miles over the snowy tops of the
Indian Caucasus; and though the campaign lasted for seven months, he
only lost one Camel, and that was accidentally killed. Owing to its
use among the hills, the Bactrian species is sometimes called the
Mountain Camel.
It very much dislikes the commencement of spring, because the warm
mid-day sun slightly melts the surface of the snow, and the frost
of night converts it into a thin plate of ice. When the Camel walks
upon this semi-frozen snow, its feet plunge into the soft substratum
through the icy crust, against which its legs are severely cut. The
beginning of the winter is liable to the same objection.
The mixed breed which has just been mentioned must be procured from
a male Bactrian and a female Arabian Camel. If the parentage be
reversed, the offspring is useless, being weak, ill-tempered, and
disobedient.
The Bactrian Camel is, as has been mentioned, tolerant of cold, and
is indeed so hardy an animal that it bears the severest winters
without seeming to suffer distress, and has been seen quietly
feeding when the thermometer has reached a temperature several
degrees below zero. Sometimes, when the cold is more than usually
sharp, the owners sew a thick cloth round its body, but even in such
extreme cases the animal is left to find its own food as it best
can. And, however severe the weather may be, the Bactrian Camel
never sleeps under a roof.
This Camel is sometimes employed as a beast of burden, but its
general use is for draught. It is not often used alone for the
plough, because it has an uncertain and jerking mode of pulling, and
does not possess the steady dragging movement which is obtained by
the use of the horse or ox.
[Illustration: BACTRIAN CAMELS DRAWING CART.]
It is almost invariably harnessed to carts, and always in pairs. The
mode of yoking the animals is as simple as can well be conceived.
A pole runs between them from the front of the vehicle, and the
Camels are attached to it by means of a pole which passes over their
necks. Oxen were harnessed in a similar manner. It was probably
one of these cars or chariots that was mentioned by Isaiah in his
prophecy respecting Assyria:--"And he saw a chariot with a couple of
horsemen, a chariot of asses, and a chariot of camels" (Isa. xxi.
7). The cars themselves are as simple as the mode of harnessing
them, being almost exactly like the ox carts which have already been
described.
The weight which can be drawn by a pair of these Camels is really
considerable. On a tolerably made road a good pair of Camels are
expected to draw from twenty-six to twenty-eight hundred weight,
and to continue their labours for twenty or thirty successive
days, traversing each day an average of thirty miles. It is much
slower than the Arabian Camel, seldom going at more than two and a
half miles per hour. If, however, the vehicle to which a pair of
Bactrians are harnessed were well made, the wheels truly circular,
and the axles kept greased so as to diminish the friction, there is
no doubt that the animals could draw a still greater load to longer
distances, and with less trouble to themselves. As it is, the wheels
are wretchedly fitted, and their ungreased axles keep up a continual
creaking that is most painful to an unaccustomed ear, and totally
unheeded by the drivers.
The hair of the Bactrian Camel is long, coarse, and strong; and,
like that of the Arabian animal, is made into rough cloth. It is
plucked off by hand in the summer time, when it naturally becomes
loose in readiness for its annual renewal, and the weight of the
entire crop of hair ought to be about ten pounds. The skin is not
much valued, and is seldom used for any purpose except for making
ropes, straps, and thongs, and is not thought worth the trouble of
tanning. The milk, like that of the Arabian animal, is much used for
food, but the quantity is very trifling, barely two quarts per diem
being procured from each Camel.
There is but little that is generally interesting in the Rabbinical
writers on the Camel. They have one proverbial saying upon the
shortness of its ears. When any one makes a request that is likely
to be refused, they quote the instance of the Camel, who, it seems,
was dissatisfied with its appearance, and asked for horns to match
its long ears. The result of the request was, that it was deprived
of its ears, and got no horns.
THE HORSE.
The Hebrew words which signify the Horse--The Horse introduced
into Palestine from Egypt--Similarity of the war-horse of
Scripture and the Arab horse of the present day--Characteristics
of the Horse--Courage and endurance of the Horse--Hardness of
its unshod hoofs--Love of the Arab for his Horse--Difficulty
of purchasing the animal--The Horse prohibited to the
Israelites--Solomon's disregard of the edict--The war-chariot,
its form and use--Probable construction of the iron chariot--The
cavalry Horse--Lack of personal interest in the animal.
Several Hebrew words are used by the various Scriptural writers to
signify the Horse, and, like our own terms of horse, mare, pony,
charger, &c., are used to express the different qualities of the
animal. The chief distinction of the Horse seemed to lie in its
use for riding or driving, the larger and heavier animals being
naturally required for drawing the weighty springless chariots. The
chariot horse was represented by the word _Sus_, and the cavalry
horse by the word _Parash_, and in several passages both these words
occur in bold contrast to each other. See, for example, 1 Kings iv.
26, &c.
* * * * *
Among the many passages of Scripture in which the Horse is
mentioned, there are few which do not treat of it as an adjunct of
war, and therefore it is chiefly in that light that we must regard
it.
The Horse of the Scriptures was evidently a similar animal to the
Arab Horse of the present day, as we find not only from internal
evidence, but from the sculptures and paintings which still remain
to tell us of the vanished glories of Egypt and Assyria. It is
remarkable, by the way, that the first mention of the Horse in the
Scriptures alludes to it as an Egyptian animal. During the terrible
famine which Joseph had foretold, the Egyptians and the inhabitants
of neighbouring countries were unable to find food for themselves
or fodder for their cattle, and, accordingly, they sold all their
beasts for bread. "And they brought their cattle unto Joseph, and
Joseph gave them bread in exchange for horses and the flocks, and
for the cattle of herds, and for the asses, and he fed them with
bread for all their cattle for that year."
This particular breed of Horses is peculiarly fitted for the
purposes of war, and is much less apt for peaceful duties than the
heavier and more powerful breeds, which are found in different parts
of the world. It is remarkable for the flexible agility of its
movements, which enable it to adapt itself to every movement of the
rider, whose intentions it seems to divine by a sort of instinct,
and who guides it not so much by the bridle as by the pressure of
the knees and the voice. Examples of a similar mode of guidance
may be seen on the well-known frieze of the Parthenon, where, in
the Procession of Horsemen, the riders may be seen directing their
steeds by touching the side of the neck with one finger, thus
showing their own skill and the well-trained quality of the animals
which they ride.
[Illustration: TRIAL OF ARAB HORSES.]
Its endurance is really wonderful, and a horse of the Kochlani breed
will go through an amount of work which is almost incredible. Even
the trial by which a Horse is tested is so severe, that any other
animal would be either killed on the spot or ruined for life. When a
young mare is tried for the first time, her owner rides her for some
fifty or sixty miles at full speed, always finishing by swimming
her through a river. After this trial she is expected to feed
freely; and should she refuse her food, she is rejected as an animal
unworthy of the name of Kochlani.
[Illustration: AN ARAB HORSE OF THE KOCHLANI BREED.]
Partly from native qualities, and partly from constant association
with mankind, the Arab Horse is a singularly intelligent animal.
In Europe we scarcely give the Horse credit for the sensitive
intelligence with which it is endowed, and look upon it rather as
a machine for draught and carriage than a companion to man. The
Arab, however, lives with his horse, and finds in it the docility
and intelligence which we are accustomed to associate with the
dog rather than the Horse. It will follow him about and come at
his call. It will stand for any length of time and await its
rider without moving. Should he fall from its back, it will stop
and stand patiently by him until he can remount; and there is a
well-authenticated instance of an Arab Horse whose master had been
wounded in battle, taking him up by his clothes and carrying him
away to a place of safety.
Even in the very heat and turmoil of the combat, the true Arab Horse
seems to be in his true element, and fully deserves the splendid
eulogium in the Book of Job (xxxix. 19-25): "Hast thou given the
horse strength? hast thou clothed his neck with thunder?
"Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper? the glory of his
nostrils is terror.
"He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength: he goeth on
to meet the armed men.
"He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted; neither turneth he back
from the sword.
"The quiver rattleth against him, the glittering spear and the
shield.
"He walketh the ground with fierceness and rage: neither believeth
he that it is the sound of the trumpet.
"He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha; and he smelleth the battle
afar off, the thunder of the captains, and the shouting."
In another passage an allusion is made to the courage of the Horse,
and its love for the battle. "I hearkened and heard, but they spake
not aright: no man repented him of his wickedness, saying, What have
I done? Every one turned to his course, as the horse rusheth into
the battle." (Jer. viii. 6.) Even in the mimic battle of the djereed
the Horse seems to exult in the conflict as much as his rider, and
wheels or halts almost without the slightest intimation.
[Illustration: THE WAR HORSE.]
The hoofs of the Arab Horses are never shod, their owners thinking
that that act is not likely to improve nature, and even among the
burning sands and hard rocks the Horse treads with unbroken hoof. In
such a climate, indeed, an iron shoe would be worse than useless,
as it would only scorch the hoof by day, and in consequence of the
rapid change of temperature by day or night, the continual expansion
and contraction of the metal would soon work the nails loose, and
cause the shoe to fall off.
