MODERN VENEZUELA
Boundaries—Frontier with Brazil—Colombia—British
Guiana—Internal subdivision—States and territories with their
capitals—Density of population—Constitution—Departments
of the executive—_Jefes Civiles_—Legislature—Senators
and deputies—Administration of Justice—Laws relating
to foreigners—Marriage—Public health—Philanthropic
institutions—Education—Coinage—Multiplicity
of terms—Towns—Typical
houses—Furniture—Hospitality—Food—Clothing—Army and
Navy—Insignia—_Busto de Bolivar_—The Press.
The United States of Venezuela, as constituted to-day, are bounded on the
north by the Caribbean Sea, on the south by the United States of Brazil,
on the east by the Gulf of Paria, the Atlantic Ocean, and British Guiana,
on the west by the republic of Colombia.
The boundary between Brazil and Venezuela was determined by a Joint
Commission in 1880 as follows: From Mount Roraima, south and west
along the watershed of the Sierra Pacaraima, to Cerro Mashiati, thence
southwards along the Sierra Parima, and the Sierras de Curupira, Tapira
Peco, and Imeri to the bifurcation of the Rivers Baria and Cauapury on
the Rio Negro.
The Colombia-Venezuelan frontier was submitted to arbitration in 1891,
and the King of Spain made the award thus: From Los Mogotes or Los
Frailes islands to the highest point of the Oca Mountain separating the
Valley of Upar, the province of Mairacaibo, and Rio del Hacha, thence
along the watershed of the sierras of Perija and Motilones to the source
of the Rio de Oro. Thence across the Rivers Catatumbo, Sardinata, and
Tarra to the mouth of the La Grita on the Rio Zulia; from that point
along the previously recognised line to the junction of the Quebrada
de Don Pedro with the Táchira, and up that river to its source. Thence
across the range and Páramo of Tama to the River Oira; down this to its
junction with the Sarare, and along the latter, through the Laguna de
Desparramadero, to the junction with the Arauca, down that river to a
point equidistant from Arauca and the meridian of the junction of the
Masparro and Apure. Thence in a straight line to Antiguo Apostadero, and
down the Meta to the Orinoco. Then down the mid-stream of the Orinoco,
reserving a right of way for Venezuelans on the left bank between Atures
and the Maipures rapids to the mouth of the Guaviare, up the latter to
the junction with the Atabapo; then up this to a point 36 kilometres west
of Pimichin, and so across to the Guainia (or Rio Negro), following this
down to Cocuhy.
The British Guiana boundary was submitted to arbitration in 1897, and
the Paris tribunal, in 1899, awarded as follows: From the coast at Punta
Playa in a straight line to the junction of the Barima and Mururuma;
thence along mid-stream of the latter to its source. From this point to
the junction of the Rio Haiowa and the Amacura, and along mid-stream of
the latter to its source in the Sierra Imataca. Then south-west along the
spur to the main range of the sierra opposite the source of the Barima;
then along the watershed south-east to the source of the Acarabisi and
down it to the Cuyuni, westward along this river to its junction with the
Wenamu (Venamo) and up the latter to its most westerly course. Thence in
a straight line to the summit of Mount Roraima.
The political divisions of the country established in 1856 were adopted,
with some slight changes, in the Constitution of November, 1909, when
General Gomez assumed the presidency. The divisions for which these were
substituted were less convenient for administrative purposes, but were
in general form the same—that is to say, States divided into districts,
a Federal District and Territories. There are now twenty States with
their own Legislatures, the Federal District of Carácas under the Central
Government, and two Territories. The population of these is given in
Appendix A.
The Federal District includes the country round Carácas, and the coastal
region between Naiguatá and Cabo Blanco, with the islands to the north.
