THE SOUTH AMERICAN SERIES
VENEZUELA
[Illustration: CATHEDRAL: CARÁCAS.]
VENEZUELA
BY
LEONARD V. DALTON, B.SC. (LOND.)
FELLOW OF THE GEOLOGICAL AND ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL
SOCIETIES, ETC.
WITH A MAP AND 34 ILLUSTRATIONS
T. FISHER UNWIN
LONDON:
ADELPHI TERRACE
LEIPSIC:
INSELSTRASSE 20
1912
(_All rights reserved._)
TO
D. R. R.
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
The author is desirous of expressing his appreciation of the continued
courtesy and kindness rendered during his stay in Venezuela by the
British Chargé d’Affaires, Mr. W. E. O’Reilly, by Mr. E. A. Wallis, and
other British residents, as well as the warm reception accorded by the
Venezuelan officials throughout the parts of the country he visited.
Mr. F. A. Holiday, A.R.C.S., F.G.S., has made himself responsible for
much of the information on the Llanos, and has assisted largely in the
preparation of the tables in Appendix B. Mr. J. D. Berrington, of El
Callao, also furnished details relating to the Guayana goldfields and
their surroundings.
The author is greatly indebted to Mr. N. G. Burch, F.R.G.S., for reading
the manuscript and for many valuable suggestions and criticisms. He would
also thank Mr. G. T. Wayman, of Carácas, for many useful documents and
items of interest regarding recent developments.
CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTORY NOTE 9
CHAPTER I
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF VENEZUELA 25
Situation—Area—Population—Main physical divisions—The
Guayana Highlands—Mountains, rivers, and forests The
Llanos—_Selvas_—_Mesas_—Rivers and _cienagas_—The
Delta—_Caños_—The Caribbean Hills—Serrania Costanera—Serrania
Interior—Rivers—Segovia Highlands—Drainage—Vegetation—The
Andes—Portuguesa Chain—Cordillera of Mérida—The Sierra
Nevada—Mountain torrents—Vegetation—_Páramos_—The
coastal plain—Lake of Maracaibo—Coro and Paraguana
lowlands—Climate—“White-water” and “black-water”
rivers—Seasons—_Tierra caliente_, _templada_, and
_fria_—Temperature and seasons—“St. John’s little
summer”—Health.
CHAPTER II
THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF VENEZUELA 38
Ancient land of Guayana—Comparison with Scottish
Highlands—Gneisses, schists, and granite—Dykes—Roraima
Series—Strange peaks—The Caribbean Series—“All that
glitters is not gold”—La Galera—Segovia Group—Natural
castles—Capacho Limestone—The “Golden Hill”—Cerro
de Oro Series—Formation of mountains—Early outlet
of Orinoco—Cumaná Series—Shoals and islands—Llano
gravels—Cubagua Beds—Igneous rocks—Earthquakes—Hot springs—A
natural kettle—Coal—Iron—Gold—Copper—Lead—Petroleum and
asphalt—Sulphur—Salt—_Urao_—Ornamental stones—Wealth in
minerals.
CHAPTER III
THE PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF VENEZUELA 47
The glamour of the South American forests—Hidden
treasures—Temples of Nature—“A dim religious
light”—_Bejucales_—Forest giants—Brazil
nuts—Tonka-beans—Rubber—Quinine—Arctic and tropic
forms—The Llanos—_Tierra caliente_—Natural
hothouses—Colour and coolness _Páramo_
plants—Monkeys—An old friend—Cannibalism—Vampires
and bats—“Tigers” and “lions”—“Handsome is as
handsome doesn’t”—Wild horses—Dolphins—Prickly
mice—The “water-hog”—Sloths—Birds—Many-coloured
varieties—Umbrella-bird—“Cock-of-the-rock”—Toucans—
Cuckoos—Humming-birds—“Who are you?”—Oil-birds—Parrots
and macaws—Eagles and vultures—A national
disgrace—Game-birds—Snakes—Lizards—From the Orinoco
to a city dinner—A cup-tie crowd—Ferocious fish—When is
a mosquito not a mosquito?—Agricultural ants—Gigantic
spiders—Ticks—A pugnacious crustacean—A rich field.
CHAPTER IV
VENEZUELA UNDER SPANISH RULE AND BEFORE 61
Pre-Columbian times—No great empire—Primitive
Venezuelans—Picture rocks—Invasions—The Guatavitas and
the legend of El Dorado—Amalivaca—An Inca prince?—Ancient
roads—The discovery of Tierra firme, 1498—Alonso de Ojeda—The
name “Venezuela”—A great geographical fraud—Discovery of the
treasures of the west—Arrival of the _conquistadores_—The
slave trade—Treacheries of the Cubagua colonists—Gonzalez de
Ocampo—Las Casas—First cities of the New World—Settlement
of Coro—The Welsers—Alfinger—Ingratitude of Charles
V.—New Andalusia—Exploration of the Orinoco—Cruelties
of Alfinger—Exploration of the Llanos—First Bishop of
Venezuela—Destruction of New Cadiz—Faxardo and the
Carácas—Cities of Western Venezuela—The rebellion
of Aguirre—Foundation of Carácas—Pimentel moves his
capital to the new city—Capture of Carácas by English
buccaneers—Inaccuracies of Spanish historians—Explorations of
Berrio in Guayana—Raleigh and El Dorado—Attempts to civilise
the Indians—Missions—University of Carácas—Guipuzcoana
Company—Revolution of Gual and España—Miranda—The last
Captain-General—The Junta—Appeals to England—The Declaration of
Independence.
