[1] By Moraes (1796) and Sousa (1830) the word is said to be from the
Arabic _Na'ama_ or _Na'ema_, an ostrich (_Struthio camelus_); but no
additional evidence in support of the assertion is given by Dozy in
1869 (_Glossaire des mots espagnols et portugais derives de l'arabe_,
2nd ed., p. 260). According to Gesner in 1555 (lib. iii. p. 709), it
was the Portuguese name of the crane (_Grus communis_), and had been
transferred with the qualifying addition of "_di Gei_" (i.e.
ground-crane) to the ostrich. This statement is confirmed by
Aldrovandus (lib. ix. cap. 2). Subsequently, but in what order can
scarcely now be determined, the name was naturally enough used for
the ostrich-like birds inhabiting the lands discovered by the
Portuguese, both in the Old and in the New World. The last of these
are now known as rheas, and the preceding as cassowaries.
[2] The figures are taken, by permission, from Messrs Mosenthal and
Harting's _Ostriches and Ostrich Farming_ (Trubner & Co., 1877).
[3] _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ ser. 4, xx. p. 500.
[4] It is known that the Portuguese preceded the Dutch in their
voyages to the East, and it is almost certain that the latter were
assisted by pilots of the former nation, whose names for places and
various natural objects would be imparted to their employers (see
DODO).
[5] The obvious misprint of _Dromeicus_ in this author's work
(_Analyse_, &c., p. 54) was foolishly followed by many naturalists,
forgetful that he corrected it a few pages farther on (p. 70) to
_Dromaius_--the properly latinized form of which is _Dromaeus_.
EMIGRATION (from Lat. _emigrare_; e, _ex_, out of, and _migrare_, to
depart), the movement of population out of one country into another (see
MIGRATION).
EMILIA, a territorial division (_compartimento_) of Italy, bounded by
Venetia and Lombardy on the N., Liguria on the W., Tuscany on the S.,
the Marches on the S.E., and the Adriatic Sea on the E. It has an area
of 7967 sq. m., and a population of 2,477,690 (1901), embracing eight
provinces, as follows:--(1) Bologna (pop. 529,612; 61 communes); (2)
Ferrara (270,558; 16 communes); (3) Forli (283,996; 41 communes); (4)
Modena (323,598; 45 communes); (5) Parma (303,694; 50 communes); (6)
Piacenza (250,491; 47 communes); (7) Ravenna (234,656; 18 communes); (8)
Reggio nell' Emilia (281,085; 43 communes). In these provinces the chief
towns, with communal populations, are as follows:--
(1) Bologna (147,898), Imola (33,144), Budrio (17,077), S. Giovanni in
Persiceto (15,978), Castelfranco (13,484), Castel S. Pietro (13,426),
Medicina (12,575), Molinella (12,081), Crevalcore (11,408).
(2) Ferrara (86,675), Copparo (39,222), Argenta (20,474), Portomaggiore
(20,141), Cento (19,078), Bondeno (15,682), Comacchio (10,745).
(3) Forli (43,321), Rimini (43,595). Cesena (42,509).
(4) Modena (63,012), Carpi (22,876), Mirandola (13,721), Finale nell'
Emilia (12,896), Pavullo nel Frignano (12,034).
(5) Parma (48,523), Borgo S. Donnino (12,019).
(6) Piacenza (35,647)..
(7) Ravenna (63,364), Faenza (39,757), Lugo (27,244), Bagnacavallo
(15,176), Brisighella (13,815), Alfonsine (10,369).
(8) Reggio nell' Emilia (58,993), Correggio (14,445), Guastalla
(11,091).
The northern portion of Emilia is entirely formed by a great plain
stretching from the Via Aemilia to the Po; its highest point is not more
than 200 ft. above sea-level, while along the E. coast are the lagoons
at the mouth of the Po and those called the Valli di Comacchio to the S.
of them, and to the S. again the plain round Ravenna (10 ft.), which
continues as far as Rimini, where the mountains come down to the coast.
Immediately to the S.E. of the Via Aemilia the mountains begin to rise,
culminating in the central chain of the Ligurian and Tuscan Apennines.
The boundary of Emilia follows the highest summits of the chain in the
provinces of Parma, Reggio and Modena, passing over the Monte Bue (5915
ft.) and the Monte Cimone (7103 ft.), while in the provinces of Bologna
and Forli it keeps somewhat lower along the N.E. slopes of the chain.