A tender-footed Horse would be of little value, and so we often
find in the Scriptures that the hardness of the hoof is reckoned
among one of the best qualities of a Horse. See, for example, Isa.
v. 28: "Whose arrows are sharp, and all their bows bent, their
horses' hoofs shall be counted like flint, and their wheels like a
whirlwind." Again, in Micah iv. 13: "Arise and thresh, O daughter
of Zion: for I will make thine horn iron, and I will make thy hoofs
brass: and thou shalt beat in pieces many people." Allusion is here
made to one mode of threshing, in which a number of Horses were
turned into the threshing-floor, and driven about at random among
the wheat, instead of walking steadily like the oxen.
In Judges v. 22 there is a curious allusion to the hoofs of the
Horse. It occurs in the Psalm of Thanksgiving sung by Deborah and
Barak after the death of Sisera: "Then were the horse-hoofs broken
by the means of the prancings, the prancings of their mighty ones."
Horses possessed of the qualities of courage, endurance, and
sureness of foot are naturally invaluable; and even at the present
day the Arab warrior esteems above all things a Horse of the purest
breed, and, whether he buys or sells one, takes care to have its
genealogy made out and hung on the animal's neck.
As to the mare, scarcely any inducement is strong enough to make
an Arab part with it, even to a countryman, and the sale of the
animal is hindered by a number of impediments which in point of
fact are almost prohibitory. Signor Pierotti, whose long residence
in Palestine has given him a deep insight into the character of the
people, speaks in the most glowing terms of the pure Arab Horse,
and of its inestimable value to its owner. Of the difficulties with
which the sale of the animal is surrounded, he gives a very amusing
account:--
"After this enumeration of the merits of the horse, I will describe
the manner in which a sale is conducted, choosing the case of the
mare, as that is the more valuable animal. The price varies with the
purity of blood of the steed, and the fortunes of its owner. When he
is requested to fix a value, his first reply is, 'It is yours, and
belongs to you, I am your servant;' because, perhaps, he does not
think that the question is asked with any real design of purchasing;
when the demand is repeated, he either makes no answer or puts the
question by; at the third demand he generally responds rudely with
a sardonic smile, which is not a pleasant thing to see, as it is a
sign of anger; and then says that he would sooner sell his family
than his mare. This remark is not meant as a mere jest; for it is no
uncommon thing for a Bedawy to give his parents as hostages rather
than separate himself from his friend.
[Illustration: ARAB HORSES.]
"If, however, owing to some misfortune, he determines on selling his
mare, it is very doubtful whether he or his parents will allow her
to leave their country without taking the precaution to render her
unfit for breeding.
"There are many methods of arranging the sale, all of which I should
like to describe particularly; however, I will confine myself to a
general statement. Before the purchaser enters upon the question of
the price to be paid, he must ascertain that the parents, friends,
and allies of the owners give their consent to the sale, without
which some difficulty or other may arise, or perhaps the mare may be
stolen from her new master. He must also obtain an unquestionable
warranty that she is fit for breeding purposes, and that no other
has a prior claim to any part of her body. This last precaution may
seem rather strange, but it arises from the following custom. It
sometimes happens that, when a Bedawy is greatly in want of money,
he raises it most easily by selling a member of his horse; so that
very frequently a horse belongs to a number of owners, one of whom
has purchased the right fore-leg, another the left, another the
hind-leg, or the tail, or an ear, or the like; and the proprietors
have each a proportionate interest in the profits of its labour or
sale.
"So also the offspring are sold in a similar manner; sometimes only
the first-born, sometimes the first three; and then it occasionally
happens that two or three members of the foal are, as it were,
mortgaged. Consequently, any one who is ignorant of this custom may
find that, after he has paid the price of the mare to her supposed
owner, a third person arises who demands to be paid the value of his
part; and, if the purchaser refuse to comply, he may find himself in
a very unpleasant situation, without any possibility of obtaining
help from the local government. Whoever sells his mare entirely,
without reserving to himself one or two parts, must be on good terms
with the confederate chiefs in the neighbourhood, and must have
obtained their formal sanction, otherwise they would universally
despise him, and perhaps lie in wait to kill him, so that his only
hope of escape would be a disgraceful flight, just as if he had
committed some great crime. It is an easier matter to purchase
a stallion; but even in this case the above formalities must be
observed.
[Illustration: BUYING AN ARAB HORSE.]
"These remarks only apply to buying horses of the purest blood;
those of inferior race are obtained without difficulty, and at fair
prices."
For some reason, perhaps the total severance of the Israelites from
the people among whom they had lived so long in captivity, the use
of the Horse, or, at all events, the breeding of it, was forbidden
to the Israelites; see Deut. xvi. 16. After prophesying that the
Israelites, when they had settled themselves in the Promised Land,
would want a king, the inspired writer next ordains that the new
king must be chosen by Divine command, and must belong to one of
the twelve tribes. He then proceeds as follows:--"But he shall not
multiply horses to himself, nor cause the people to return to Egypt,
to the end that he should multiply horses: forasmuch as the Lord
hath said unto you, Ye shall henceforth return no more that way."
The foresight of this prophetical writer was afterwards shown by the
fact that many kings of Israel did send to Egypt for Horses, Egypt
being the chief source from which these animals were obtained. And,
judging from the monuments to which reference has been made, the
Horse of Egypt was precisely the same animal as the Arab Horse of
the present day, and was probably obtained from nomad breeders.
In spite of the prohibitory edict, both David and Solomon used
Horses in battle, and the latter supplied himself largely from
Egypt, disregarding as utterly the interdict against plurality of
Horses as that against plurality of wives, which immediately follows.
David seems to have been the first king who established a force
of chariots, and this he evidently did for the purpose of action
on the flat grounds of Palestine, where infantry were at a great
disadvantage when attacked by the dreaded chariots; yet he did not
controvert the law by multiplying to himself Horses, or even by
importing them from Egypt; and when he had an opportunity of adding
to his army an enormous force of chariots, he only employed as many
as he thought were sufficient for his purpose. After he defeated
Hadadezer, and had taken from him a thousand chariots with their
Horses together with seven hundred cavalry, he houghed all the
Horses except those which were needed for one hundred chariots.
[Illustration: THE ARAB'S FAVOURITE STEEDS.]
Solomon, however, was more lax, and systematically broke the ancient
law by multiplying Horses exceedingly, and sending to Egypt for
them. We learn from 1 Kings iv. 26 of the enormous establishment
which he kept up both for chariots and cavalry. Besides those which
were given to him as tribute, he purchased both chariots and their
Horses from Egypt and Syria.
Chariots were far more valued in battle than horsemen, probably
because their weight made their onset irresistible against infantry,
who had no better weapons than bows and spears. The slingers
themselves could make little impression on the chariots; and even
if the driver, or the warrior who fought in the chariot, or his
attendant, happened to be killed, the weighty machine, with its two
Horses, still went on its destructive way.
[Illustration: PHARAOH PURSUES THE ISRAELITES WITH CHARIOTS AND
HORSES, AND THE SEA COVERS THEM.]
Of their use in battle we find very early mention. For example, in
Exod. xiv. 6 it is mentioned that Pharaoh made ready his chariot to
pursue the Israelites; and in a subsequent part of the same chapter
we find that six hundred of the Egyptian chariot force accompanied
their master in the pursuit, and that the whole army was delayed
because the loss of the chariot wheels made them drive heavily.
Then in the familiar story of Sisera and Jael the vanquished general
is mentioned as alighting from his chariot, in which he would be
conspicuous, and taking flight on foot; and, after his death, his
mother is represented as awaiting his arrival, and saying to the
women of the household, "Why is his chariot so long in coming? Why
tarry the wheels of his chariot?"
During the war of conquest which Joshua led, the chariot plays a
somewhat important part. As long as the war was carried on in the
rugged mountainous parts of the land, no mention of the chariot is
made; but when the battles had to be fought on level ground, the
enemy brought the dreaded chariots to bear upon the Israelites. In
spite of these adjuncts, Joshua won the battles, and, unlike David,
destroyed the whole of the Horses and burned the chariots.
Many years afterwards, a still more dreadful weapon, the iron
chariot, was used against the Israelites by Jabin. This new
instrument of war seems to have cowed the people completely; for
we find that by means of his nine hundred chariots of iron Jabin
"mightily oppressed the children of Israel" for twenty years. It has
been well suggested that the possession of the war chariot gave rise
to the saying of Benhadad's councillors, that the gods of Israel
were gods of the hills, and so their army had been defeated; but
that if the battle were fought in the plain, where the chariots and
Horses could act, they would be victorious.
So dreaded were these weapons, even by those who were familiar
with them and were accustomed to use them, that when the Syrians
had besieged Samaria, and had nearly reduced it by starvation, the
fancied sound of a host of chariots and Horses that they heard in
the night caused them all to flee and evacuate the camp, leaving
their booty and all their property in the hands of the Israelites.
Whether the Jews ever employed the terrible scythe chariots is not
quite certain, though it is probable that they may have done so;
and this conjecture is strengthened by the fact that they were
employed against the Jews by Antiochus, who had "footmen an hundred
and ten thousand, and horsemen five thousand and three hundred,
and elephants two and twenty, and three hundred chariots armed with
hooks" (2 Macc. xiii. 2). Some commentators think that by the iron
chariots mentioned above were signified ordinary chariots armed with
iron scythes projecting from the sides.