CHAPTER V
THE REPUBLIC, 1811-1911 84
Local character of revolution—Declaration of a
Constitution—Centralised government—Troubles of the young
republic—The Church and the patriots—Miranda—Dictatorship
and downfall—Drastic measures of Monteverde—Youth and
parentage of Simon Bolivar—The _guerra a muerte_—Dictatorship
of Bolivar—Monteverde murders four prisoners—The
_Mestizos_—Massacre of Spaniards—Murmurings—Retirement of
Bolivar—Royalist victories and reinforcements—Morillo’s
barbarities—Return of Bolivar to Venezuela—Indecisive
campaign—Renewed discontent—Bolivar withdraws to Haiti,
but returns—Mariño’s insubordination—Massacre of
Barcelona—Campaign in the Llanos—Arrival of the British
Legion—Congress of Angostura—The march to Bogotá—The
republic of great Colombia—Change of allegiance of the
_Mestizos_—Armistice of Trujillo—Negotiations with
Spain—Recommencement of hostilities—Battle of Carabobo—End
of Spanish power in Venezuela—Position of Venezuela in
Colombia—Separatist movement—Death of Bolivar—Páez first
President of Venezuela—Vargas—Folly of Mariño—Progress
of the country—Public honours to Bolivar—Recognition of
republic by France and Spain—Commerce and prosperity
of the country—Tyranny of Tadeo Monágas—Abolition of
slavery—Revolution of Julian Castro—Capital temporarily removed
to Valencia—Federalists and Centralists—Falcón—_Convenio de
Coche_—Federal Constitution—Guzman Blanco—Development under
his government—Revolution of Crespo—British Guiana boundary
dispute—Cipriano Castro—The Matos revolution—_Coup d’état_ of
General Gomez—Centenary celebrations—Present prospects.
CHAPTER VI
MODERN VENEZUELA 106
Boundaries—Frontier with Brazil—Colombia—British
Guiana—Internal subdivision—States and territories with
their capitals—Density of population—Constitution—Departments
of the Executive—_Jefes Civiles_—Legislature—Senators
and deputies—Administration of justice—Laws relating
to foreigners—Marriage—Public health—Philanthropic
institutions—Education—Coinage—Multiplicity of
terms—Towns—Typical houses—Furniture—Hospitality—Food—
Clothing—Army and navy—Insignia—_Busto de Bolivar_—The Press.
CHAPTER VII
THE ABORIGINES 119
The Goajiros—Lake dwellings—Appearance—Territory—Villages—
Government—Burial customs—Religion—Medicine-men—The
Caribs—A fine race—Cannibalism—Headless men of the
Caura—The Amazons—Industries—Religion—Marriage customs—The
aborigines of Guayana—Tavera-Acosta on languages—The
Warraus—Appearance—Houses—Food—Clothing—Marriage
customs—Birth—Death—Religion—Treatment of sick—The
Banibas—Appearance—Customs—Religion—Celebration of puberty of
girls—Marriage customs—The Arawaks—Religion—Early missions
amongst Indians—Wanted, a twentieth-century apostle.
CHAPTER VIII
THE STATES OF THE “CENTRO”: DISTRITO FEDERAL, MIRANDA, ARAGUA,
AND CARABOBO 135
La Guaira—Heat—Port-works—The Brighton of Venezuela—Sugar
plantations—Streets and _botiquins_—_Guarapo_—La
Guaira-Carácas Railway—A great engineering
feat—Carácas—Climate—Population—Streets—Buildings—The
Salón Elíptico—El Calvario—El Paraiso—“La India”—Water
supply—Trams and telephones—Lighting—Industries—The Guaire
valley—Coffee—Miranda—Ocumare del Tuy—Petare—Central
Railway—Vegetable snow—Carenero Railway—Rio Chico—Los
Teques—Great Venezuelan Railway—La Victoria—Sixteen-fold
wheatfields—Maracay—Grazing lands—Cheese—President
Gomez’s country house—Villa de Cura—An epitome of the
State—Lake of Valencia—Cotton—Carabobo—Valencia—Cotton
mills—Montalbán—Deserted vineyards—Wild rubber—Puerto Cabello
Railway—The port—Meat syndicate—Club—Ocumare de la Costa—What
is bad for man may be good for cocoa—Mineral resources.
CHAPTER IX
ZULIA 149
The Lake of Coquibacoa in the sixteenth century
and now—Wealth and importance of the State—Area
and population—Waterways—Forests—Mineral
wealth—Savannahs—Maracaibo—Harbour and
dredging schemes—Cojoro—Wharves and warehouses
of Maracaibo—Exports—Population—German
colony—Buildings—Industries—Tramways—_Coches_—Lake
steamers—Ancient craft—The comedy of the
bar—Railways—Communication with Colombia—Altagracia—Santa
Rita—A western Gibraltar—An eventful history—San Carlos de
Zulia—Sinamaica—Vegetable milk—Timber—Copaiba—Fisheries—The
“Maracaibo Lights.”