With the exception of the Po, the main rivers of Emilia descend from
this portion of the Apennines, the majority of them being tributaries of
the Po; the Trebbia (which rises in the province of Genoa), Taro,
Secchia and Panaro are the most important. Even the Reno, Ronco and
Montone, which now flow directly into the Adriatic, were, in Roman
times, tributaries of the Po, and the Savio and Rubicone seem to be the
only streams of any importance from these slopes of the Tuscan Apennines
which ran directly into the sea in Roman times (see APENNINES).
Railway communication in the plain of Emilia is unattended by
engineering difficulties (except for the bridging of rivers) and is
mainly afforded by the line from Piacenza to Rimini. This, as far as
Bologna, forms part of the main route from Milan to Florence and Rome,
while beyond Rimini it follows the S.E. coast of Italy past Ancona as
far as Brindisi and Lecce. The description follows this main line in a
S.E. direction. Piacenza, being immediately S. of a bridge over the Po,
is an important centre; a line runs to the W. to Voghera, through which
it communicates with the lines of W. Lombardy and Piedmont, and
immediately N. of the Po a line goes off to Cremona. A new bridge over
the Po carries a direct line from Cremona to Borgo S. Donnino. From
Parma starts a main line, followed by expresses from Milan to Rome,
which crosses the Apennines to Spezia (and Sarzana, for Pisa and Rome),
tunnelling under the pass of La Cisa, while in a N. and N.E. direction
lines run to Brescia and Suzzara. From Reggio branch lines run to
Guastalla, Carpi and Sassuolo, there being also a line from Sassuolo to
Modena. At Modena the main line to Verona through Suzzara and Mantua
diverges to the N.; there is also a branch N.N.E. to Mirandola, and
another S. to Vignola. Bologna is, however, the most important railway
centre; besides the line S. to Pistoia and Florence over the Apennines
and the line S.E. to Rimini, Ancona and Brindisi, there is the main line
N.N.E. to Ferrara, Padua and Venice, and there are branches to Budrio
and Portomaggiore to the N.E., and to S. Felice sul Panaro and Poggio
Rusco to the N., which connect the main lines of the district.
At Castel Bolognese, 5 m. N.W. of Faenza, a branch goes off to Lugo,
whence there are connexions with Budrio, Lavezzola (on the line between
Ravenna and Ferrara) and Ravenna, and at Faenza a line, not traversed by
express trains, goes across the Apennines to Florence. Rimini is
connected by a direct line with Ravenna and Ferrara; and Ferrara,
besides the main line S.S.W. to Bologna and N. by E. to Padua, has a
branch to Poggio Rusco, which goes on to Suzzara, a station on the main
line between Modena and Verona. There are also many steam tramways in
the flatter part of the province, the fertility and agricultural
activity of which are considerable. The main products of the plain are
cereals, wine, and, in the marshy districts near the Po, rice; the
system prevailing is that of the mezzadria--half the produce to the
owner and half to the cultivator. The ancient Roman divisions of the
fields are still preserved in some places. There are also considerable
pastures, and cheese is produced, especially Parmesan. Flax, hemp and
silkworms are also cultivated, and a considerable quantity of poultry
kept. The hill districts produce cereals, vines, olives and fruit; while
on the mountains are considerable chestnut and other forests, and
extensive summer pastures, the flocks going in part to the Maremma in
summer, and in part to the pastures of the plain of the Emilia.
The name Emilia comes from the Via Aemilia (q.v.), the Roman road from
Ariminum to Placentia, which traversed the entire district from S.E. to
N.W., its line being closely followed by the modern railway. The name
was transferred to the district (which formed the eighth Augustan region
of Italy) as early as the time of Martial, in popular usage (_Epigr._
vi. 85. 5), and in the 2nd and 3rd centuries it is frequently named as a
district under imperial judges (_iuridici_), generally in combination
with Flaminia or Liguria and Tuscia. The district of Ravenna was, as a
rule, from the 3rd to the 5th century, not treated as part of Aemilia,
the chief town of the latter being Placentia. In the 4th century Aemilia
and Liguria were joined to form a consular province; after that Aemilia
stood alone, Ravenna being sometimes temporarily added to it. The
boundaries of the ancient district correspond approximately with those
of the modern.