The States are distributed as follows:—
Zulia (capital, Maracaibo), includes all the lake region; Táchira
(capital, San Cristobal), Mérida, and Trujillo are the Andine States;
Lara (capital, Barquisimeto), Falcón (Coro), and Yaracuy (San Felipe)
include the Segovia highlands and the coastal regions in front; Carabobo
(Valencia), Aragua (La Victoria), Miranda (Ocumare), and Sucre (Cumaná)
are in the Caribbean hills; Nueva Esparta includes Margarita and the
other islands immediately to the north and east (capital, Asunción);
Monágas (Maturín), Anzoátegui (Barcelona), Guárico (Calabozo), Cojedes
(San Carlos), Portuguesa (Guanare), Zamora (Barinas), and Apure (San
Fernando) are wholly or mainly Llano States; and nearly half the
territory south of the Orinoco is comprised within the State of Bolivar
and governed from the city of the same name. The Delta-Amacuro Territory
includes the delta proper and the similar region to the south of it;
its capital is Tucupita, on the Caño Macareo: the Amazonas Territory,
with its capital on the Orinoco at San Fernando de Atabapo, includes
the Upper Orinoco basin and the adjacent districts, an enormous, almost
unknown area.
[Illustration: THE FEDERAL PALACE: CARÁCAS.]
The density of the population in the country as a whole (according to
the _Anuario Estadístico_, 1910, census of 1891) is 2·27 per square
kilometre, or 5·88 to the square mile. Some idea of the meaning of these
figures may be gathered from a comparison of the population of Monágas,
where there are 6·68 inhabitants to the square mile, over an area almost
equal to that of Belgium, with that of the latter country, Monágas having
74,500 inhabitants and Belgium nearly 7,500,000. The Federal district
stands highest, with 151·94 to the square mile; and, making due allowance
for the greater density of the population in the higher lands, the
figures decrease in proportion to the distance from this centre. Thus
the coast States adjoining the Federal districts, with the island of
Margarita, are the most thickly populated, the Segovia highlands, Andine
States, and region of Paria next, with the northern lowlands and the
Llanos, having a density of population approximately equal to that of the
whole country, while the Guayana region and the Delta territory range as
low as 0·41 to the square mile. It should be remembered, however, that no
exact figures are available for the nomadic tribes who people the remoter
districts of Venezuela.
The Constitution of the Republic is modelled upon that of the
United States of America; the President, elected by a college of
fourteen members of Congress for a term of four years, is the head
of the nation; under him are the three great departments of the
administration—executive, legislative, and judicial, these being again
regarded as National, Federal, and Municipal, according to their powers.
Each State of the Union has its own Legislature and President, who is
a Federal officer, while the territories are governed directly by the
national Executive.
The national Executive exercises its functions through the following
departments: Ministry of the Interior, for Home Affairs; Ministry of
Hacienda (Finance); Ministry of War and Marine; Ministry of Fomento
(National Development, Agriculture, Commerce, and Industry); Public
Works Department; Ministry of Education; the special province of each
being sufficiently indicated by the name. There is also a Government
Council of ten members appointed to advise the President, who has his
State Secretary and Chaplain; the presiding officer of this Council takes
charge during the absence, or in case of the death, of the President. The
executives of the State Governments are similarly constituted, but here
both President and Government Councillors are Federal officers, while
the District _Jefaturas Civiles_ are also supported at Federal charges.
It should be explained that there are _Jefes Civiles_ (Commissioners of
Police and Chief Magistrates) for each district, while under these as
municipal officers are the _Jefes Civiles_ of rural districts and towns
(_municipios_).
The legislative power is vested in the National and State Legislatures
and the Municipal Councils. The Congress of the United States of
Venezuela consists of two Chambers—one of Senators and the other of
Deputies. The Deputies (1 to 35,000 of the population, or portion of
this number greater than half) are elected by the citizens of each State
and serve a term of four years; they must be Venezuelan by birth and
over twenty-one years of age. Two Senators are elected by each State
Legislative Assembly, and they also remain in office for four years;
the Constitution requires all to be Venezuelan by birth and over thirty
years of age. In case of dispute a joint session is provided for, and
Bills finally sanctioned by both Chambers become law, and are thereupon
communicated to the President as head of the Executive for publication
in the _Gaceta Oficial_ and administration by his officers.
Justice is administered by the _Corte Federal y de Casacion_,
whose members are appointed by Congress, and by lower courts and
tribunals throughout the country; the territorial judges are national
functionaries, but judicial powers in the State are wielded by Federal
officers, while the municipal courts are the same throughout the country.