[Illustration: ELIJAH IS CARRIED UP.]
By degrees the chariot came to be one of the recognised forces
in war, and we find it mentioned throughout the books of the
Scriptures, not only in its literal sense, but as a metaphor which
every one could understand. In the Psalms, for example, are several
allusions to the war-chariot." He maketh wars to cease unto the end
of the earth; He breaketh the bow, and cutteth the spear in sunder;
He burneth the chariot in the fire" (Ps. xlvi. 9). Again: "At Thy
rebuke, O God of Jacob, both the chariot and horse are cast into
a dead sleep" (Ps. lxxvi. 6). And: "Some trust in chariots, and
some in horses: but we will remember the name of the Lord our God"
(Ps. xx. 7). Now, the force of these passages cannot be properly
appreciated unless we realize to ourselves the dread in which the
war-chariot was held by the foot-soldiers. Even cavalry were much
feared; but the chariots were objects of almost superstitious fear,
and the rushing sound of their wheels, the noise of the Horses'
hoofs, and the shaking of the ground as the "prancing horses and
jumping chariots" (Nah. iii. 2) thundered along, are repeatedly
mentioned.
See, for example, Ezek. xxvi. 10: "By reason of the abundance of
his horses their dust shall cover thee: thy walls shall shake at
the noise of the horsemen, and of the wheels, and of the chariots."
Also, Jer. xlvii. 3: "At the noise of the stamping of the hoofs
of his strong horses, at the rushing of his chariots, and at the
rumbling of his wheels, the fathers shall not look back to their
children for feebleness of hands." See also Joel ii. 4, 5: "The
appearance of them is as the appearance of horses; and as horsemen,
so shall they run.
"Like the noise of chariots on the tops of mountains shall they
leap, like the noise of a flame of fire that devoureth the stubble,
as a strong people set in battle array."
In several passages the chariot and Horse are used in bold imagery
as expressions of Divine power: "The chariots of God are twenty
thousand, even thousands of angels: the Lord is among them, as
in Sinai, in the holy place" (Ps. lxviii. 17). A similar image
is employed in Ps. civ. 3: "Who maketh the clouds His chariot:
who walketh upon the wings of the wind." In connexion with these
passages, we cannot but call to mind that wonderful day when the
unseen power of the Almighty was made manifest to the servant
of Elisha, whose eyes were suddenly opened, and he saw that the
mountain was full of Horses and chariots of fire round about Elisha.
The chariot and horses of fire by which Elijah was taken from earth
are also familiar to us, and in connexion with the passage which
describes that wonderful event, we may mention one which occurs in
the splendid prayer of Habakkuk (iii. 8): "Was the Lord displeased
against the rivers? was Thine anger against the rivers? was Thy
wrath against the sea, that Thou didst ride upon Thine horses and
Thy chariots of salvation?"
By degrees the chariot came to be used for peaceful purposes, and
was employed as our carriages of the present day, in carrying
persons of wealth. That this was the case in Egypt from very early
times is evident from Gen. xli. 43, in which we are told that after
Pharaoh had taken Joseph out of prison and raised him to be next in
rank to himself, the king caused him to ride in the second chariot
which he had, and so to be proclaimed ruler over Egypt. Many years
afterwards we find him travelling in his chariot to the land of
Goshen, whither he went to meet Jacob and to conduct him to the
presence of Pharaoh.
At first the chariot seems to have been too valuable to the
Israelites to have been used for any purpose except war, and it is
not until a comparatively late time that we find it employed as a
carriage, and even then it is only used by the noble and wealthy.
Absalom had such chariots, but it is evident that he used them for
purposes of state, and as appendages of his regal rank. Chariots or
carriages were, however, afterwards employed by the Israelites as
freely as by the Egyptians, from whom they were originally procured;
and accordingly we find Rehoboam mounting his chariot and fleeing
to Jerusalem, Ahab riding in his chariot from Samaria to Jezreel,
with Elijah running before him; and in the New Testament we read of
the chariot in which sat the chief eunuch of Ethiopia whom Philip
baptized (Acts viii. 28).
As to the precise form and character of these chariots, they are
made familiar to us by the sculptures and paintings of Egypt
and Assyria, from both of which countries the Jews procured the
vehicles. Differing very slightly in shape, the principle of the
chariot was the same; and it strikes us with some surprise that
the Assyrians, the Egyptians, and the Jews, the three wealthiest
and most powerful nations of the world, should not have invented a
better carriage. They lavished the costliest materials and the most
artistic skill in decorating the chariots, but had no idea of making
them comfortable for the occupants.
They were nothing but semicircular boxes on wheels, and of very
small size. They were hung very low, so that the occupants could
step in and out without trouble, though they do not seem to have
had the sloping floor of the Greek or Roman chariot. They had no
springs, but, in order to render the jolting of the carriage less
disagreeable, the floor was made of a sort of network of leathern
ropes, very tightly stretched so as to be elastic. The wheels were
always two in number, and generally had six spokes.
To the side of the chariot was attached the case which contained
the bow and quiver of arrows, and in the case of a rich man these
bow-cases were covered with gold and silver, and adorned with
figures of lions and other animals. Should the chariot be intended
for two persons, two bow-cases were fastened to it, the one crossing
the other. The spear had also its tubular case, in which it was kept
upright, like the whip of a modern carriage.
Two Horses were generally used with each chariot, though three were
sometimes employed. They were harnessed very simply, having no
traces, and being attached to the central pole by a breast-band, a
very slight saddle, and a loose girth. On their heads were generally
fixed ornaments, such as tufts of feathers, and similar decorations,
and tassels hung to the harness served to drive away the flies.
Round the neck of each Horse passed a strap, to the end of which was
attached a bell. This ornament is mentioned in Zech. xiv. 20: "In
that day shall there be upon the bells of the horses, Holiness unto
the Lord"--i.e. the greeting of peace shall be on the bells of the
animals once used in war.
Sometimes the owner drove his own chariot, even when going into
battle, but the usual plan was to have a driver, who managed the
Horses while the owner or occupant could fight with both his hands
at liberty. In case he drove his own Horse, the reins passed round
his waist, and the whip was fastened to the wrist by a thong, so
that when the charioteer used the bow, his principal weapon, he
could do so without danger of losing his whip.
Thus much for the use of the chariot in war; we have now the Horse
as the animal ridden by the cavalry.
As was the case with the chariot, the war-horse was not employed by
the Jews until a comparatively late period of their history. They
had been familiarized with cavalry during their long sojourn in
Egypt, and in the course of their war of conquest had often suffered
defeat from the horsemen of the enemy. But we do not find any
mention of a mounted force as forming part of the Jewish army until
the days of David, although after that time the successive kings
possessed large forces of cavalry.
Many references to mounted soldiers are made by the prophets,
sometimes allegorically, sometimes metaphorically. See, for example,
Jer. vi. 23: "They shall lay hold on bow and spear; they are cruel,
and have no mercy; their voice roareth like the sea; and they ride
upon horses, set in array as men for war against thee, O daughter
of Zion." The same prophet has a similar passage in chap. l. 42,
couched in almost precisely the same words. And in chap. xlvi. 4,
there is a further reference to the cavalry, which is specially
valuable as mentioning the weapons used by them. The first call of
the prophet is to the infantry: "Order ye the buckler and shield,
and draw near to battle" (verse 3); and then follows the command
to the cavalry, "Harness the horses; and get up, ye horsemen, and
stand forth with your helmets; furbish the spears, and put on the
brigandines." The chief arms of the Jewish soldier were therefore
the cuirass, the helmet, and the lance, the weapons which in all
ages, and in all countries, have been found to be peculiarly
suitable to the horse-soldier.
[Illustration: THE ISRAELITES, LED BY JOSHUA, TAKE JERICHO.]
* * * * *
Being desirous of affording the reader a pictorial representation
of the war and state chariots, I have selected Egypt as the typical
country of the former, and Assyria of the latter. Both have been
executed with the greatest care in details, every one of which, even
to the harness of the Horses, the mode of holding the reins, the
form of the whip, and the offensive and defensive armour, has been
copied from the ancient records of Egypt and Nineveh.
We will first take the war-chariot of Egypt.
[Illustration: ANCIENT BATTLE-FIELD.]
This form has been selected as the type of the war-chariot because
the earliest account of such a force mentions the war-chariots of
Egypt, and because, after the Israelites had adopted chariots as
an acknowledged part of their army, the vehicles, as well as the
trained Horses, and probably their occupants, were procured from
Egypt.
The scene represents a battle between the imperial forces and a
revolted province, so that the reader may have the opportunity of
seeing the various kinds of weapons and armour which were in use in
Egypt at the time of Joseph. In the foreground is the chariot of
the general, driven at headlong speed, the Horses at full gallop,
and the springless chariot leaping off the ground as the Horses
bound along. The royal rank of the general in question is shown by
the feather fan which denotes his high birth, and which is fixed in
a socket at the back of his chariot, much as a coachman fixes his
whip. The rank of the rider is further shown by the feather plumes
on the heads of his Horses.