In the Byzantine period Ravenna became the seat of an exarch; and after
the Lombards had for two centuries attempted to subdue the Pentapolis
(Ravenna, Bologna, Forli, Faenza, Rimini), Pippin took these cities from
Aistulf and gave them, with the March of Ancona, to the papacy in 755,
to which, under the name of Romagna, they continued to belong. At first,
however, the archbishop of Ravenna was in reality supreme. The other
chief cities of Emilia--Ferrara, Modena, Reggio, Parma, Piacenza--were,
on the other hand, independent, and in the period of the communal
independence of the individual towns of Italy each of the chief cities
of Emilia, whether belonging to Romagna or not, had a history of its
own; and, notwithstanding the feuds of Guelphs and Ghibellines,
prospered considerably. The study of Roman law, especially at Bologna,
acquired great importance. The imperial influence kept the papal power
in check. Nicholas III. obtained control of the Romagna in 1278, but the
papal dominion almost fell during the Avignon period, and was only
maintained by the efforts of Cardinal Albornoz, a Spaniard sent to Italy
by Innocent VI. in 1353. Even so, however, the papal supremacy was
little more than a name; and this state of things only ceased when
Caesar Borgia, the natural son of Alexander VI., crushed most of the
petty princes of Romagna, intending to found there a dynasty of his own;
but on the death of Alexander VI. it was his successors in the papacy
who carried on and profited by what Caesar Borgia had begun. The towns
were thenceforth subject to the church and administered by cardinal
legates. Ferrara and Comacchio remained under the house of Este until
the death of Alphonso II. in 1597, when they were claimed by Pope
Clement VIII. as vacant fiefs. Modena and Reggio, which had formed part
of the Ferrara duchy, were thenceforth a separate duchy under a branch
of the house of Este, which was descended from a natural son of Alphonso
I. Carpi and Mirandola were small principalities, the former of which
passed to the house of Este in 1525, in which year Charles V. expelled
the Pio family, while the last of the Pico dynasty of Mirandola,
Francesco Maria, having sided with the French in the war of Spanish
Succession, was deprived of his duchy in 1709 by the emperor Joseph I.,
who sold it to the house of Este in 1710. Parma and Piacenza were at
first under the Farnese, Pope Paul III. having placed his natural son
Pier Luigi therein 1545, and then, after the extinction of the family
in 1731, under a secondary branch of the Bourbons of Spain. In
1796-1814, Emilia was first incorporated in the Italian republic and
then in the Napoleonic Italian kingdom; after 1815 there was a return to
the _status quo ante_, Romagna returning to the papacy and its
ecclesiastical government, the duchy of Parma being given to Marie
Louise, wife of the deposed Napoleon, and Modena to the archduke Francis
of Austria, the heir of the last Este. In Romagna and Modena the
government was oppressive, arbitrary, corrupt and unprogressive, while
in Parma things were better. In 1821 and 1831 there were unsuccessful
attempts at revolt in Emilia, which were sternly and cruelly repressed;
chronic discontent continued and the people joined again in the movement
of 1848-1849, which was crushed by Austrian troops. In 1859 the struggle
for independence was finally successful, Emilia passing to the Italian
kingdom almost without resistance.
EMINENCE (Lat. _eminentia_), a title of honour now confined to the
cardinals of the Church of Rome. It was originally given as a
complimentary title to emperors, kings, and then to less conspicuous
persons. The Roman empire of the 4th century adopted from the "vanity of
the East the forms and ceremonies of ostentatious greatness." Gibbon
includes in the "profusion of epithets" by which "the purity of the
Latin language was debased," and which were lavished on "the principal
officers of the empire," "your Sincerity, your Gravity, your Excellency,
your Eminence, your sublime and wonderful Magnitude, your illustrious
and magnificent Highness." From the _notitia dignitatum_ it passed into
the Latin of the middle ages as a flattering epithet, and was applied in
the church and by the popes to the dignified clergy at large, and
sometimes as a pure form of civility to churchmen of modest rank. On the
10th of June 1630, Urban VIII. confined the use of the titles
_Eminentiae_ and _Eminentissimi_ to the cardinals, to imperial electors,
and to the master of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem (order of the
Knights of Malta). Since the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, and
the entire change, if not actual destruction, of the order of St John,
the title "eminence" has become strictly confined to the cardinals.
Before 1630 the members of the Sacred College were "Illustrissimi" and
"Reverendissimi." It is, therefore, not correct to speak of a cardinal
who lived before that time as "his Eminence."
See du Cange, _Glossarium mediae et infimae latinitatis_ (Niort and
London, 1884), s.v. "Eminentia."
EMINENT DOMAIN (Lat. _eminens_, rising high above surrounding objects:
and _dominium_, domain), a term applied in law to the sovereign right of
a state to appropriate private property to public uses, whether the
owner consents or not. It is repeatedly employed by Grotius (e.g. _De
jure belli_, bk. iii. c. 20, s. 7), Bynkershoek (_Quaest. jur. pub._ bk.
2, c. 15), and Puffendorf (_De jure naturae et gentium_, bk. i. c. 1, s.
19),--the two latter, however, preferring the word _imperium_ to
_dominium_; and by other Dutch jurists. But in modern times it is
chiefly in the United States of America that the doctrine of eminent
domain has received its application, and it is chiefly to American law
that the following remarks refer (see also the article COMPENSATION).