CHAPTER X
THE ANDINE STATES: TÁCHIRA, MÉRIDA, AND TRUJILLO 157
Access—Roads versus railways—Mineral
wealth—“Maracaibo” coffee—Forests—San Cristobal—Water
supply—Industries—Roads—Rubio—Táchira Petroleum Company—San
Antonio—Lobatera—Colón—Interrupted communications—Pregonero—El
Cobre—Old mines—La Grita—Seboruco copper—Mérida—The
Bishop and the Bible—Eternal snows—Earthquakes—Electric
light—Road schemes—Gold and silver—Lagunillas—_Urao_—Wayside
hospitality—Puente Real—Primitive modes of transport—Las
Laderas—The Mucuties valley—Tovar—Mucuchíes—The highest town
in Venezuela—The _páramos_—Timotes—Trujillo—Valera—Water
supply—La Ceiba Railway—Betijoque and Escuque—Boconó—Santa
Ana—Carache—Unknown regions—Possibilities of the Andes.
CHAPTER XI
LARA, YARACUY, AND FALCÓN 171
The original Venezuela—Ancient
cities—Communications—Barquisimeto—Fortified
stores—Productions—The Bolivar Railway—Duaca—Aroa
copper-mines—A precarious house-site—In the mine—Bats and
cockroaches _El Purgatorio_—Blue and green stalactites—San
Felipe—The Yaracuy valley—Nirgua—Yaritagua—Tocuyo—The “coach”
to Barquisimeto—Quíbor—_Minas_—Carora—An ill-advised
scheme—Siquisique—Steamboats on the Tocuyo—San Luis—Coro—The
first cathedral of South America—Goat-farms—Fibre—La
Vela—Capatárida tobacco—Curaçao—A fragment of Holland—A mixed
language—Trade—Sanitation—The islands.
CHAPTER XII
IN THE “ORIENTE.” NUEVA ESPARTA, SUCRE, PART OF MONÁGAS, AND THE
DELTA TERRITORY 181
Restricted use of term “Oriente”—Margarita—Asunción—Porlamar
and Pampatar—Macanao—A primitive population—The
priests, the comet, and the people—Cubagua—Pearl
fisheries—Coche—Cumaná—Las Casas—A diving feat—Petroleum
and salt—Fruit—The Manzanares—Cumanacoa—In the hills—San
Antonio and its church—The Guacharo cave—Humboldt—Virgin
territory—Punceres—Oil-springs—The Bermudez asphalt
lake—Carúpano—_Ron blanco_—Sulphur and gold—Rio
Caribe—Peninsula of Paria—Cristobal Colón—An ambitious
project—The Delta—The _Golfo Triste_—Pedernales—Asphalt
and outlaws—In the _caños_—Tucupita—Barrancas—Imataca
iron-mines—Canadian capital for Venezuela—Guayana Vieja.
CHAPTER XIII
THE LLANOS. MONÁGAS, ANZOÁTEGUI, GUÁRICO, COJEDES, PORTUGUESA,
ZAMORA, AND APURE 193
The great plains—An ocean without water—“_Bancos_” and
_mesas_—Drought and flood—A living floor—Streams which flow
upwards—Heat—Cattle and horses—Imported butter—Methods
of milking—Civil wars—Future prospects—A mean annual
temperature of 90° F.—Barcelona—History—The massacre of the
Casa Fuerte—Survivors—Guanta—Coal of Naricual—Aragua de
Barcelona—Maturín—Low death rate—Caño Colorado—Bongos—Athletic
boatmen—_Casitas_—Travelling on the Llanos—An _hato_—Areo—An
ancient cotton press—The men of Urica—Churches and wayside
shrines—A gruesome monument—Calabozo—Barbacoas—Ortiz—Zaraza and
Camaguan—San Carlos—Barinas—Guanare—Past prosperity and future
prospects.
CHAPTER XIV
THE CITY AND STATE OF BOLIVAR 211
An enormous area—How to reach it—Ciudad Bolivar—Climate—San
Felix—Falls of the Caroni—Trade of San Felix—Quality
of “roads”—Upata—Guasipati—Balatá industry—Extravagant
exploitation—Former importance—The goldfields—El
Callao—The discovery—Callao Bis—Big dividends—The common
pursuit—Venamo valley High freights—Poor quality of
labour—Unsystematic working—Goldfields of Venezuela,
Ltd.—Savannahs—Stock-farming—Sugar—Old settlements—An ancient
bridge—Tumeremo and the balatá forests—Killing the goose
that lays the golden eggs—The Caroni—An opportunity for a
pioneer—Up the Orinoco—The “Gates of Hell”—The Caura—Rice
and tonka-beans—“_Lajas_”—Rubber of the Nichare—Falls of
Pará—André’s journeys—Mountains of the upper Caura—The
Waiomgomos—Reticence regarding names—Ticks—Caicara—The
Cuchivero—Savannahs and “_Sarrapiales_”—Sarsaparilla—Climate of
the Orinoco valley.