The law prohibits foreigners from taking any part in politics, but
in other matters they have equal rights with Venezuelans, as regards
personal liberty, free correspondence, safety of life and limb, &c. There
are three principal general codes—civil, criminal, and commercial, the
last named including special regulations for foreign companies. A new
revised mining code was sanctioned on June 29, 1910.
The laws make marriage a civil contract with or without a religious
ceremony, but in the country districts the people seem to prefer no
ceremony at all to one not conducted by a priest; and as the latter are
few and their fees often exorbitant, it results that more than two-thirds
of the births in any year are (most unjustly) recorded as illegitimate.
While sanitation and hygiene have not as yet received sufficient
attention to reduce the death rate in what appears to be a naturally
healthy country to its possible level (see p. 36), a large number of
officials are employed in the departments of public health, and the
authorities are now in possession of data which have made them thoroughly
alive to the needs of the country in this particular. Arrangements
have already been made with a British firm for an up-to-date system
of sanitation of the capital. There were, in 1908, 52 philanthropic
institutions in the republic under Government control, consisting of the
following: 27 hospitals, 2 leper asylums, 2 lunatic asylums, 9 homes for
blind and aged persons, and 12 orphanages. The number of inmates at the
close of that year was 3,244, but, as might be expected, the remoter
regions of the country are absolutely unprovided for, and many parts of
the central and western regions are as yet without establishments for
public assistance.
In a similar manner provision is made, more or less adequately, for
education in the central area, and, in fact, throughout the old province
of Venezuela; but outside this the number of establishments decreases to
nil in the Amazonas territory, while in the 40,000 square miles of the
Delta there are only 2 municipal schools. There are in the republic 1,404
elementary schools with 48,869 pupils, 102 institutions for secondary
education with 2,189 pupils; and for higher and technical education
there are 31 institutions with 2,441 students, including 2 Universities
(Carácas and Mérida), 1 school of engineering, 6 seminaries of philosophy
and divinity, 8 schools of fine arts, and 14 of arts and crafts. Of all
these establishments rather less than nine-tenths are supported by public
money, though more than half of the secondary schools are private. The
proportion of males to females is in general about as 10 is to 8; but
there is no provision for women in the Universities, and save for the
schools of fine arts the proportion of females to males in the higher
departments is below the average for all classes of instruction.
The currency of Venezuela is established upon a gold standard, with the
result that there is none of the depreciated coinage which constitutes
one of the curses of the neighbouring State of Colombia. The monetary
unit is the _bolivar_, equivalent to the French franc, the London rate
of exchange being generally 25.25; this is divided into 100 centimos,
and the system is therefore in theory extremely simple; since, however,
there is in practice a multiplicity of terms and coins, it is a matter
of time for the visiting foreigner to become sufficiently familiar with
both to carry on business with promptitude and confidence. The coins
issued by the Government of Venezuela are of gold, silver, and nickel, in
the following values: gold, 100 bolivars, 25 bolivars, and 20 bolivars;
silver, 5, 2½, and 2 bolivars, 1, ½, ¼, and ⅕ bolivar, the limit of legal
payments in silver being restricted to sums under 50 bolivars; nickel,
12½ centimos and 5 centimos, with which sums may be paid not exceeding
20 bolivars. The three principal banks, _i.e._, the Banco de Venezuela,
Banco Carácas, and Banco de Maracaibo, have the right at present to issue
notes, but these, though current at par in the region where the banks
are situated, are often refused in more remote districts. The following
gold coins are also current in practice; American gold pieces of 20,
10, and 5 dollars, the dollar being reckoned as 5 bolivars; old Spanish
onzas; and those issued by different Latin-American States both before
and after secession from Spain, at the nominal value of 80 bolivars, but
in both cases there is a premium on gold coin which renders the 20-dollar
piece worth 104 bolivars and the onza 82 bolivars. Finally, the English
sovereign is readily accepted in Carácas, the premium varying from 4 to
10 per cent. according to circumstances.