Eminent domain is distinguishable alike from the _police power_, by
which restrictions are imposed on private property in the public
interest, e.g. in connexion with the liquor traffic or public health
(see _re Haff_ (1904), 197 U.S. 488); from the _power of taxation_, by
which the owner of private property is compelled to contribute a portion
of it for public purposes; and from the _war-power_, involving the
destruction of private property in the course of military operations.
The police power fetters rights of property; eminent domain takes them
away. The power of taxation is analogous to eminent domain as regards
the purposes to which the contribution of the tax-payer is to be
applied. But, unlike eminent domain, it does not necessarily involve a
taking of specific property for those purposes. The destruction of
property in military operations--or in the discharge by Government of
other duties in cases of necessity, e.g. in order to check the progress
of a fire in a city--clearly cannot be said to be an exercise of the
power of eminent domain. The question whether the element of
compensation is necessarily involved in the idea of eminent domain has
in modern times aroused much controversy. According to one school of
thought (see Lewis, _Eminent Domain_, s. 10), this question must be
answered in the negative. According to a second, whose view has the
support of the civilians (see Randolph, _Eminent Domain_, s. 227; Mills,
_Eminent Domain_, s. 1) compensation is an inherent attribute of the
power. An intermediate view is advocated by Professor Thayer (_Cases on
Constitutional Law_, vol. 1, 953), according to which eminent domain
springs from the necessities of government, while the obligation to
reimburse rests upon the natural right of individuals. The right to
compensation is thus not a component part of the power to take, but
arises at the same time and the latter cannot exist without it. The
relation between the two is that of substance and shadow. The matter is
not, however, of great practical importance, for the Federal
Constitution prohibits the exercise of the power "without just
compensation" (5th Amendment), while in most of the states the State
constitution or other legislation has imposed upon it a similar
limitation: and the tendency of modern judicial decisions is in favour
of the view that the absence of such a limitation will make an enactment
so far unconstitutional and invalid.
In order to justify the exercise of the power of eminent domain, the
purposes to which the property taken is to be applied must be "public,"
i.e. primarily public, and not primarily of private interest and merely
incidentally beneficial to the public (_Madisonville Traction Co. v.
Mining Co._, 1904, 196 U.S. 239). Subject to this definition, the term
"public" receives a wide interpretation. All kinds of property may be
taken; and the procedure indicated by the different legislatures must be
followed. Any contravention of this rule would involve a breach of the
5th Amendment of the Federal Constitution, which provides that "no
person ... shall be ... deprived of ... property, without due process of
law." It may be added that if the performance of a covenant is rendered
impossible by an act of eminent domain the covenantor is excused.
In _English law_, the only exact analogue to the doctrine of eminent
domain is to be found in the prerogative right of the crown to enter
upon the lands of subjects or to interfere with their enjoyment for the
defence of the realm (see _A.G. v. Tomline_; 1879; 12 Ch. D. 214). No
attempt is made to exercise this prerogative, and lands are acquired for
state purposes by statute usually framed on or incorporating the Lands
Clauses Acts (see COMPENSATION). The French _Code Civil_ secures
compensation to the owner of property in cases of _expropriation pour
cause d'utilite publique_ (art. 545), and there is similar provision in
Belgium (Const. Law, art. II.), Holland (Fundamental Law, art. 147),
Spain (Civil Code, art. 349, and Law of 3rd May, 1841), and most other
European states. It has been held in France that the right to
compensation does not arise under art. 545 of the Code Civil where only
a _servitude d'utilite publique_ is created on a private individual's
land.
In addition to the authorities cited in the text, see Lewis, _Eminent
Domain_ (2nd ed., Chicago, 1900); Mills, _Eminent Domain_ (2nd ed., St
Louis, 1888); Randolph, _Eminent Domain in the United States_ (Boston,
1894). (A. W. R.)