CHAPTER XV
THE AMAZONAS TERRITORY 223
Area—General character—San Fernando de Atabapo—The upper
Orinoco—Communication with outside world—Atures and Maipures
rapids—Humboldt’s description—The Compañía Anónima de
Navegacion Fluvial y Costanera—General Chalbaud—Railway
projects—The Piaroas—_Curare_—Savannahs—Rubber—Brazil-nuts—Wild
cocoa—Mineral wealth—Water power—Rubber prospectors—Method
of working—Esmeralda—The place of flies—Mt. Duida—Gold
possibilities—The Raudal de los Guaharibos—The limit of
exploration—The Ventuari—An old Spanish road—A midnight
massacre—Stock-raising lands—The Maquiritare—Trading with gold
dust—The Casiquiare bifurcation—Life of the natives—Eau de
Cologne in the wilds—The Guainia and Rio Negro—Maroa—Cucuhy—The
Atabapo—Lack of population—Education—Colonisation—General
prospects.
CHAPTER XVI
THE DEVELOPMENT OF VENEZUELA 235
Commerce—Early history—Pearls and gold—The Guipuzcoana
Company—The republic—Years of struggle—Separation from
Colombia—Guzman Blanco—British, American, and German
trade—Opportunities—Currency—Banking—Banco de Venezuela—Banco
Carácas—Banco de Maracaibo—National Debt—Natural
resources—Large returns on capital—Coal—Iron—Salt—Asphalt
and petroleum—Sulphur—Copper—Gold—The
Llanos—Stock-raising—Possibilities of the industry—The
Venezuelan Meat Products Syndicate—Agriculture—Coffee—Cocoa—
Sugar—Tobacco—Cotton—Rubber—Tonka-beans, balatá, sernambi and
copaiba—Fisheries—Pearls—Industries—Chocolate—Cotton-mills
—Tanning—Matches, glass, and paper—Cigarettes and beer—Arts and
sciences—Academy of History—Universities—Surveys.
CHAPTER XVII
COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSPORT 252
Lack of adequate means—Postal service—A small but
growing system—Methods of carriage—Unusual uses of
mailbags—Telegraphs—Telephones—Railways—Bolivar
Railway—Later lines—Tramways—Abundant
water-power—“Roads”—_Carreteras_—Bridle-paths—P.W.
D.—Waterways—Less than they seem—Importance—The
Orinoco—Ports—Shipping—Steamship lines.
CHAPTER XVIII
THE FUTURE OF VENEZUELA 261
A great opportunity—The Panama Canal—The
Llanos—Petroleum-fields—Liquid fuel—Position of
Venezuela—Guayana—Possibilities—Colonisation—Government—The
military-political class—The disgrace of labour—Better
conditions—Vargas—The “Matos” revolution—General
Gomez—Hopes to be realised—Honesty and
justice—Development—Roads—Railways—Education—Consular
service—Great Britain’s trade with Venezuela—A poor
third—British capital—The people’s responsibility—An
opportunity.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A 269
Population of States and districts under the Constitution of
1909 according to the census of 1891
APPENDIX B 274
Imports (by classes)—Imports (by countries)—Exports (by
products)—Imports (classes and countries)—Exports (by products
and ports)
APPENDIX C 281
Population, altitude, mean annual temperature and death rate of
principal Venezuelan cities—Heights of principal mountains
APPENDIX D 283
Government finance—Revenue—Expenditure
APPENDIX E 285
The National Debt of Venezuela—Internal debt—Foreign debt
BIBLIOGRAPHY 287
General Works—Geographical—Geological—Botanical and
Zoological—Historical—Ethnological—Carácas and the
“Centro”—Zulia—The Andes, Falcón, &c.—The “Oriente”—The
Llanos—Bolivar City and State—The Territorio
Amazonas—Resources, commercial development, communications, &c.
INDEX 314
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
CATHEDRAL: CARÁCAS _Frontispiece_
FACING PAGE
PENINSULA OF PARIA FROM TRINIDAD 28
IN THE DELTA 28
PANORAMA OF THE ANDES FROM NORTH OF CARACHE 36
IN THE UPPER TEMPERATE ZONE: THE CHAMA VALLEY 50
CLOUD DRIFTS IN THE ANDES 58
TORBES VALLEY AND THE COLOMBIAN HILLS 58
THE CHAMA VALLEY ABOVE MÉRIDA 68
MOUNTAIN STREAM NEAR CUMANACOA AND CUMANÁ 68
BARQUISIMETO 78
STATUE IN PLAZA BOLIVAR: CARÁCAS 88
THE UNIVERSITY: CARÁCAS 98
THE FEDERAL PALACE: CARÁCAS 108
OVEN: LA RAYA 116
AN ANDINE POSADA: LA RAYA 116
LA GUAIRA HARBOUR 128
PLAZA BOLIVAR: VALENCIA 138
MARACAIBO BAY 148
SAN TIMOTEO: LAKE OF MARACAIBO 148
A STREET IN LA GRITA 158
PUENTE REAL: GORGE OF THE CHAMA 158
THE SIERRA NEVADA AND CATHEDRAL OF MÉRIDA 168
WILLEMSTAD: CURAÇAO 178
THE HARBOUR: WILLEMSTAD 178
PUERTO CRISTOBAL COLÓN 188
RUINED CHURCH: BARCELONA 198
CASA FUERTE: BARCELONA 198
MESA OF ESNOJAQUE: TRUJILLO 208
MÉRIDA: LOOKING SOUTH FROM UNIVERSITY 208
CARRYING TILES ON OX-BACK: NEAR TOVAR 218
CROSSING THE TORBES IN FLOOD 228
THE “PITCH” LAKE: TRINIDAD 244
COUNTRY COACH: BARQUISIMETO 256
ON THE BOLIVAR RAILWAY 256
The frontispiece and the illustrations facing pages 78, 88, 98, 108, 128,
138 are taken from “Venezuela,” by N. Veloz-Goiticoa, by permission of
the Bureau of South American Republics, Washington, U.S.A.