As an outcome of this condition of affairs the ordinary traveller in
Venezuela has, for the purpose of petty commerce, to be acquainted
with three methods of reckoning. In La Guaira and Carácas and other
towns affected by commerce with the United States and the West Indies
dollars and centavos represent respectively 5 bolivars and 5 centimos,
and English-speaking Venezuelans always use American monetary terms; in
the towns, however, the bolivar is often voluntarily used as the unit
in speaking, and will always be so used on request. In the country the
old Spanish nomenclature is everywhere employed, having the _real_ as
the unit, equivalent to 25 centimos, with its subdivisions the _medio_
(12½ centimos) and the _cuartillo_ (6¼ centimos). In Maracaibo and the
Andine States, for large sums, the _onza_ is employed as a unit, or more
commonly the _morrocota_ (20-dollar gold piece). Finally, in commerce
on a large scale and for all accounts, pesos and centavos are employed,
representing respectively 4 bolivars and 4 centimos; there are no coins
corresponding to these sums, and in writing the dollar sign is used, a
practice bound to lead to some confusion when the sign is occasionally
used in the correct way. Thus, a tradesman will present a bill for
$12.50—_i.e._, 12½ pesos or 50 bolivars, the proper market price for the
article supplied, and will receive from a new-comer (who may think the
figure dear, but remembers that he is buying goods imported under a heavy
tariff) the sum of $12½, which gives an unscrupulous seller an extra
profit of 12.50 bolivars. Throughout the country, however, people know
the Venezuelan terms, and can be asked to explain any account, verbal or
otherwise, in bolivars or centimos.
The metric system is in general use throughout the civilised parts of the
country.
As in all Spanish and most American cities, the towns of Venezuela are
regularly laid out, with a _plaza_ or square as centre, from which roads
diverge towards the four cardinal points. Round the plaza are generally
the Government offices, the church, and other principal buildings or
private houses; the ground within the square is either occupied by
gardens or trees or (in the smaller towns and villages) is grass-covered.
Away from the centre the streets show little sign of arrangement in the
buildings, old Spanish houses of imposing design standing out here and
there, conspicuous among the smaller, more modern edifices.
The doors of the houses open directly on to the pavement, if there is
one, and a wall with a few windows, and sometimes none, is all that
meets the eye of the passer-by. Inside, however, in all the older and
better-built modern residences the short passage opens into a patio,
generally full of palms, trees, and flowers, and having a fountain in the
centre. Round the patio there is a covered veranda with doors opening
into living-rooms and bedrooms on the different sides. From beautiful
and elegant courts like this there is every grade to the bare yard, with
perhaps only one or two banana-plants. At the back are the kitchens, and
in general a second patio, without trees or shrubs, and having stalls for
the horses or mules on one side; there are generally several pigs and
numerous chickens running about here.
In the country places the furniture of the houses is very simple: a few
chairs, some or all of which may be home-made and of hide stretched over
wooden frames of all shapes, tables, and one or two stands for glasses,
&c., complete the inventory for the ordinary rooms; pictures are rare
and not infrequently are limited to lithograph calendars and coloured
advertisements received from the more advanced business houses.
The stranger is not as a rule invited to join the family circle, but if
he is admitted, on account of introductions from mutual friends, he will
find the traditions of Spanish hospitality carried out to the full, and
all that the house affords is at his disposal. The elaborate lace edging
of the linen, particularly of the pillow-cases, is another characteristic
shared in common with other Spanish peoples.
Maize forms the staple grain of the country, though in the east
especially cassava is an equally important foodstuff, and sometimes
entirely replaces corn, for a large proportion of the people. The maize
flour is generally made with water into cakes (_arepa_), rather like
curling-stones in shape, about 4 inches in diameter, which are lightly
baked and brought to the table warm: a variation of these, generally
considered somewhat of a luxury, are known as _bollas_, which are
sausage-shaped rolls of fine maize flour. In the Andes dark-coloured
bread (_pan de trigo_) of native wheat flour is generally eaten, and in
every large town white bread made from imported flour can be had. The
cassava root has its poisonous juices extracted in a long straw tube
which contracts in diameter as it is extended in length, thus providing
the necessary pressure; the dry material is ground to the consistency of
oatmeal, and made into large flat cakes, which, when baked, are often two
feet across and extremely hard. The broken cake as placed on the table
is often soaked in water to soften it. Cassava bread, like arepa, is of
more than one quality, according to the fineness to which the material is
ground.