EMINESCU, MICHAIL (1849-1889), the greatest Rumanian poet of the 19th
century, was born on the 20th of December in Ipateshti near Botoshani,
in the north of Moldavia. He was of Turco-Tatar origin, and his surname
was originally Emin; this was changed to Eminovich and finally to the
Rumanian form Eminescu. He was educated for a time in Czernowitz, and
then entered the civil service. In 1864 he resumed his studies in
Transylvania, but soon joined a roving theatrical company where he
played in turn the roles of actor, prompter and stage-manager. After a
few years he went to Vienna, Jena and Berlin, where he attended
lectures, especially on philosophy. In 1874 he was appointed school
inspector and librarian at the university of Jassy, but was soon turned
out through the change of government, and took charge, as editor in
chief, of the Conservative paper _Timpul_ (Times). In 1883 he had the
first attack of the insanity hereditary in his family, and in 1889 he
died in a private institution in Bucharest. In 1870 his great poetical
talent was revealed by two contributions to the _Convorbiri literare_,
the organ of the Junimist party in Jassy; these were the poems "Venera
si Madona" and "Epigonii." Other poems followed and soon established his
claim to be the first among the modern poets of his country. He was
thoroughly acquainted with the chronicles of the past, had a complete
mastery of the Rumanian language, and was a lover and admirer of
Rumanian popular poetry. Influenced by these studies and by the
philosophy of Schopenhauer, he introduced a new spirit into Rumanian
poetry. Mystically inclined and himself of a melancholy disposition, he
lived in the glory of the medieval Rumanian past; stifled by the
artificiality of the world around him, he rebelled against the
conventionality of society and his surroundings. In inimitable language
he denounced the vileness of the present and painted in glowing pictures
the heroism of the past; he also surprised nature in its primitive
beauty, and he gave expression to stirring emotions in lyrics couched in
the language and metre of popular poetry. He further proved himself an
unsurpassed master in satire. Over all his poetry hangs a cloud of
sadness, the sense of coming doom. Simplicity of language, masterly
handling of rhyme and verse, deep thought and plastic expression made
Eminescu the creator of a school of poetry which dominated the thought
of Rumania and the expression of Rumanian writers and poets at the end
of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th.
Five editions of his collected poems appeared after 1890. Some of them
were translated into German by "Carmen Sylva" and Mite Kremnitz, and
others have also been translated into several other languages.
Eminescu also wrote two short novels, real poems in prose (Jassy,
1890). (M. G.)
EMIN PASHA [EDUARD SCHNITZER] (1840-1892), German traveller,
administrator and naturalist, was the son of Ludwig Schnitzer, a
merchant of Oppeln in Silesia, and was born in Oppeln on the 28th of
March 1840. He was educated at the universities of Breslau, Berlin and
Konigsberg, and took the degree of M.D. at Berlin. He displayed an early
predilection for zoology and ornithology, and in later life became a
skilled and enthusiastic collector, particularly of African plants and
birds. When he was four-and-twenty he determined to seek his fortunes
abroad, and made his way to Turkey, where, after practising medicine on
his own account for a short time, he was appointed (in 1865) quarantine
medical officer at Antivari. The duties of the post were not heavy, and
allowed him leisure for a diligent study of Turkish, Arabic and Persian.
From 1870 to 1874 he was in the service of the governor of northern
Albania, had adopted a Turkish name (though not that by which he
afterwards became so widely known), and was practically naturalized as a
Turk.
After a visit home in 1875 he went to Cairo, and then to Khartum, in the
hope of an opportunity for travelling in the interior of Africa. This
came to him in the following year, when General Charles George Gordon,
who had recently succeeded Sir Samuel Baker as governor of the
equatorial provinces of Egypt, invited Schnitzer, who was now known as
"Emin Effendi," to join him at Lado on the upper Nile. Although
nominally Gordon's medical officer, Emin was soon entrusted with
political missions of some importance to Uganda and Unyoro. In these he
acquitted himself so well that when, in 1878, Gordon's successor at Lado
was deprived of his office on account of malpractices (Gordon himself
having been made governor-general of the Sudan), Emin was chosen to fill
the post of governor of the Equatorial Province (i.e. the old equatorial
provinces minus the Bahr-el-Ghazal) and given the title of "bey." He
proved an energetic and enterprising governor; indeed, his enterprise on
more than one occasion brought him into conflict with Gordon, who
eventually decided to remove Emin to Suakin. Before the change could be
effected, however, Gordon resigned his post in the Sudan, and his
successor revoked the order.