VENEZUELA
CHAPTER I
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF VENEZUELA
Situation—Area—Population—Main physical divisions—The
Guayana Highlands—Mountains, rivers, and forests—The
Llanos—_Selvas_—_Mesas_—Rivers and _cienagas_—The
Delta—_Caños_—The Caribbean Hills—Serrania Costanera—Serrania
Interior—Rivers—Segovia Highlands—Drainage—Vegetation—The
Andes—Portuguese chain—Cordillera of Mérida—The Sierra
Nevada—Mountain torrents—Vegetation—_Páramos_—The
Coastal Plain—Lake of Maracaibo—Coro and Paraguana
Lowlands—Climate—“White-water” and “black-water”
rivers—Seasons—_Tierra caliente_, _templada_, and
_fria_—Temperature and seasons—“St. John’s little
summer”—Health.
If we take a map of South America on which the political boundaries
are clearly shown, Venezuela will be observed as a wedge of territory
immediately to the east of the most northerly point of the continent,
separating Colombia from our colony of British Guiana.
The United States of Venezuela, as this republic is officially called,
lie wholly within the tropical zone, between latitude 0° 45´ N. and
12° 26´ N. and longitude 59° 35´ W. and 73° 20´ W. (from Greenwich).
The area within these limits is some 1,020,400 square kilometres, or
394,000 square miles, according to the Statistical Year Book for 1908,
published in Carácas in 1910. The total population, according to the
same authority, is 2,664,241, these being the figures of the last census,
that of 1891.
Turning to our map once more, it will be seen that the wedge is not a
regular one, but suggests rather the lower half of a human head, with the
Lower Orinoco as the line of the jaw. The features are easily observed
to separate the territory of the republic into four main divisions: (1)
the Guayana Highlands, including all the region corresponding to the part
of the head below the jaw-line, _i.e._, south and east of the Orinoco;
(2) the great central area of plains or _Llanos_, bounded on the north
and west by (3) the north-eastern branch of the great Andine chain, and
in the north-west of the country (4) a smaller low-lying region round
the Lake of Maracaibo. Each of these divisions includes somewhat varying
types of land surface, but has its main features of uniform character.
As already defined, the Guayana Highlands include the whole of that
vast, more or less unexplored, tract of Venezuela lying on the right
bank of the Orinoco and round the head-waters of that river. The area
is primarily one huge elevated plateau about 1,000 feet or more above
the sea, and from this rise a few principal mountain ranges, with some
peaks over 8,000 feet high, while smaller hills and chains link up the
larger systems. The highest ground is found on the Brazilian frontier,
beginning at Mount Roraima (8,500 feet), where the three boundaries of
Venezuela, British Guiana, and Brazil meet, and extends thence in the
Sierras Pacaraima and Parima westward and southward to the head-waters of
the Orinoco. From Roraima the Orinoco-Cuyuni watershed extends northward
within Venezuela, along the Sierras Rincote and Usupamo and the Highlands
of Puedpa, to the Sierra Piacoa, and thence south-east along the Sierra
Imataca to the British limits again. The Sierra Maigualida forms the
watershed between the Caura and the Ventuari.
The whole area, which amounts to some 204,600 square miles, is well
watered by the upper Orinoco and the Ventuari, with the other great
tributaries, the Cuchivero, Caura, Aro, Caroni, and their affluents.
Large as these rivers are, they are so broken by rapids that travel along
them is only possible for much of their length in small portable craft,
and even then the passage is fraught with danger. Save for the districts
in the immediate neighbourhood of the Orinoco, and scattered areas
elsewhere, the whole region is thickly covered with forests of valuable
timber, containing rubber, tonka-beans, brazil-nuts, copaiba, and all the
varied natural produce of the South American tropics.
The great plains or Llanos of the Orinoco extend from the banks of
the Meta in a broad arc parallel to the course of the Orinoco along
its left bank. Westward they are bounded by the Cordillera of Mérida,
and northward by the Cordillera of Carácas and the hills of Sucre,
but between these ranges, at Barcelona, they virtually reach the sea
for a short distance. To the east they merge into the low-lying tract
of the Orinoco Delta. The total area of the Llanos proper is in the
neighbourhood of 108,300 square miles, so that we have in these two
thinly populated tracts about 80 per cent. of the territory of the
republic.