By the side of the chariot are seen the quiver and bow-case, the
former being covered with decorations, and having the figure of a
recumbent lion along its sides. The simple but effective harness
of the Horses is especially worthy of notice, as showing how the
ancients knew, better than the moderns, that to cover a Horse with a
complicated apparatus of straps and metal only deteriorates from the
powers of the animal, and that a Horse is more likely to behave well
if he can see freely on all sides, than if all lateral vision be cut
off by the use of blinkers.
Just behind the general is the chariot of another officer, one
of whose Horses has been struck, and is lying struggling on the
ground. The general is hastily giving his orders as he dashes past
the fallen animal. On the ground are lying the bodies of some slain
enemies, and the Horses are snorting and shaking their heads,
significative of their unwillingness to trample on a human being.
By the side of the dead man are his shield, bow, and quiver, and
it is worthy of notice that the form of these weapons, as depicted
upon the ancient Egyptian monuments, is identical with that which is
still found among several half-savage tribes of Africa.
In the background is seen the fight raging round the standards. One
chief has been killed, and while the infantry are pressing round
the body of the rebel leader and his banner on one side, on the
other the imperial chariots are thundering along to support the
attack, and are driving their enemies before them. In the distance
are seen the clouds of dust whirled into the air by the hoofs and
wheels, and circling in clouds by the eddies caused by the fierce
rush of the vehicles, thus illustrating the passage in Jer. iv. 13:
"Behold, he shall come up as clouds, and his chariots shall be as a
whirlwind: his horses are swifter than eagles. Woe unto us! for we
are spoiled." The reader will see, by reference to the illustration,
how wonderfully true and forcible is this statement, the writer
evidently having been an eye-witness of the scene which he so
powerfully depicts.
[Illustration: CHARIOT OF STATE.]
The second scene is intentionally chosen as affording a strong
contrast to the former. Here, instead of the furious rush, the
galloping Horses, the chariots leaping off the ground, the archers
bending their bows, and all imbued with the fierce ardour of
battle, we have a scene of quiet grandeur, the Assyrian king making
a solemn progress in his chariot after a victory, accompanied by
his attendants, and surrounded by his troops, in all the placid
splendour of Eastern state.
Chief object in the illustration stands the great king in his
chariot, wearing the regal crown, or mitre, and sheltered from
the sun by the umbrella, which in ancient Nineveh, as in more
modern times, was the emblem of royalty. By his side is his
charioteer, evidently a man of high rank, holding the reins in a
business-like manner; and in front marches the shield-bearer. In
one of the sculptures from which this illustration was composed,
the shield-bearer was clearly a man of rank, fat, fussy, full of
importance, and evidently a portrait of some well-known individual.
The Horses are harnessed with remarkable lightness, but they bear
the gorgeous trappings which befit the rank of the rider, their
heads being decorated with the curious successive plumes with which
the Assyrian princes distinguished their chariot Horses, and the
breast-straps being adorned with tassels, repeated in successive
rows like the plumes of the head.
The reader will probably notice the peculiar high action of the
Horses. This accomplishment seems to have been even more valued
among the ancients than by ourselves, and some of the sculptures
show the Horses with their knees almost touching their noses. Of
course the artist exaggerrated the effect that he wanted to produce;
but the very fact of the exaggeration shows the value that was
set on a high and showy action in a Horse that was attached to a
chariot of state. The old Assyrian sculptors knew the Horse well,
and delineated it in a most spirited and graphic style, though they
treated it rather conventionally. The variety of attitude is really
wonderful, considering that all the figures are profile views, as
indeed seemed to have been a law of the historical sculptures.
* * * * *
Before closing this account of the Horse, it may be as well to
remark the singular absence of detail in the Scriptural accounts. Of
the other domesticated animals many such details are given, but of
the Horse we hear but little, except in connexion with war. There
are few exceptions to this rule, and even the oft-quoted passage
in Job, which goes deeper into the character of the Horse than any
other portion of the Scriptures, only considers the Horse as an
auxiliary in battle. We miss the personal interest in the animal
which distinguishes the many references to the ox, the sheep, and
the goat; and it is remarkable that even in the Book of Proverbs,
which is so rich in references to various animals, very little is
said of the Horse.
[Illustration: ANCIENT EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE REPRESENTING A VICTORIOUS
KING IN HIS CHARIOT SLAYING HIS ENEMIES.]
[Illustration: MUMMY OF AN EGYPTIAN KING (OVER THREE THOUSAND YEARS
OLD).]
[Illustration: ass]
THE ASS.
Importance of the Ass in the East--Its general use for the
saddle--Riding the Ass not a mark of humility--The triumphal
entry--White Asses--Character of the Scriptural Ass--Saddling
the Ass--Samson and Balaam.
In the Scriptures we read of two breeds of Ass, namely, the
Domesticated and the Wild Ass. As the former is the more important
of the two, we will give it precedence.
* * * * *
In the East, the Ass has always played a much more important part
than among us Westerns, and on that account we find it so frequently
mentioned in the Bible. In the first place, it is the universal
saddle-animal of the East. Among us the Ass has ceased to be
regularly used for the purposes of the saddle, and is only casually
employed by holiday-makers and the like. Some persons certainly
ride it habitually, but they almost invariably belong to the
lower orders, and are content to ride without a saddle, balancing
themselves in some extraordinary manner just over the animal's tail.
In the East, however, it is ridden by persons of the highest rank,
and is decorated with saddle and harness as rich as those of the
horse.
So far from the use of the Ass as a saddle-animal being a mark of
humility, it ought to be viewed in precisely the opposite light.
In consequence of the very natural habit of reading, according
to Western ideas, the Scriptures, which are books essentially
Oriental in all their allusions and tone of thought, many persons
have entirely perverted the sense of one very familiar passage,
the prophecy of Zechariah concerning the future Messiah. "Rejoice
greatly, O daughter of Zion; shout, O daughter of Jerusalem: behold,
thy King cometh unto thee: He is just, and having salvation; lowly,
and riding upon an ass, and upon a colt the foal of an ass" (Zech.
ix. 9).
Now this passage, as well as the one which describes its fulfilment
so many years afterwards, has often been seized upon as a proof of
the meekness and lowliness of our Saviour, in riding upon so humble
an animal when He made His entry into Jerusalem. The fact is, that
there was no humility in the case, neither was the act so understood
by the people. He rode upon an Ass as any prince or ruler would have
done who was engaged on a peaceful journey, the horse being reserved
for war purposes. He rode on the Ass, and not on the horse, because
He was the Prince of Peace and not of war, as indeed is shown very
clearly in the context. For, after writing the words which have just
been quoted, Zechariah proceeds as follows (ver. 10): "And I will
cut off the chariot from Ephraim, and the horse from Jerusalem, and
the battle bow shall be cut off: and He shall speak peace unto the
heathen: and His dominion shall be from sea even to sea, and from
the river even to the ends of the earth."
Meek and lowly was He, as became the new character, hitherto unknown
to the warlike and restless Jews, a Prince, not of war, as had been
all other celebrated kings, but of peace. Had He come as the Jews
expected--despite so many prophecies--their Messiah to come, as a
great king and conqueror, He might have ridden the war-horse, and
been surrounded with countless legions of armed men. But He came as
the herald of peace, and not of war; and, though meek and lowly, yet
a Prince, riding as became a prince, on an Ass colt which had borne
no inferior burden.
That the act was not considered as one of lowliness is evident from
the manner in which it was received by the people, accepting Him as
the Son of David, coming in the name of the Highest, and greeting
Him with the cry of "Hosanna!" ("Save us now,") quoted from verses
25, 26 of Ps. cxviii.: "Save now, I beseech Thee, O Lord: O Lord, I
beseech Thee, send now prosperity."
"Blessed be He that cometh in the name of the Lord."
[Illustration: ENTERING JERUSALEM.]
The palm-branches which they strewed upon the road were not chosen
by the attendant crowd merely as a means of doing honour to Him
whom they acknowledged as the Son of David. They were necessarily
connected with the cry of "Hosanna!" At the Feast of Tabernacles,
it was customary for the people to assemble with branches of palms
and willows in their hands, and for one of the priests to recite the
Great Hallel, _i.e._ Ps. cxiii. and cxviii. At certain intervals,
the people responded with the cry of "Hosanna!" waving at the same
time their palm-branches. For the whole of the seven days through
which the feast lasted they repeated their Hosannas, always
accompanying the shout with the waving of palm-branches, and setting
them towards the altar as they went in procession round it.
Every child who could hold a palm-branch was expected to take part
in the solemnity, just as did the children on the occasion of the
triumphal entry. By degrees, the name of Hosanna was transferred to
the palm-branches themselves, as well as to the feast, the last day
being called the Great Hosanna.
The reader will now see the importance of this carrying of
palm-branches, accompanied with Hosannas, and that those who used
them in honour of Him whom they followed into Jerusalem had no idea
that He was acting any lowly part.