The next three or four years were employed by Emin in various journeys
through his province, and in the initiation of schemes for its
development, until in 1882, on his return from a visit to Khartum, he
became aware that the Mahdist rising, which had originated in Kordofan,
was spreading southward. The effect of the rising was, of course, more
markedly felt in Emin's province after the abandonment of the Sudan by
the Egyptian government in 1884. He was obliged to give up several of
his stations in face of the Mahdist advance, and ultimately to retire
from Lado, which had been his capital, to Wadelai. This last step
followed upon his receipt of a letter from Nubar Pasha, informing him
that it was impossible for the Egyptian government to send him help, and
that he must stay in his province or retire towards the coast as best he
could. Emin (who about this time was raised to the rank of pasha) had
some thoughts of a retreat to Zanzibar, but decided to remain where he
was and endeavour to hold his own. To this end he carried on protracted
negotiations with neighbouring native potentates. When, in 1887, (Sir)
H.M. Stanley's expedition was on its way to relieve him, it is clear
from Emin's diary that he had no wish to leave his province, even if
relieved. He had done good work there, and established a position which
he believed himself able to maintain. He hoped, however, that the
presence of Stanley's force, when it came, would strengthen his
position; but the condition of the relieving party, when it arrived in
April 1888, did not seem to Emin to promise this. Stanley's proposal to
Emin, as stated in the latter's diary, was that Emin should either
remain as governor-general on behalf of the king of the Belgians, or
establish himself on Victoria Nyanza on behalf of a group of English
merchants who wished to start an enterprise in Africa on the model of
the East India Company. After much hesitation, and prompted by a growing
disaffection amongst the natives (owing, as he maintained, to his loss
of prestige after the arrival of Stanley's force), Emin decided to
accompany Stanley to the coast, where the expedition arrived in December
1889. Unfortunately, on the evening of a reception dinner given in his
honour, Emin met with an accident which resulted in fracture of the
skull. Careful nursing gradually restored him to health, and on his
convalescence he resolutely maintained his decision to remain in Africa,
and, if possible, to work there in future on behalf of the German
government. The seal was definitely set upon this decision by his formal
engagement on behalf of his native country, early in 1890. Preparations
for a new expedition into the interior were set on foot, and meanwhile
Emin was honoured in various ways by learned societies in Germany and
elsewhere.
The object of the new expedition was (to quote Emin's instructions) "to
secure on behalf of Germany the territories situated south of and along
Victoria Nyanza up to Albert Nyanza," and to "make known to the
population there that they were placed under German supremacy and
protection, and to break or undermine Arab influence as far as
possible." The force, which was well equipped, started at the end of
April 1890. But before it had penetrated far inland the political
reasons for sending the expedition vanished with the signature, on the
1st of July 1890, of the Anglo-German agreement defining the spheres of
influence of the two nations, an agreement which excluded the Albert
Nyanza region from the German sphere. For a time things went well enough
with the expedition; Emin occupied the important town of Tabora on the
route from the coast to Tanganyika and established the post of Bukoba on
Victoria Nyanza, but by degrees ill-fortune clouded its prospects.
Difficulties on the route; dissensions between Emin and the authorities
in German East Africa, and misunderstandings on the part of both;
epidemics of disease in Emin's force, followed by a growing spirit of
mutiny among his native followers; an illness of a painful nature which
attacked him--all these gradually undermined Emin's courage, and his
diaries at the close of 1891 reflect a gloomy and almost hopeless
spirit. In May that year he had crossed into the Congo State by the
south shore of Albert Edward Nyanza, and many months were spent on the
borders of the great Congo Forest and in the Undusuma country south-west
of Albert Nyanza, breaking ground new to Europeans. In December 1891 he
sent off his companion, Dr Stuhlmann, with the bulk of the caravan, on
the way back to the east coast. Emin remained behind with the sick, and
with a very reduced following left the lake district in March 1892 for
the Congo river. On reaching Ipoto on the Ituri he came within the
region of the Arab slave raiders and ivory hunters, in whose company he
at times travelled. These gentry were incensed against Emin for the
energetic way in which he had dealt with their comrades while in German
territory, and against Europeans generally by the campaign for their
suppression begun by the Congo State. At the instigation of one of these
Arabs Emin was murdered on the 23rd or 24th of October 1892 at Kinena, a
place about 80 m. E.S.E. of Stanley Falls.
See _Emin Pasha, his Life and Work_, by Georg Schweitzer, with
introduction by R.W. Felkin (2 vols., London, 1898); _Emin Pasha in
Central Africa_ (London, 1888), a collection of Emin's papers
contributed to scientific journals; and _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von
Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894), by Dr Franz Stuhlmann. Major G. Casati
(1838-1902), an Italian officer who spent several years with Emin, and
accompanied him and Stanley to the coast, narrated his experiences in
_Dieci anni in Equatoria_ (English edition, _Ten Years in Equatoria
and the Return with Emin Pasha_, London, 1891).