Vast areas of the Llanos remain, for all practical purposes, still
unexplored, and their general character can only be inferred from that of
the regions bordering on the “roads.” The typical areas are wide grass
plains, often stretching to the horizon on all sides without a break,
but generally interrupted by little groups of palms and small trees,
especially near the banks of the rivers. At some four or five points
near the northern edge there are great forests or _selvas_, relics
possibly of an earlier, more extensive woodland.
The elevation of the Llanos ranges up to 650 feet, and more than this in
the _mesas_ of the central region, these being gravel-capped plateaux,
of varying extent, beginning in the west with the Mesa de Santa Clara,
northward of Caicara, and extending thence in a continuous series
eastward and northward to form the watershed between the Orinoco and
the Unare-Aragua basin, which drains into the Caribbean Sea west of
Barcelona. The lowest part of the Llanos is situated westward of this
chain of tablelands, in the valley of the Portuguesa, the lower part of
which has large tracts less than 300 feet above sea-level. East of the
Mesa de Guanipa the ground falls comparatively rapidly to the Delta.
[Illustration: PENINSULA OF PARIA FROM TRINIDAD.]
[Illustration: IN THE DELTA.]
While severe drought is experienced over much of the Llano region in
summer, the heavy rains, particularly in the western districts, produce
floods over the low-lying plains, the mesas being dry at all times. The
whole area is traversed by numerous streams and rivers, which rise either
on the southern slopes of the Cordillera or in the mesas. North of the
Meta, in addition to the large number of smaller streams which here and
there broaden out into marshy lakes or _cienagas_, we have the navigable
rivers Arauca (the main waterway to eastern Colombia) and Apure, flowing
from the Andes to the Orinoco in an easterly direction. The Apure
receives many tributaries on its left bank from the Venezuelan Andes,
most important of which are the Portuguesa, rising in the plains of the
same name south of Barquisimeto and joining the Apure at San Fernando,
and the Guárico, whose mouth is east of the same town, flowing from south
of Carácas through the State to which it gives its name, and receiving
from the east the waters of the Orituco, whose source is less than thirty
miles from the coast in longitude 66°. Of the Orinoco tributaries from
the north beyond the Apure the most important is the Manapire, all the
streams east of this rising in the mesas and having but short courses.
The greater part of the eastern Llanos drains northward by the Unare
and Aragua into the Caribbean Sea. A few large rivers rise on the east
of the mesas, but flow for short distances only through the plains,
emptying, not into the Orinoco itself but the _caños_ of the Delta.
This last-mentioned region of inundated forest, savannah and mangrove
swamp, occupies about 11,500 square miles, bringing the total area of the
central plains up to 119,800 square miles.
The third great tract, the north-eastern spur of the Andes, divides
itself naturally into three parts—the Caribbean Hills, along the shores
of the sea of the same name; the Segovia Highlands, linking the former to
the higher mountains of western Venezuela; and the Cordillera of Mérida,
or the Venezuelan Andes. The total area occupied by these mountain and
hill tracts is about 41,800 square miles.
The Caribbean Hills give to the Venezuelan coast its splendid and
almost unique aspect, for, save for the interruption near Barcelona,
the range extends without much decrease in average height from west of
longitude 68° to the east end of the peninsula of Paria, less than 62°
west of Greenwich. Two main lines of elevation are plainly discernible
in the Carácas region, known as the Serrania Costanera and the Serrania
Interior; they continue throughout the range, but are less distinct in
the Cumaná Hills. The greatest elevation of the outer line is reached
near Carácas itself, a considerable area west of the city rising to
over 6,500 feet, while to the east are the famous peaks of La Silla (de
Carácas) and Naiguatá (8,620 feet and 9,100 feet respectively). In the
inner range the greatest elevation is round Mount Turimquiri, south of
Cumaná; the eastern portion of the coast range, in the peninsulas of
Araya and Paria, does not rise above 3,200 feet. On the northern side the
complex is drained only by mountain torrents falling rapidly throughout
their short courses to the sea, while on the south are the head-waters
of the Orinoco tributaries. Between the two ranges, however, we have
longitudinal valleys with rivers of more or less importance—the Aragua,
flowing westwards from Carácas into the lake of Valencia or Tacarigua,
which overflows into the Paito, a tributary of the Portuguesa; and the
Tuy, with its affluent the Guaire, flowing eastwards to the sea south of
Cape Codera. In the Cumaná Hills we have the Manzanares and other smaller
streams emptying their waters into the Gulf of Cariaco, and on the east
the Lake of Putucual, though small, is similar in situation to that of
Valencia, and its overflow forms the River San Juan, which empties into
the Gulf of Paria, forming virtually part of the Orinoco drainage. The
lower slopes of all these ranges, and the valleys, are clothed with rich
forests, excepting the dry, barren coasts near Carácas, while the heights
are bare, save for grass and a few small temperate trees.
Between the western extremity of the Caribbean Hills and the northern
spurs of the Venezuelan Andes there is an elevated region, which,
though subject to variations of level, possesses the main features of a
tableland, and this type of surface extends in a broad belt northward
through the States of Lara and Falcón. Their main extent is in the State
of Lara, whose capital, Barquisimeto, had as its original name, before
any territorial limits were defined round it, Nueva Segovia; it seems
appropriate, therefore, to distinguish this area as the Segovia Highlands.