* * * * *
Again, the woman of Shunem, who rode on an Ass to meet Elisha, a
mission in which the life of her only child was involved, was a
woman of great wealth (2 Kings iv. 8), who was able not only to
receive the prophet, but to build a chamber, and furnish it for him.
Not to multiply examples, we see from these passages that the Ass of
the East was held in comparatively high estimation, being used for
the purposes of the saddle, just as would a high-bred horse among
ourselves.
Consequently, the Ass is really a different animal. In this country
he is repressed, and seldom has an opportunity for displaying the
intellectual powers which he possesses, and which are of a much
higher order than is generally imagined. It is rather remarkable,
that when we wish to speak slightingly of intellect we liken the
individual to an Ass or a goose, not knowing that we have selected
just the quadruped and the bird which are least worthy of such a
distinction.
Putting aside the bird, as being at present out of place, we shall
find that the Ass is one of the cleverest of our domesticated
animals. We are apt to speak of the horse with a sort of reverence,
and of the Ass with contemptuous pity, not knowing that, of the two
animals, the Ass is by far the superior in point of intellect. It
has been well remarked by a keen observer of nature, that if four or
five horses are in a field, together with one Ass, and there be an
assailable point in the fence, the Ass is sure to be the animal that
discovers it, and leads the way through it.
Take even one of our own toil-worn animals, turned out in a common
to graze, and see the ingenuity which it displays when persecuted
by the idle boys who generally frequent such places, and who try to
ride every beast that is within their reach. It seems to divine at
once the object of the boy as he steals up to it, and he takes a
pleasure in baffling him just as he fancies that he has succeeded in
his attempt.
[Illustration: SYRIAN ASSES.]
Should the Ass be kindly treated, there is not an animal that proves
more docile, or even affectionate. Stripes and kicks it resents,
and sets itself distinctly against them; and, being nothing but a
slave, it follows the slavish principle of doing no work that it can
possibly avoid.
Now, in the East the Ass takes so much higher rank than our own
animal, that its whole demeanour and gait are different from those
displayed by the generality of its brethren. "Why, the very slave of
slaves," writes Mr. Lowth, in his "Wanderer in Arabia," "the crushed
and grief-stricken, is so no more in Egypt: the battered drudge has
become the willing servant. Is that active little fellow, who, with
race-horse coat and full flanks, moves under his rider with the
light step and the action of a pony--is he the same animal as that
starved and head-bowed object of the North, subject for all pity and
cruelty, and clothed with rags and insult?
"Look at him now. On he goes, rapid and free, with his small head
well up, and as gay as a crimson saddle and a bridle of light chains
and red leather can make him. It was a gladdening sight to see the
unfortunate as a new animal in Egypt."
Hardy animal as is the Ass, it is not well adapted for tolerance
of cold, and seems to degenerate in size, strength, speed, and
spirit in proportion as the climate becomes colder. Whether it
might equal the horse in its endurance of cold provided that it
were as carefully treated, is perhaps a doubtful point; but it is
a well-known fact that the horse does not necessarily degenerate
by moving towards a colder climate, though the Ass has always been
found to do so.
There is, of course, a variety in the treatment which the Ass
receives even in the East. Signor Pierotti, whose work on the
customs and traditions of Palestine has already been mentioned,
writes in very glowing terms of the animal. He states that he formed
a very high opinion of the Ass while he was in Egypt, not only from
its spirited aspect and its speed, but because it was employed even
by the Viceroy and the great Court officers, who may be said to use
Asses of more or less intelligence for every occasion. He even goes
so far as to say that, if all the Asses were taken away from Egypt,
travel would be impossible.
The same traveller gives an admirable summary of the character of
the Ass, as it exists in Egypt and Palestine. "What, then, are the
characteristics of the ass? Much the same as those which adorn it
in other parts of the East--namely, it is useful for riding and for
carrying burdens; it is sensible of kindness, and shows gratitude;
it is very steady, and is larger, stronger, and more tractable than
its European congener; its pace is easy and pleasant; and it will
shrink from no labour, if only its poor daily feed of straw and
barley is fairly given.
"If well and liberally supplied, it is capable of any enterprise,
and wears an altered and dignified mien, apparently forgetful of its
extraction, except when undeservedly beaten by its masters, who,
however, are not so much to be blamed, because, having learned to
live among sticks, thongs, and rods, they follow the same system of
education with their miserable dependants.
"The wealthy feed him well, deck him with fine harness and silver
trappings, and cover him, when his work is done, with rich Persian
carpets. The poor do the best they can for him, steal for his
benefit, give him a corner at their fireside, and in cold weather
sleep with him for more warmth. In Palestine, all the rich men,
whether monarchs or chiefs of villages, possess a number of asses,
keeping them with their flocks, like the patriarchs of old. No one
can travel in that country, and observe how the ass is employed for
all purposes, without being struck with the exactness with which the
Arabs retain the Hebrew customs."
The result of this treatment is, that the Eastern Ass is an enduring
and tolerably swift animal, vying with the camel itself in its
powers of long-continued travel, its usual pace being a sort of easy
canter. On rough ground, or up an ascent, it is said even to gain on
the horse, probably because its little sharp hoofs give it a firm
footing where the larger hoof of the horse is liable to slip.
The familiar term "saddling the Ass" requires some little
explanation.
The saddle is not in the least like the article which we know by
that name, but is very large and complicated in structure. Over the
animal's back is first spread a cloth, made of thick woollen stuff,
and folded several times. The saddle itself is a very thick pad of
straw, covered with carpet, and flat at the top, instead of being
rounded as is the case with our saddles. The pommel is very high,
and when the rider is seated on it, he is perched high above the
back of the animal. Over the saddle is thrown a cloth or carpet,
always of bright colours, and varying in costliness of material and
ornament according to the wealth of the possessor. It is mostly
edged with a fringe and tassels.
The bridle is decorated, like that of the horse, with bells,
embroidery, tassels, shells, and other ornaments.
As we may see from 2 Kings iv. 24, the Ass was generally guided
by a driver who ran behind it, just as is done with donkeys hired
to children here. Owing to the unchanging character of the East,
there is no doubt that the "riders on asses" of the Scriptures rode
exactly after the mode which is adopted at the present day. What
that mode is, we may learn from Mr. Bayard Taylor's amusing and
vivid description of a ride through the streets of Cairo:--
[Illustration: A STREET IN CAIRO, EGYPT.]
"To see Cairo thoroughly, one must first accustom himself to the
ways of these long-eared cabs, without the use of which I would
advise no one to trust himself in the bazaars. Donkey-riding is
universal, and no one thinks of going beyond the Frank quarters on
foot. If he does, he must submit to be followed by not less than
six donkeys with their drivers. A friend of mine who was attended
by such a cavalcade for two hours, was obliged to yield at last,
and made no second attempt. When we first appeared in the gateway
of an hotel, equipped for an excursion, the rush of men and animals
was so great that we were forced to retreat until our servant and
the porter whipped us a path through the yelling and braying mob.
After one or two trials I found an intelligent Arab boy named Kish,
who for five piastres a day furnished strong and ambitious donkeys,
which he kept ready at the door from morning till night. The other
drivers respected Kish's privilege, and henceforth I had no trouble.
"The donkeys are so small that my feet nearly touched the ground,
but there is no end to their strength and endurance. Their gait,
whether in pace or in gallop, is so easy and light that fatigue is
impossible. The drivers take great pride in having high-cushioned
red saddles, and in hanging bits of jingling brass to the bridles.
They keep their donkeys close shorn, and frequently beautify them
by painting them various colours. The first animal I rode had legs
barred like a zebra's, and my friend's rejoiced in purple flanks
and a yellow belly. The drivers ran behind them with a short stick,
punching them from time to time, or giving them a sharp pinch on the
rump. Very few of them own their donkeys, and I understood their
pertinacity when I learned that they frequently received a beating
on returning home empty-handed.
"The passage of the bazaars seems at first quite as hazardous on
donkey-back as on foot; but it is the difference between knocking
somebody down and being knocked down yourself, and one certainly
prefers the former alternative. There is no use in attempting to
guide the donkey, for he won't be guided. The driver shouts behind,
and you are dashed at full speed into a confusion of other donkeys,
camels, horses, carts, water-carriers, and footmen. In vain you cry
out '_Bess_' (enough), '_Piacco_,' and other desperate adjurations;
the driver's only reply is: 'Let the bridle hang loose!' You
dodge your head under a camel-load of planks; your leg brushes the
wheel of a dust-cart; you strike a fat Turk plump in the back; you
miraculously escape upsetting a fruit-stand; you scatter a company
of spectral, white-masked women; and at last reach some more quiet
street, with the sensations of a man who has stormed a battery.
[Illustration: BEGGAR IN THE STREETS OF CAIRO.]
"At first this sort of riding made me very nervous, but presently I
let the donkey go his own way, and took a curious interest in seeing
how near a chance I ran of striking or being struck. Sometimes there
seemed no hope of avoiding a violent collision; but, by a series
of the most remarkable dodges, he generally carried you through in
safety. The cries of the driver running behind gave me no little
amusement. 'The hawadji comes! Take care on the right hand! Take
care on the left hand! O man, take care! O maiden, take care! O boy,
get out of the way! The hawadji comes!' Kish had strong lungs, and
his donkey would let nothing pass him; and so wherever we went we
contributed our full share to the universal noise and confusion."