EMLYN, THOMAS (1663-1741), English nonconformist divine, was born at
Stamford, Lincolnshire. He served as chaplain to the presbyterian
Letitia, countess of Donegal, and then to Sir Robert Rich, afterwards
(1691) becoming colleague to Joseph Boyse, presbyterian minister in
Dublin. From this office he was virtually dismissed on his own
confession of unitarianism, and for publishing _An Humble Inquiry into
the Scripture Account of Jesus Christ_ (1702) was sentenced to a year's
imprisonment and a fine of L1000. Thanks to the intervention of Boyse he
was released in 1705 on payment of L90. He is said to have been the
first English preacher definitely to describe himself as "unitarian,"
and writes in his diary, "I thank God that He did not call me to this
lot of suffering till I had arrived at maturity of judgment and firmness
of resolution, and that He did not desert me when my friends did. He
never let me be so cast down as to renounce the truth or to waver in my
faith." Of Christ he writes, "We may regard with fervent gratitude so
great a benefactor, but our esteem and rational love must ascend higher
and not rest till it centre in his God and ours." Emlyn preached a good
deal in Paul's Alley, Barbican, in his later years, and died in London
in 1741.
EMMANUEL, or IMMANUEL, a Hebrew symbolical proper name, meaning "God
(is) with us." When in 734-733 B.C. Ahaz, king of Judah, alarmed at the
preparations made against him by the Syro-Ephraimitish alliance, was
inclined to seek aid from Tiglath-pileser of Assyria, the prophet Isaiah
endeavoured to allay his fear by telling him that the danger would pass
away, and as a sign from Yahweh that this should be so, any young woman
who should within the year bear a son, might call his name Immanuel in
token of the divine protection accorded to Judah. For before the infant
should come to even the immature intelligence of childhood the lands of
the foe would be laid waste (Isaiah vii. 14-16). For other
interpretations, especially as regards the mother, see _Ency. Bib._ col.
2162-3, and the commentaries. In the post-exilic period the historical
meaning of the passage was forgotten, and a new significance was given
to it in accordance with the gradually developing eschatological
doctrine. This new interpretation finds expression in Matt. i. 23, where
the name is applied to Jesus as the Messiah. At the close of Isaiah
viii. 8 for "of thy land, O Immanuel," we should probably read "of the
land, for God is with us." The three passages quoted are the only
instances where this word occurs in Scripture; it is frequent in hymns
and devotional literature as a title of Jesus Christ.
EMMANUEL PHILIBERT (1528-1580), duke of Savoy, son of Charles III. and
Beatrice of Portugal, one of the most renowned princes of the later
Renaissance, was born on the 8th of July 1528. Charles, after trying in
vain to remain neutral in the wars between France and the emperor
Charles V., had been forced to side with the latter, whereupon his duchy
was overrun with foreign soldiery and became the battlefield of the
rival armies. Prince Emmanuel took service with the emperor in 1545 and
distinguished himself in Germany, France and the Low Countries. On the
death of his father in 1553 he succeeded to the title, little more than
an empty one, and continued in the emperor's service. Having been
refused the command of the imperial troops in Piedmont, he tried in vain
to negotiate a separate peace with France; but in 1556 France and Spain
concluded a five years' truce, by which each was to retain what it then
occupied. This would have been the end of Savoy, but within a year the
two powers were again at war. The chief events of the campaign were the
successful resistance of Cuneo, held for the duke by Count Luserna, and
the victory of St Quentin (1557), won by Emmanuel Philibert himself
against the French. At last in 1558 the powers agreed to an armistice,
and in 1559 the peace of Cateau-Cambresis was made, by which Emmanuel
regained his duchy, but on onerous terms, for France was to occupy
several Piedmontese fortresses, including Turin and Pinerolo, for not
more than three years, and a marriage was arranged between the duke and
Margaret, duchess of Berry, sister of the French king; while Spain was
to garrison Asti and Vercelli (afterwards exchanged for Santhia) until
France evacuated the above-mentioned fortresses. The duke's marriage
took place in Paris a few months later; and after the French evacuation
he re-entered his dominions amidst the rejoicings of the people. The
condition of Piedmont at that time was deplorable; for wars, the
exactions and devastations of the foreign soldiery, and religious
antagonism between Catholics and Protestants had wrought terrible havoc.
"Uncultivated," wrote the Venetian ambassador, quoted by E. Ricotti, "no
citizens in the cities, neither man nor beast in the fields, all the
land forest-clad and wild; one sees no houses, for most of them are
burnt, and of nearly all the castles only the walls are visible; of the
inhabitants, once so numerous, some have died of the plague or of
hunger, some by the sword, and some have fled elsewhere preferring to
beg their bread abroad rather than support misery at home which is worse
than death." There was no army, the administration was chaotic, and the
finances were in a hopeless state. The duke set to work to put his house
in order, and inaugurated a series of useful reforms, ably assisted by
his minister, Niccolo Balbo. But progress was slow, and was accompanied
by measures which abolished the states general, the last survival of
feudal liberties. Savoy, following the tendency of the other states of
Europe at that time, became thenceforth an absolute monarchy, but
without that transformation the achievement of complete independence
from foreign powers would have been impossible.