The level of most of the area so designated ranges from 1,500 to 3,500
feet, but the plateau type is best developed in the Barquisimeto region,
the dry, barren plains of which, with their cactus vegetation, suggest
by their general features the dry bed of an ancient lake, in whose
waters the small scattered hills formed islands, while the Andine spurs
to the south and the Sierra de Aroa and similar mountain masses north
of Barquisimeto, constituted its limits. Beyond the latter, and north
of the Tocuyo River, while the larger part of the area maintains its
more or less uniform elevation, three well-defined ranges rise from the
plateau, in the Cordilleras of Baragua, Agua Negra, and San Luis; the
last named is the largest, and extends for 110 miles parallel to the Coro
coast, overlooking the Gulf of Venezuela. Practically the whole of this
region is drained by the Tocuyo and its tributaries, the other rivers
rising merely on its outer edges and falling direct to the sea; from
this generalisation should be excepted a small area round Barquisimeto,
in the catchment area of the river of the same name, which contributes
its waters to the volume of the Portuguesa, and so enters the Orinoco.
The Tocuyo, whose principal affluents are the Carora and the Baragua
on its left bank, rises in the Andes and flows for some 330 miles in a
northerly direction, changing to easterly in the lower river, before it
empties itself into the Caribbean. While the southern part of this area
is barren, all the lower slopes of the northern hills are forest clad and
fertile, with _llanos_ in the Carora Valley and grass-covered summits
above.
To the south we have the Venezuelan Andes, stretching for some 300 miles
south-westward to the Colombian frontier, and forming the highest land in
the whole country.
There are two main divisions of this mountain group, the Portuguesa chain
south of Barquisimeto, and the Cordillera of Mérida constituting the more
important and higher part. The Portuguesa chain reaches its greatest
elevation (13,100 feet) in the south near the sources of the Tocuyo, the
northern portion rising only to about 5,000 feet. A slight break in the
mass is caused by the valley of the Boconó, beyond which the Cordillera
of Mérida begins with peaks of nearly 13,000 feet on the north, rising to
their maximum in the centre, where the summits of the Sierra Nevada of
Mérida have an elevation of about 16,400 feet, and the top of the highest
of all, La Columna, is 16,423 feet above sea-level. Southwards the
elevations decrease again, until on the borders of Colombia the watershed
is less than 5,000 feet above the sea. The streams of this chain, with
its steep outer flanks so characteristic of the Andes, naturally belong
for the most part to the catchment area of the Orinoco or the Maracaibo
Lake, but there is a succession of longitudinal valleys within the chain
which may be considered as pertaining more particularly to the Andes. The
chief of these rivers are the Motatán, which, rising north of Mérida,
flows northwards through Trujillo to the Lake of Maracaibo; the Chama,
whose sources are in the same snows that supply the Motatán, though the
stream flows southward past Mérida, bending then sharply northward to
reach the south shore of the lake opposite the mouth of the Motatán; and
the Torbes, flowing south-westward by San Cristobal, and turning there to
the east to fall into the Uribante, a tributary of the Apure. Every type
of vegetation occurs within this Andine tract, varying according to the
geology of the ground and its elevation. At some points there are fertile
valleys with tropical flora, others with temperate cereals; sometimes
bare mountain slopes and hot gorges supporting only cactus and acacia,
and little of these; sometimes grass-clad slopes and summits, with the
peculiar heather-like and resinous plants of the “páramos,” and, lastly,
the eternal snows of the peaks of the Sierra Nevada.
North of the mountain region of Venezuela lies what may be considered as
the coastal plain, including the alluvial area of the Lake of Maracaibo,
the Coro and Paraguana lowlands, and such few tracts of flat ground as
may be found along the coast, with the numerous islands in the Caribbean
which belong to Venezuela. The area of this division may be estimated
as about 27,800 square miles. The lake has many points of similarity to
the Delta, both in hydrography and general character. The southern part
has innumerable rivers comparable to the caños, with open lagoons and
swamps, bordered by dense forests more or less inundated in the rains.
On the east and west shores to the north there are stretches of higher
ground between the swamps, and frequent grass plains like the Llanos; the
western side is bounded by the Sierra de Perija, forming the frontier of
Colombia. Chief of the rivers traversing these plains are the Motatán
and Chama, already mentioned as rising in the Andes, the Escalante, and
the Catatumbo; the mouths of all are of a deltaic character, and all are
navigable to a greater or lesser extent. The largest and most important
is the Catatumbo, which, with its great tributary, the Zulia, rises in
Colombia.
The Coro and Paraguana lowlands form a stretch of open, sandy, more or
less barren and low hills, extending from the neighbourhood of the port
of Maracaibo along the coast to Coro, and into the Paraguana peninsula;
with them may be grouped the islands, which are similar in character,
except Margarita, whose mountains resemble those of the Caribbean chain,
though the open, cactus-covered lower ground is a repetition of the
western coast (and Curaçao).