In the coast regions _carne seca_ (dried beef) forms an important item in
general diet, while _carne de chivo_ (goat’s flesh) is a staple in Coro.
Fresh meat is of course the rule in the towns, and fowls are everywhere
abundant; the _sancoche de gallina_, a kind of rich stew made of chicken
with herbs and oil, is very good if properly prepared. For other articles
of diet, yams and _frijoles_ (beans) are the commonest vegetables, with
potatoes in the Andes, while fruit preserves and similar sweets are found
everywhere. Last, but not least, the cheeses of the Llanos and foothills
(of which _queso de mano_ is perhaps the best) and the ubiquitous
_papelon_ (brown unrefined sugar) are an important item in the country
fare.
[Illustration: OVEN: LA RAYA.]
[Illustration: AN ANDINE POSADA: LA RAYA.]
A refreshing and sustaining drink known as guarapo also consists of
raw sugar and water, and this with the aguardiente, distilled from the
fermented syrup, and coffee are to be seen everywhere. Cacao is less
common, but is naturally largely drunk in the neighbourhood of the
plantations. A light beer is made at the Carácas and Maracaibo breweries,
and there is a multitude of sweet non-alcoholic drinks manufactured from
fruits.
The meals are in general as follows: _Café_, coffee, with or without
solid food, on first rising; _almuerzo_, like the _déjeuner_ of Europe,
at midday; and _comida_ or dinner, at sunset. As far as order and number
of meals are concerned, Carácas is like the rest of the country, but
the remarks above made relative to food apply in the main only to the
provinces.
As for food, so for clothing, Carácas and the large towns need no special
mention, since the imported weaving material here is mainly European or
American. The country towns, however, frequently depend, not only for
workmanship but also for materials, on the products of the country. The
poorer people wear simple white or blue garments, with broad-brimmed
straw hats, and generally go barefoot or wear leather sandals
(_alpargatas_). Everywhere, however, both men and women turn out on feast
days in their finest and gaudiest apparel.
A country protected as regards great world powers by the Monroe Doctrine
and their own international jealousy, and surrounded by States where
the density of population is even less than in its own underpeopled
lands, has naturally no need of great and expensive establishments for
national defence, and the army and navy are merely of a size sufficient
for the settlement of possible petty disputes with neighbours. The land
force consists of 5,632 officers and men, and the navy employs only
457 combatants. These figures represent men under national control
only, though there are also a small number of militiamen and Federal
Guards distributed through the States, paid by the Ministry of War and
Marine. This department controls also the pilots and lighthouses round
the coast, and is responsible for the execution of the surveys for the
military maps of Venezuela. The total expenditure in all branches for
1908-9 was Bs. 9,113,534.86, or about £361,000.
The insignia of the republic, as adopted in 1836 and modified by decree
of July 29, 1863, consist of a flag and coat of arms. The flag is a
tricolour of yellow, blue, and red, in equal bands, one above the other
in the order mentioned, and having in the blue seven white stars,
representing the seven original provinces of Venezuela, grouped in a
circle of six round the seventh. The shield has three quarterings; the
right red with a sheaf of corn, as many ears being indicated as there
are States; the left yellow, with a group of arms and flags, crowned
with a laurel as a token of triumph; the third, occupying the whole of
the bottom part of the shield, is blue, and bears a white horse rampant,
symbolising independence and liberty. Above the shield there are two
horns of plenty, and below an olive-branch and a palm-leaf, tied with
blue and yellow ribbons, which are inscribed _Dios y Federación_ in the
centre, _5 de julio de 1811_ and _Independencia_ on the left; and the
date of the Constitution of the United States of Venezuela (_13 de Abril
1864_) and _Libertad_ on the right.
There is one decoration in Venezuela, given to prominent men in the
country and, in its lower classes, to foreigners whom the nation delights
to honour. This is the _Busto de Bolivar_, the medal showing the head of
the liberator and the ribbon the national colours.
There are in all 237 periodicals published in the country, including,
besides the official gazettes of the capitals, one or more of general
interest in every State, and a considerable number devoted to scientific,
literary, masonic, and other special subjects. The State of Lara had
in 1908, according to the Venezuelan Year-Book, the largest number of
periodical publications in the Union.