One of the first questions with which he had to deal was the religious
difficulty. The inhabitants of the Pellice and Chisone valleys had long
professed a primitive form of Christianity which the orthodox regarded
as heretical, and had been subject to numerous persecutions in
consequence (see WALDENSES). At the time of the Reformation they had
gone over to Protestantism, and during the wars of the 16th century the
new religion made great progress in Piedmont. The duke as a devout
Catholic desired to purge the state of heresy, and initiated repressive
measures against the Waldenses, but after some severe and not very
successful fighting he ended by allowing them a measure of religious
liberty in those valleys (1561). At the pope's instigation he
recommenced persecution some years later, but his duchess and some
German princes pleaded successfully in favour of the Protestants. He
next turned his attention to getting rid of the French garrisons; the
negotiations proved long and troublesome, but in December 1562 the
French departed on payment of 100,000 scudi, retaining only Pinerolo and
Savigliano, and Turin became the capital once more. There remained the
Bernese, who had occupied some of the duke's territories in Savoy and
Vaud, and in Geneva, over which he claimed certain rights. With Bern he
made a compromise, regaining Gex, the Chablais, and the Genevois, on
condition that Protestantism should be tolerated there, but he renounced
Vaud and some other districts (1566). Disagreements with the Valais were
settled in a similar way in 1569; but the Genevans refused to recognize
Savoyard suzerainty. Emmanuel reformed the currency, reorganized
justice, prepared the way for the emancipation of the serfs, raised the
standing army to 25,000 men, and fortified the frontiers, ostensibly
against Huguenot raids, but in reality from fear of France. On the death
of Charles IX. of France in 1574 the new king, Henry III., passed
through Piedmont on his way from Poland; Emmanuel gave him a magnificent
reception, and obtained from him a promise that Pinerolo and Savigliano
should be evacuated, which was carried out at the end of the year.
Philip of Spain was likewise induced to evacuate Asti and Santhia in
1575. Thus, after being more or less under foreign occupation for 39
years, the duchy was at last free. The duke rounded off his dominions by
the purchase of Tenda and Oneglia, which increased his seaboard, and the
last years of his life were spent in fruitless negotiations to obtain
Monferrato, held by the Gonzagas under Spanish protection, and Saluzzo,
which was a French fief. He died on the 30th of August 1580, and was
succeeded by his son Charles Emmanuel I. As a statesman Emmanuel
Philibert was able, business-like and energetic; but he has been
criticized for his duplicity, although in this respect he was no worse
than most other European princes, whose ends were far more questionable.
He was autocratic, but just and very patriotic. During his reign the
duchy, which had been more than half French, became predominantly
Italian. By diplomacy, which, although he was a capable and brave
soldier, he preferred to war, he succeeded in freeing his country, and
converting it from a ruined and divided land into a respectable
independent power of the second rank, and, after Venice, the
best-governed state in Italy.
The most accurate biography of Emmanuel Philibert is contained in E.
Ricotti's _Storia della monarchia Piemontese_, vol. ii. (Florence,
1861), which is well done and based on documents; cf. Claretta's _La
Successione di Emanuele Filiberto_ (Turin, 1884).
EMMAUS, the name of two places in Palestine.
1. A village mentioned by Luke (xxiv. 13), without any indication of
direction, as being 60 stadia (almost 7 m.), or according to some
MSS.[1] 160 stadia, from Jerusalem. Its identification is a matter of
mere guesswork: it has been sought at (a) Emmaus-Nicopolis (see 2
below), distant 176 stadia from Jerusalem; (b) Kuryet el-'Enab, distant
66 stadia, on the carriage road to Jaffa; (c) Kulonieh, distant 36
stadia, on the same road; (d) el-Kubeibeh, distant 63 stadia, on the
Roman road to Lydda; (e) 'Urtas, distant 60 stadia; and (f) Khurbet
el-Khamasa, distant 86 stadia, on the Roman road to Eleutheropolis. Of
these, el-Kubeibeh or 'Urtas seems the most probable, though many favour
Kulonieh because of its nearness to Bet Mizza, in which name there is
similarity with Emmaus, and because of a reading (30 stadia) in
Josephus.
2. Emmaus-Nicopolis, now 'Amwas, a town on the maritime plain, and a
place of importance during the Maccabaean and Jewish wars. Near it Judas
Maccabaeus defeated Gorgias in 164 B.C., and Vespasian established a
fortified camp in A.D. 69. It was afterwards rebuilt and named
Nicopolis, and became an episcopal see. It was also noted for a healing
spring.