[Illustration: NIGHT-WATCH IN CAIRO.]
This description explains several allusions which are made in the
Scriptures to treading down the enemies in the streets, and to the
chariots raging and jostling against each other in the ways.
The Ass was used in the olden time for carrying burdens, as it is
at present, and, in all probability, carried them in the same way.
Sacks and bundles are tied firmly to the pack-saddle; but poles,
planks, and objects of similar shape are tied in a sloping direction
on the side of the saddle, the longer ends trailing on the ground,
and the shorter projecting at either side of the animal's head. The
North American Indians carry the poles of their huts, or wigwams, in
precisely the same way, tying them on either side of their horses,
and making them into rude sledges, upon which are fastened the skins
that form the walls of their huts. The same system of carriage is
also found among the Esquimaux, and the hunters of the extreme
North, who harness their dogs in precisely the same manner. The
Ass, thus laden, becomes a very unpleasant passenger through the
narrow and crowded streets of an Oriental city; and many an unwary
traveller has found reason to remember the description of Issachar
as the strong Ass between two burdens.
The Ass was also used for agriculture, and was employed in the
plough, as we find from many passages. See for example, "Blessed
are ye that sow beside all waters, that send forth thither the feet
of the ox and the ass" (Isa. xxxii. 20). Sowing beside the waters
is a custom that still prevails in all hot countries, the margins
of rivers being tilled, while outside this cultivated belt there is
nothing but desert ground.
The ox and the Ass were used in the first place for irrigation,
turning the machines by which water was lifted from the river, and
poured into the trenches which conveyed it to all parts of the
tilled land. If, as is nearly certain, the rude machinery of the
East is at the present day identical with those which were used in
the old Scriptural times, they were yoked to the machine in rather
an ingenious manner. The machine consists of an upright pivot, and
to it is attached the horizontal pole to which the ox or Ass is
harnessed. A machine exactly similar in principle may be seen in
almost any brick-field in England; but the ingenious part of the
Eastern water-machine is the mode in which the animal is made to
believe that it is being driven by its keeper, whereas the man in
question might be at a distance, or fast asleep.
The animal is first blindfolded, and then yoked to the end of the
horizontal bar. Fixed to the pivot, and rather in front of the bar,
is one end of a slight and elastic strip of wood. The projecting
end, being drawn forward and tied to the bridle of the animal, keeps
up a continual pull, and makes the blinded animal believe that it is
being drawn forward by the hand of a driver. Some ingenious but lazy
attendants have even invented a sort of self-acting whip, _i.e._ a
stick which is lifted and allowed to fall on the animal's back by
the action of the wheel once every round.
The field being properly supplied with water, the Ass is used for
ploughing it. It is worthy of mention that at the present day the
prohibition against yoking an ox and an Ass together is often
disregarded. The practice, however, is not a judicious one, as the
slow and heavy ox does not act well with the lighter and more active
animal, and, moreover, is apt to butt at its companion with its
horns in order to stimulate it to do more than its fair proportion
of the work.
There is a custom now in Palestine which probably existed in the
days of the Scriptures, though I have not been able to find any
reference to it. Whenever an Ass is disobedient and strays from its
master, the man who captures the trespasser on his grounds clips a
piece out of its ear before he returns it to its owner. Each time
that the animal is caught on forbidden grounds it receives a fresh
clip of the ear. By looking at the ears of an Ass, therefore, any
one can tell whether it has ever been a straggler; and if so, he
knows the number of times that it has strayed, by merely counting
the clip-marks, which always begin at the tip of the ear, and extend
along the edges. Any Ass, no matter how handsome it may be, that has
many of those clips, is always rejected by experienced travellers,
as it is sure to be a dull as well as a disobedient beast.
There are recorded in the Scriptures two remarkable circumstances
connected with the Ass, which, however, need but a few words. The
first is the journey of Balaam from Pethor to Moab, in the course
of which there occurred that singular incident of the Ass speaking
in human language (see Numb. xxii. 21, 35). The second is the
well-known episode in the story of Samson, where he is recorded as
breaking the cords with which his enemies had bound him, and killing
a thousand Philistines with the fresh jaw-bone of an Ass.
THE WILD ASS.
Various allusions to the Wild Ass--Its swiftness and
wildness--The Wild Ass of Asia and Africa--How the Wild Ass is
hunted--Excellence of its flesh--Meeting a Wild Ass--Origin of
the domestic Ass--The Wild Asses of Quito.
There are several passages of Scripture in which the Wild Ass is
distinguished from the domesticated animal, and in all of them there
is some reference made to its swiftness, its intractable nature,
and love of freedom. It is an astonishingly swift animal, so that
on the level ground even the best horse has scarcely a chance of
overtaking it. It is exceedingly wary, its sight, hearing, and sense
of scent being equally keen, so that to approach it by craft is a
most difficult task.
Like many other wild animals, it has a custom of ascending hills or
rising grounds, and thence surveying the country, and even in the
plains it will generally contrive to discover some earth-mound or
heap of sand from which it may act as sentinel and give the alarm
in case of danger. It is a gregarious animal, always assembling in
herds, varying from two or three to several hundred in number, and
has a habit of partial migration in search of green food, traversing
large tracts of country in its passage.
It has a curiously intractable disposition, and, even when captured
very young, can scarcely ever be brought to bear a burden or draw a
vehicle.
Attempts have been often made to domesticate the young that have
been born in captivity, but with very slight success, the wild
nature of the animal constantly breaking out, even when it appears
to have become moderately tractable.
Although the Wild Ass does not seem to have lived within the limits
of the Holy Land, it was common enough in the surrounding country,
and, from the frequent references made to it in Scriptures, was well
known to the ancient Jews.
We will now look at the various passages in which the Wild Ass is
mentioned, and begin with the splendid description in Job xxxix. 5-8:
"Who hath sent out the wild ass free? or who hath loosed the bands
of the wild ass?
"Whose house I have made the wilderness, and the barren lands (or
salt places) his dwellings.
"He scorneth the multitude of the city, neither regardeth he the
crying of the driver.
"The range of the mountains is his pasture, and he searcheth after
every green thing."
Here we have the animal described with the minuteness and truth of
detail that can only be found in personal knowledge; its love of
freedom, its avoidance of mankind, and its migration in search of
pasture.
Another allusion to the pasture-seeking habits of the animal is to
be found in chapter vi. of the same book, verse 5: "Doth the wild
ass bray when he hath grass?" or, according to the version of the
Jewish Bible, "over tender grass?"
* * * * *
A very vivid account of the appearance of the animal in its wild
state is given by Sir R. Kerr Porter, who was allowed by a Wild Ass
to approach within a moderate distance, the animal evidently seeing
that he was not one of the people to whom it was accustomed, and
being curious enough to allow the stranger to approach him.
"The sun was just rising over the summit of the eastern mountains,
when my greyhound started off in pursuit of an animal which, my
Persians said, from the glimpse they had of it, was an antelope. I
instantly put spurs to my horse, and with my attendants gave chase.
After an unrelaxed gallop of three miles, we came up with the dog,
who was then within a short stretch of the creature he pursued; and
to my surprise, and at first vexation, I saw it to be an ass.
"Upon reflection, however, judging from its fleetness that it must
be a wild one, a creature little known in Europe, but which the
Persians prize above all other animals as an object of chase, I
determined to approach as near to it as the very swift Arab I was
on could carry me. But the single instant of checking my horse to
consider had given our game such a head of us that, notwithstanding
our speed, we could not recover our ground on him.
"I, however, happened to be considerably before my companions, when,
at a certain distance, the animal in its turn made a pause, and
allowed me to approach within pistol-shot of him. He then darted off
again with the quickness of thought, capering, kicking, and sporting
in his flight, as if he were not blown in the least, and the chase
was his pastime. When my followers of the country came up, they
regretted that I had not shot the creature when he was within my
aim, telling me that his flesh is one of the greatest delicacies in
Persia.
"The prodigious swiftness and the peculiar manner in which he
fled across the plain coincided exactly with the description that
Xenophon gives of the same animal in Arabia. But above all, it
reminded me of the striking portrait drawn by the author of the Book
of Job. I was informed by the Mehnander, who had been in the desert
when making a pilgrimage to the shrine of Ali, that the wild ass of
Irak Arabi differs in nothing from the one I had just seen. He had
observed them often for a short time in the possession of the Arabs,
who told him the creature was perfectly untameable.
"A few days after this discussion, we saw another of these animals,
and, pursuing it determinately, had the good fortune to kill it."
* * * * *
It has been suggested by many zoologists that the Wild Ass is
the progenitor of the domesticated species. The origin of the
domesticated animal, however, is so very ancient, that we have no
data whereon even a theory can be built. It is true that the Wild
and the Domesticated Ass are exactly similar in appearance, and that
an _Asinus hemippus_, or Wild Ass, looks so like an Asiatic _Asinus
vulgaris_, or Domesticated Ass, that by the eye alone the two are
hardly distinguishable from each other. But with their appearance
the resemblance ends, the domestic animal being quiet, docile, and
fond of man, while the wild animal is savage, intractable, and has
an invincible repugnance to human beings.