The climate of the 394,000 square miles naturally varies greatly
according to latitude, elevation, and vegetation. The Guayana region,
here also, stands by itself, both from its southern position and
comparatively uniform elevation, so that over a wide area the temperature
and rainfall are more or less the same. Naturally in those parts of
Guayana where mountain ridges rise above the general level of the
plateau the temperature is lower than the average, but these must
constitute a small part of the whole. There is a marked difference
in the meteorological conditions in the various river-valleys of the
Orinoco basin, where the “white-water”—_i.e._, the swiftly flowing but
muddy streams, with rocky beds—are always accompanied by a clear sky
overhead, and mosquitoes and crocodiles abound; on the “black water”—the
deep and slow rivers—the sky is continually clouded, but the air is free
from mosquitoes. The Orinoco represents the former type, the Rio Negro
the latter. The rainy season in Guayana begins in April and lasts till
November; the remaining four months are fairly dry.
The better known region of the north is generally considered as divided,
_qua_ climate, into three regions, in common with tropical South
America generally—that is to say, the hot, temperate, and cold zones.
The hot zone or _Tierra caliente_ is generally considered as ranging
from sea-level to an elevation of 1,915 feet, where the mean annual
temperature varies from 74° to 91° Fahr. The intermediate or temperate
zone, the _Tierra templada_, lies between 1,915 and 7,030 feet above
sea-level, and within those limits the mean annual temperature may fall
as low as, or even lower than, 60° Fahr. The _Tierra fria_, or cold zone,
including the highest peak of Venezuela, 16,423 feet, has mean annual
temperatures ranging from 60° to below zero.
The _Tierra caliente_ includes (in addition to the greater part of
Guayana) the Llanos, the coastal plains, and the region of the Lake of
Maracaibo, the lower slopes and part of the central valleys of the
mountains, part of the Segovia Highlands, and the Caribbean islands.
The higher ground naturally has a climate varying with elevation, but
the typical hot country, the Llanos are the warmest, the islands the
coolest. On the Llanos the central, northern, and eastern regions are
cooler than the southern and western, the highest mean annual temperature
being recorded in San Fernando de Apure. Over this area the rainfall is
heavy, and the wet season lasts from April to November. Maracaibo has
the highest temperature of the cities of the coastal region, and, while
the rains in the greater part of the area last through the same months
as in Guayana and the Llanos, the area round the lake is comparatively
free from rain until August and September, when the heaviest falls are
recorded. The Segovia highlands and the islands alike have a lower mean
temperature and rainfall than the remainder of the zone, the position
of the one region, behind the coastal range which has precipitated the
moisture of the easterly winds, being paralleled by the distance of the
islands from these heights in the opposite direction.
The _Tierra templada_ includes the greater part of the inhabited region
of the hills, in which the climate necessarily varies greatly according
to situation, the bottoms of some of the Andine valleys within the zone
being more oppressive than parts of the low countries.
In the eastern part of the Caribbean Hills the rains last during the
same months as in the Llanos, but in the Andes, particularly to the
south, the seasons vary, and it is generally considered that there are
two rainy seasons; the first light rains from April to June, separated
by “St. John’s little summer” (_El Veranito de San Juan_) from the later
heavy rains which last from August to November; this arrangement applies
rather to the eastern side of the watershed, the western side having an
increasing similarity in seasons to the Llanos as one descends towards
those plains.
Only the higher peaks and ridges of the Caribbean Hills are included in
the _Tierra fria_, but between Tocuyo and the Colombian frontier the
greater part of the area is situated above 7,030 feet. The prevalent
strong winds and the sparse vegetation of the upper areas render
them too unattractive to have become extensively colonised, but the
products of the temperate zone grow readily in the lower parts below
the timber-limit. Only the peaks of the Sierra Nevada are permanently
snow-covered, the line having, it is said, retreated upwards of late
years. The snow is apparently more abundant in the hotter months of the
year, when the clouds which are dropping rain on the plain hide the peaks
for many hours of the day, and then, lifting suddenly, show them white
with snow far below the normal point, which is about 14,700 feet above
sea-level. A very short period of exposure to the sun’s rays restores the
mountains to their usual aspect.
[Illustration: PANORAMA OF THE ANDES FROM NORTH OF CARACHE.]
From the point of view of health, Venezuela must be looked upon as
holding a good record for a country in its latitude, where malaria is to
be expected to prevail. The death-rate for the whole republic in 1908 is
given in the _Anuario Estadístico_ as 25·1 per 1,000, and of the 56,903
deaths in that year, about one-third were infants under four years of
age, while malaria (_paludismo_) accounts for 8,239. Tuberculosis and
gastric and nervous diseases are the most prevalent causes of death.
Yellow fever, once so prevalent, is now rare, thanks to improved sanitary
conditions. The Delta region and the lower parts of the Guayana valley
are the most unhealthy from a general point of view, while the death-rate
of the cities shows that the Llanos are by far the healthiest district,
with the Andes next, followed by the Caribbean Hills. In some of the
low-lying coast towns, where mangrove swamps abound in the neighbourhood,
the death-rate is high, but as a general rule the northern coast, with
its dry atmosphere and sea breezes, while hot, appears to be markedly
healthy.