_Figure of Speech._
In the section immediately foregoing, a figure of speech is defined,
“The employing a word in a sense different from what is proper to it;”
and the new or uncommon sense of the word is termed _the figurative
sense_. The figurative sense must have a relation to that which is
proper; and the more intimate the relation is, the figure is the more
happy. How ornamental this figure is to language, will not be readily
imagined by any one who hath not given peculiar attention. I shall
endeavour to display its capital beauties and advantages. In the first
place, a word used figuratively, together with its new sense, suggests
what it commonly bears: and thus it has the effect to present two
objects; one signified by the figurative sense, which may be termed _the
principal object_; and one signified by the proper sense, which may be
termed _accessory_. The principal makes a part of the thought; the
accessory is merely ornamental. In this respect, a figure of speech is
precisely similar to concordant sounds in music, which, without
contributing to the melody, make it harmonious. I explain myself by
examples. _Youth_, by a figure of speech, is termed _the morning of
life_. This expression signifies _youth_, the principal object, which
enters into the thought: but it suggests, at the same time, the proper
sense of _morning_; and this accessory object being in itself beautiful
and connected by resemblance to the principal object, is not a little
ornamental. I give another example, of a different kind, where an
attribute is expressed figuratively, _Imperious ocean_. Together with
the figurative meaning of the epithet _imperious_, there is suggested
its proper meaning, _viz._ the stern authority of a despotic prince.
Upon this figurative power of words, Vida descants with great elegance:
Nonne vides, verbis ut veris sæpe relictis
Accersant simulata, aliundeque nomina porro
Transportent, aptentque aliis ea rebus; ut ipsæ,
Exuviasque novas, res, insolitosque colores
Indutæ, sæpe externi mirentur amictus
Unde illi, lætæque aliena luce fruantur,
Mutatoque habitu, nec jam sua nomina mallent?
Sæpe ideo, cum bella canunt, incendia credas
Cernere, diluviumque ingens surgentibus undis.
Contrà etiam Martis pugnas imitabitur ignis,
Cum surit accensis acies Vulcania campis.
Nec turbato oritur quondam minor æquore pugna:
Confligunt animosi Euri certamine vasto
Inter se, pugnantque adversis molibus undæ.
Usque adeo passim sua res insignia lætæ
Permutantque, juvantque vicissim; & mutua sese
Altera in alterius transformat protinus ora.
Tum specie capti gaudent spectare legentes:
Nam diversa simul datur è re cernere eadem
Multarum simulacra animo subeuntia rerum.
_Poet. lib. 3. l. 44._
In the next place, this figure possesses a signal power of aggrandising
an object, by the following means. Words, which have no original beauty
but what arises from their sound, acquire an adventitious beauty from
their meaning. A word signifying any thing that is agreeable, becomes by
that means agreeable; for the agreeableness of the object is
communicated to its name[29]. This acquired beauty, by the force of
custom, adheres to the word even when used figuratively; and the beauty
received from the thing it properly signifies, is communicated to the
thing which it is made to signify figuratively. Consider the foregoing
expression _Imperious ocean_, how much more elevated it is than _Stormy
ocean_.
Thirdly, this figure hath a happy effect in preventing the familiarity
of proper names. The familiarity of a proper name, is communicated to
the thing it signifies by means of their intimate connection; and the
thing is thereby brought down in our feeling[30]. This bad effect is
prevented by using a figurative word instead of one that is proper; as,
for example, when we express the sky by terming it _the blue vault of
heaven_. For though no work made with hands can compare with the sky in
magnificence, the expression however is good, by preventing the object
from being brought down by the familiarity of its proper name. With
respect to the degrading familiarity of proper names, Vida has the
following passage.
Hinc si dura mihi passus dicendus Ulysses,
Non illum vero memorabo nomine, sed qui
Et mores hominum multorum vidit, & urbes,
Naufragus eversæ post sæva incendia Trojæ.
_Poet. lib. 2. l. 46._
Lastly, by this figure language is enriched and rendered more copious.
In that respect, were there no other, a figure of speech is a happy
invention. This property is finely touched by Vida:
Quinetiam agricolas ea fandi nota voluptas
Exercet, dum læta seges, dum trudere gemmas
Incipiunt vites, sitientiaque ætheris imbrem
Prata bibunt, ridentque satis surgentibus agri.
Hanc vulgo speciem propriæ penuria vocis
Intulit, indictisque urgens in rebus egestas.
Quippe ubi se vera ostendebant nomina nusquam,
Fas erat hinc atque hinc transferre simillima veris.
_Poet. lib. 3. l. 90._
The beauties I have mentioned belong to every figure of speech. Several
other beauties peculiar to one or other sort, I shall have occasion to
remark afterward.
* * * * *
Not only subjects, but qualities, actions, effects, may be expressed
figuratively. Thus as to subjects, _the gates of breath_ for the lips,
_the watery kingdom_ for the ocean. As to qualities, _fierce_ for
stormy, in the expression _Fierce winter_: _altus_ for profundus, _altus
puteus, altum mare_: _Breathing_ for perspiring, _Breathing plants_.
Again, as to actions, the sea _rages_: Time will _melt_ her frozen
thoughts: Time _kills_ grief. An effect is put for the cause, as _lux_
for the sun; and a cause for the effect, as _boum labores_ for corn. The
relation of resemblance is one plentiful source of figures of speech;
and nothing is more common than to apply to one object the name of
another that resembles it in any respect. Height, size, and worldly
greatness, though in themselves they have no resemblance, produce
emotions in the mind that have a resemblance; and, led by this
resemblance, we naturally express worldly greatness by height or size.
One feels a certain uneasiness in looking down to a great depth: and
hence depth is made to express any thing disagreeable by excess; as
_depth_ of grief, _depth_ of despair. Again, height of place and time
long past, produce similar feelings; and hence the expression, _Ut
altius repetam_. Distance in past time, producing a strong feeling, is
put for any strong feeling: _Nihil mihi antiquius nostra amicitia._
Shortness with relation to space, for shortness with relation to time:
_Brevis esse laboro; obscurus fio_. Suffering a punishment resembles
paying a debt: hence _pendere pœnas_. Upon the same account, light may
be put for glory, sun-shine for prosperity, and weight for importance.
Many words, originally figurative, having, by long and constant use,
lost their figurative power, are degraded to the inferior rank of proper
terms. Thus the words that express the operations of the mind, have in
all languages been originally figurative. The reason holds in all, that
when these operations came first under consideration, there was no other
way of describing them but by what they resembled. It was not
practicable to give them proper names, as may be done to objects that
can be ascertained by sight and touch. A _soft_ nature, _jarring_
tempers, _weight_ of wo, _pompous_ phrase, _beget_ compassion, _assuage_
grief, _break_ a vow, _bend_ the eye downward, _shower_ down curses,
_drown’d_ in tears, _wrapt_ in joy, _warm’d_ with eloquence, _loaden_
with spoils, and a thousand other expressions of the like nature, have
lost their figurative sense. Some terms there are, that cannot be said
to be either purely figurative or altogether proper: originally
figurative, they are tending to simplicity, without having lost
altogether their figurative power. Virgil’s _Regina saucia cura_, is
perhaps one of these expressions. With ordinary readers, _saucia_ will
be considered as expressing simply the effect of grief; but one of a
lively imagination will exalt the phrase into a figure.
To epitomise this subject, and at the same time to give a clear view of
it, I cannot think of a better method, than to present to the reader a
list of the several relations upon which figures of speech are commonly
founded. This list I divide into two tables; one of subjects expressed
figuratively, and one of attributes.