[Illustration: HUNTING WILD ASSES.]
This diversity of spirit in similar forms is very curious, and is
strongly exemplified by the semi-wild Asses of Quito. They are the
descendants of the animals that were imported by the Spaniards, and
live in herds, just as do the horses. They combine the habits of
the Wild Ass with the disposition of the tame animal. They are as
swift of foot as the Wild Ass of Syria or Africa, and have the same
habit of frequenting lofty situations, leaping about among rocks and
ravines, which seem only fitted for the wild goat, and into which no
horse can follow them.
Nominally, they are private property, but practically they may be
taken by any one who chooses to capture them. The lasso is employed
for the purpose, and when the animals are caught they bite, and
kick, and plunge, and behave exactly like their wild relations of
the Old World, giving their captors infinite trouble in avoiding
the teeth and hoofs which they wield so skilfully. But, as soon
as a load has once been bound on the back of one of these furious
creatures, the wild spirit dies out of it, the head droops, the
gait becomes steady, and the animal behaves as if it had led a
domesticated life all its days.
THE MULE.
Ancient use of the Mule--Various breeds of Mule--Supposed date
of its introduction into Palestine--Mule-breeding forbidden to
the Jews--The Mule as a saddle-animal--Its use on occasions of
state--The king's Mule--Obstinacy of the Mule.
There are several references to the MULE in the Holy Scriptures, but
it is remarkable that the animal is not mentioned at all until the
time of David, and that in the New Testament the name does not occur
at all.
The origin of the Mule is unknown, but that the mixed breed between
the horse and the ass has been employed in many countries from very
ancient times is a familiar fact. It is a very strange circumstance
that the offspring of these two animals should be, for some
purposes, far superior to either of the parents, a well-bred Mule
having the lightness, surefootedness, and hardy endurance of the
ass, together with the increased size and muscular development of
the horse. Thus it is peculiarly adapted either for the saddle or
for the conveyance of burdens over a rough or desert country.
The Mules that are most generally serviceable are bred from the male
ass and the mare, those which have the horse as the father and the
ass as the mother being small, and comparatively valueless. At the
present day, Mules are largely employed in Spain and the Spanish
dependencies, and there are some breeds which are of very great size
and singular beauty, those of Andalusia being especially celebrated.
In the Andes, the Mule has actually superseded the llama as a beast
of burden.
Its appearance in the sacred narrative is quite sudden. In Gen.
xxxvi. 24, there is a passage which seems as if it referred to the
Mule: "This was that Anah that found the mules in the wilderness."
Now the word which is here rendered as Mules is "Yemim," a word
which is not found elsewhere in the Hebrew Scriptures. The best
Hebraists are agreed that, whatever interpretation may be put upon
the word, it cannot possibly have the signification that is here
assigned to it. Some translate the word as "hot springs," while the
editors of the Jewish Bible prefer to leave it untranslated, thus
signifying that they are not satisfied with any rendering.
[Illustration: MULES OF THE EAST.]
The word which is properly translated as Mule is "Pered;" and the
first place where it occurs is 2 Sam. xiii. 29. Absalom had taken
advantage of a sheep-shearing feast to kill his brother Amnon in
revenge for the insult offered to Tamar: "And the servants of
Absalom did unto Amnon as Absalom had commanded. Then all the
king's sons arose, and every man gat him up upon his mule, and
fled." It is evident from this passage that the Mule must have been
in use for a considerable time, as the sacred writer mentions, as a
matter of course, that the king's sons had each his own riding mule.
[Illustration: ABSALOM IS CAUGHT IN THE BOUGHS OF AN OAK TREE.]
Farther on, chap. xviii. 9 records the event which led to the death
of Absalom by the hand of Joab. "And Absalom met the servants of
David. And Absalom rode upon a mule, and the mule went under the
thick boughs of a great oak, and his head caught hold of the oak,
and he was taken up between the heaven and the earth; and the mule
that was under him went away."
We see by these passages that the Mule was held in such high
estimation that it was used by the royal princes for the saddle, and
had indeed superseded the ass. In another passage we shall find that
the Mule was ridden by the king himself when he travelled in state,
and that to ride upon the king's Mule was considered as equivalent
to sitting upon the king's throne. See, for example, 1 Kings i. in
which there are several passages illustrative of this curious fact.
See first, ver. 33, in which David gives to Zadok the priest, Nathan
the prophet, and Benaiah the captain of the hosts, instructions for
bringing his son Solomon to Gihon, and anointing him king in the
stead of his father: "Take with you the servants of your lord, and
cause Solomon my son to ride upon mine own mule, and bring him down
to Gihon."
That the Mule was as obstinate and contentious an animal in
Palestine as it is in Europe is evident from the fact that the
Eastern mules of the present day are quite as troublesome as their
European brethren. They are very apt to shy at anything, or nothing
at all; they bite fiercely, and every now and then they indulge
in a violent kicking fit, flinging out their heels with wonderful
force and rapidity, and turning round and round on their fore-feet
so quickly that it is hardly possible to approach them. There is
scarcely a traveller in the Holy Land who has not some story to tell
about the Mule and its perverse disposition; but, as these anecdotes
have but very slight bearing on the subject of the Mule as mentioned
in the Scriptures, they will not be given in these pages.
[Illustration: DANIEL REFUSES TO EAT THE KING'S MEAT.]
SWINE.
The Mosaic prohibition of the pig--Hatred of Swine by Jews and
Mahometans--The prodigal son--Supposed connexion between Swine
and diseases of the skin--Destruction of the herd of Swine--The
wild boar of the woods--The damage which it does to the vines.
Many are the animals which are specially mentioned in the Mosaic law
as unfit for food, beside those that come under the general head of
being unclean because they do not divide the hoof and chew the cud.
There is none, however, that excited such abhorrence as the hog, or
that was more utterly detested.
It is utterly impossible for a European, especially one of the
present day, to form even an idea of the utter horror and loathing
with which the hog was regarded by the ancient Jews. Even at the
present day, a zealous Jew or Mahometan looks upon the hog, or
anything that belongs to the hog, with an abhorrence too deep for
words. The older and stricter Jews felt so deeply on this subject,
that they would never even mention the name of the hog, but always
substituted for the objectionable word the term "the abomination."
Several references are made in the Scriptures to the exceeding
disgust felt by the Jews towards the Swine. The portion of the
Mosaic law on which a Jew would ground his antipathy to the flesh of
Swine is that passage which occurs in Lev. xi. 7: "And the swine,
though he divide the hoof, and be cloven-footed, yet he cheweth not
the cud; he is unclean to you." But the very same paragraph, of
which this passage forms the termination, treats of other unclean
beasts, such as the coney (or hyrax) and the hare, neither of which
animals are held in such abhorrence as the Swine.
This enactment could not therefore have produced the singular
feeling with which the Swine were regarded by the Jews, and in all
probability the antipathy was of far greater antiquity than the time
of Moses.
How hateful to the Jewish mind was the hog we may infer from many
passages, several of which occur in the Book of Isaiah. See, for
example, lxv. 3, 4: "A people that provoketh me to anger continually
to my face; that sacrificeth in gardens, and burneth incense upon
altars of brick;
"Which remain among the graves, and lodge in the monuments, which
eat swine's flesh, and broth of abominable things is in their
vessels." Here we have the people heaping one abomination upon
another--the sacrifice to idols in the gardens, the burning of
incense upon a forbidden altar and with strange fire, the living
among the tombs, where none but madmen and evil spirits were
supposed to reside, and, as the culminating point of iniquity,
eating Swine's flesh, and drinking the broth in which it was boiled.
In the next chapter, verse 3, we have another reference to the
Swine. Speaking of the wickedness of the people, and the uselessness
of their sacrifices, the prophet proceeds to say: "He that killeth
an ox is as if he slew a man; he that sacrificeth a lamb, as if he
had cut off a dog's neck; he that offereth an oblation, as if he
offered swine's blood." We see here how the prophet proceeds from
one image to another: the murder of a man, the offering of a dog
instead of a lamb, and the pouring out of Swine's blood upon the
altar instead of wine--the last-mentioned crime being evidently held
as the worst of the three. Another reference to the Swine occurs
in the same chapter, verse 17: "They that sanctify themselves, and
purify themselves in the gardens behind one tree in the midst,
eating swine's flesh, and the abomination, and the mouse, shall be
consumed together, saith the Lord."
Not only did the Jews refuse to eat the flesh of the hog, but they
held in utter abomination everything that belonged to it, and
would have thought themselves polluted had they been even touched
with a hog's bristle. Even at the present day this feeling has not
diminished, and both by Jews and Mahometans the hog is held in utter
abhorrence.
Some recent travellers have made great use of this feeling. Signor
Pierotti, for example, during his long sojourn in Palestine, found
the flesh of the hog extremely beneficial to him. "How often has the
flesh of this animal supported me, especially during the earlier
part of my stay in Palestine, before I had learned to like the
mutton and the goats' flesh! I give the preference to this meat
because it has often saved me time by rendering a fire unnecessary,
and freed me from importunate, dirty, and unsavoury guests, who used
their hands for spoons, knives, and forks.
"A little piece of bacon laid conspicuously upon the cloth that
served me for a table was always my best friend. Without this
talisman I should never have freed myself from unwelcome company,
at least without breaking all the laws of hospitality by not
inviting the chiefs of my escort or the guides to share my meal;
a thing neither prudent nor safe in the open country. Therefore,
on the contrary, when thus provided I pressed them with the utmost
earnestness to eat with me, but of course never succeeded in
persuading them; and so dined in peace, keeping on good terms with
them, although they did call me behind my back a 'dog of a Frank'
for eating pork.
"Besides, I had then no fear of my stores failing, as I always took
care to carry a stock large enough to supply the real wants of my
party. So a piece of bacon was more service to me than a revolver,
a rifle, or a sword; and I recommend all travellers in Palestine to
carry bacon rather than arms."
Such being the feelings of the Jews, we may conceive the abject
degradation to which the Prodigal Son of the parable must have
descended, when he was compelled to become a swine-herd for a
living, and would have been glad even to have eaten the very husks
on which the Swine fed. These husks, by the way, were evidently the
pods of the locust-tree, or carob, of which we shall have more to
say in a future page. We have in our language no words to express
the depths of ignominy into which this young man must have fallen,
nor can we conceive any office which in our estimation would be so
degrading as would be that of swine-herd to a Jew.
[Illustration: THE PRODIGAL SON.]
How deeply rooted was the abhorrence of the Swine's flesh we can
see from a passage in 2 Maccabees, in which is related a series of
insults offered to the religion of the Jews. The temple in Jerusalem
was to be called the Temple of Jupiter Olympus, and that on Gerizim
was to be dedicated to Jupiter, the defender of strangers. The
altars were defiled by forbidden things, and the celebration of the
Sabbath, or of any Jewish ceremony, was punishable with death.
Severe as were all these afflictions, there was one which the Jews
seem, from the stress laid upon it, to have felt more keenly than
any other. This was the compulsory eating of Swine's flesh, an act
which was so abhorrent to the Jews that in attempting to enforce it,
Antiochus found that he was foiled by the passive resistance offered
to him. The Jews had allowed their temples to be dedicated to the
worship of heathen deities, they had submitted to the deprivation of
their sacred rites, they had even consented to walk in procession on
the Feast of Bacchus, carrying ivy like the rest of the worshippers
in that most licentious festival. It might be thought that any
people who submit to such degradation would suffer any similar
indignity. But even their forbearance had reached its limits, and
nothing could induce them to eat the flesh of Swine.
[Illustration: ELEAZAR REFUSES TO EAT SWINE'S FLESH.]
Several examples of the resistance offered by them are recorded in
the book just mentioned. Eleazer, for example, a man ninety years
old, sternly refused to partake of the abominable food. Some of the
officials, in compassion for his great age, advised him to take
lawful meat with him and to exchange it for the Swine's flesh.
This he refused to do, saying that his age was only a reason for
particular care on his part, lest the young should be led away by
his example. His persecutors then forced the meat into his mouth,
but he rejected it, and died under the lash.
Another example of similar, but far greater heroism, is given by
the same chronicler. A mother and her seven sons were urged with
blows to eat the forbidden food, and refused to do so. Thinking
that the mother would not be able to endure the sight of her sons'
sufferings, the officers took them in succession, and inflicted a
series of horrible tortures upon them, beginning by cutting off
their tongues, hands, and feet, and ending by roasting them while
still alive. Their mother, far from counselling her sons to yield,
even though they were bribed by promises of wealth and rank, only
encouraged them to persevere, and, when the last of her sons was
dead, passed herself through the same fiery trial.
[Illustration: A MOTHER AND HER SEVEN SONS TORTURED FOR REFUSING TO
EAT SWINE'S FLESH.]
It has been conjectured, and with plausibility, that the pig was
prohibited by Moses on account of the unwholesomeness of its flesh
in a hot country, and that its almost universal repudiation in such
lands is a proof of its unfitness for food. In countries where
diseases of the skin are so common, and where the dreaded leprosy
still maintains its hold, the flesh of the pig is thought, whether
rightly or wrongly, to increase the tendency to such diseases, and
on that account alone would be avoided.
[Illustration: THE EVIL SPIRITS ENTER A HERD OF SWINE.]
It has, however, been shown that the flesh of Swine can be
habitually consumed in hot countries without producing any evil
results; and, moreover, that the prohibition of Moses was not
confined to the Swine, but included many other animals whose flesh
is used without scruple by those very persons who reject that of the
pig.
Knowing the deep hatred of the Jews towards this animal, we may
naturally wonder how we come to hear of herds of Swine kept in
Jewish lands.
Of this custom there is a familiar example in the herd of Swine that
was drowned in the sea (Matt. viii. 28-34). It is an open question
whether those who possessed the Swine were Jews of lax principles,
who disregarded the Law for the sake of gain, or whether they
were Gentiles, who, of course, were not bound by the Law. The
former seems the likelier interpretation, the destruction of the
Swine being a fitting punishment for their owners. It must be here
remarked, that our Lord did not, as is often said, destroy the
Swine, neither did He send the devils into them, so that the death
of these animals cannot be reckoned as one of the divine miracles.
Ejecting the evil spirits from the maniacs was an exercise of His
divine authority; the destruction of the Swine was a manifestation
of diabolical anger, permitted, but not dictated.
Swine are at the present day much neglected in Palestine, because
the Mahometans and Jews may not eat the flesh, and the Christians,
as a rule, abstain from it, so that they may not hurt the feelings
of their neighbours. Pigs are, however, reared in the various
monasteries, and by the Arabs attached to them.
[Illustration: WILD BOARS DEVOURING THE CARCASE OF A DEER.]
We now come to the wild animal. There is only one passage in the
Scriptures in which the WILD BOAR is definitely mentioned, and
another in which a reference is made to it in a paraphrase.
[Illustration: WILD BOARS.]
The former of these is the well-known verse of the Psalms: "Why hast
thou broken down her hedges, so that all they which pass by the way
do pluck her?
"The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of
the field doth devour it" (Ps. lxxx. 12, 13). The second passage
is to be found in Ps. lxviii. 30. In the Authorized Version it is
thus rendered: "Rebuke the company of spearmen, the multitude of
bulls, with the calves of the people." If the reader will refer to
the marginal translation (which, it must be remarked, is of equal
authority with the text), the passage runs thus: "Rebuke the beasts
of the reeds," &c. Now, this is undoubtedly the correct rendering,
and is accepted in the Jewish Bible.
Having quoted these two passages, we will proceed to the description
and character of the animal.
In the former times, the Wild Boar was necessarily much more
plentiful than is the case in these days, owing to the greater
abundance of woods, many of which have disappeared by degrees, and
others been greatly thinned by the encroachments of mankind. Woods
and reed-beds are always the habitations of the Wild Boar, which
resides in these fastnesses, and seems always to prefer the reed-bed
to the wood, probably because it can find plenty of mud, in which it
wallows after the fashion of its kind. There is no doubt whatever
that the "beast of the reeds" is simply a poetical phrase for the
Wild Boar.
If there should be any cultivated ground in the neighbourhood, the
Boar is sure to sally out and do enormous damage to the crops. It
is perhaps more dreaded in the vineyards than in any other ground,
as it not only devours the grapes, but tears down and destroys the
vines, trampling them under foot, and destroying a hundredfold as
much as it eats.
If the reader will refer again to Ps. lxxx. he will see that the
Jewish nation is described under the image of a vine: "Thou hast
brought a vine out of Egypt: Thou hast cast out the heathen and
planted it," &c. No image of a destructive enemy could therefore
be more appropriate than that which is used. We have read of the
little foxes that spoil the vines, but the Wild Boar is a much more
destructive enemy, breaking its way through the fences, rooting up
the ground, tearing down the vines themselves, and treading them
under its feet. A single party of these animals will sometimes
destroy an entire vineyard in a single night.
[Illustration: WILD BOARS DESTROYING A VINEYARD.]
We can well imagine the damage that would be done to a vineyard even
by the domesticated Swine, but the Wild Boar is infinitely more
destructive. It is of very great size, often resembling a donkey
rather than a boar, and is swift and active beyond conception. The
Wild Boar is scarcely recognisable as the very near relation of the
domestic species. It runs with such speed, that a high-bred horse
finds some difficulty in overtaking it, while an indifferent steed
would be left hopelessly behind. Even on level ground the hunter
has hard work to overtake it; and if it can get upon broken or
hilly ground, no horse can catch it. The Wild Boar can leap to a
considerable distance, and can wheel and turn when at full speed,
with an agility that makes it a singularly dangerous foe. Indeed,
the inhabitants of countries where the Wild Boar flourishes would
as soon face a lion as one of these animals, the stroke of whose
razor-like tusks is made with lightning swiftness, and which is
sufficient to rip up a horse, and cut a dog nearly asunder.