In the year 1806, being at the University of Edinburgh, an
advertisement was put on the College Gate, by Messrs. P. and C. Wood,
merchants, Leith, intimating that a surgeon was wanted for the ship
Resolution of Whitby, Yorkshire, engaged in the North Sea whale-fishery.
Impelled by curiosity, and by a still more powerful motive, to visit
the snow-clad coast of Spitzbergen, I applied; and was, after due
examination, admitted surgeon for the voyage.
Nothing particular occurred on my journey from this to Whitby, where
I arrived on Sunday the 16th of March, and was, in every respect,
comfortably accommodated at the house of the Captain.
As we did not sail for several days after my arrival, I spent a
considerable part of my time in making such remarks on the town as were
particularly interesting.
Whitby is a thriving sea-port in the North Riding of Yorkshire,
situated on the mouth of the river Esk. It is chiefly celebrated for
the manufacture of canvas, and for the extensive alum works in its
neighbourhood. Its harbour is the best on this coast, and has a fine
pier; but it has no river communication with the interior country.
Behind the pier is a battery which mounts twelve eighteen-pounders.
This town was formerly noted for its Abbey, of which some ruins still
remaining testify its ancient magnificence.
Here are different houses of worship, viz. an elegant church of
the established religion; and several meeting-houses belonging to
Presbyterians, Quakers, Methodists, Roman Catholics, &c.
Whitby is 50 miles north-east of York, and 243 north of London; Lat.
54° 30´ North, Long. 1° 55´ West.
The word Whitby is a contraction of its original appellation White Bay,
so called from the white surges made by the breaking of the waves along
the shore, so that the whole bay assumes a white or frothy appearance
to a person standing upon the opposite banks.
Contiguous to this place, in a town called Marton, was born that great
circumnavigator Captain James Cook, whose barometer (that which he used
in his voyage of discovery) we had on board the Resolution.
Between Whitby and Lyth, a small town distant about four miles, is a
beautiful level strand, generally known by the name of Whitby Sands,
upon which there used to be annual races; but now they are less
frequent.
Adjacent to Lyth, is the seat of the Mulgrave family, one of whom,
Constantine John Phipps, (afterwards Lord Mulgrave), in 1773, undertook
a voyage, by his Majesty’s command, towards the North Pole, under the
hopes of discovering a passage to the East Indies in a north-east
direction: but in which he, like many others, did not succeed.
Among the sands on the shore are found stones resembling snakes without
heads, the “_Cornu ammonis_” of naturalists. These stones are easily
known by circular, or rather spiral windings marked on their outside.
One of these being broken, its interior exhibits the appearance of a
snake rolled up and ready to make a spring.
That these are petrified snakes, is really believed by the peasants on
the coast, concerning which they tell the following whimsical story:
An old lady, say they, who lived in that neighbourhood some centuries
back, having procured a charm, or spell, to banish some noxious
reptiles with which that part of the country was then cruelly harassed,
set to work, and, by her incantations, collected all the snakes within
a considerable distance, and brought them to the banks of Whitby,
whence she hurried them down so precipitately on the strand, that they
all broke their necks, and of course, in their petrified state, are
found without heads[1].
[1] They affirm that this part of the coast has never since been
frequented by those venomous creatures, although they are quite common
in other parts of the kingdom. _Credat cui placeat._
Not many years ago Whitby sent upwards of twenty vessels to Greenland;
but afterwards that trade fell much to decay, until it was latterly
revived by the persevering activity of Captain Scoresby, whose many
successful whale-fishing voyages tended greatly to promote the opulence
of this town, by encouraging others to embark in the same lucrative
business.
The Resolution, in which I made this voyage, was a stout new ship,
of about four hundred tons burden, fitted out as a letter of marque,
carrying twelve six-pounders, besides stern-chasers, and well
furnished with firelocks, pistols, swords, cutlasses, bayonets, &c. She
was provided with nine fishing boats, and her crew consisted of between
sixty and seventy men.
Greenland voyages are generally performed in the course of four or five
months; but, lest vessels should be detained by the ice beyond that
time, they have usually nine months provision on board.
Our ship was abundantly supplied with good beef, pork, bacon, flour,
oat-meal, biscuit, peas, potatoes, cheese, butter, molasses, preserved
fruit, fowls, eggs, dried fish, strong ale, small beer, English brandy,
tea, coffee, sugar, tobacco, besides plenty of foreign spirits and
wines for the use of the cabin. Neither was there any cost spared in
laying in an ample supply of proper medicines and cordials for the sick.
Early on the morning of the 23d of March we set sail from Whitby,
amidst the hearty cheers of a numerous concourse of spectators.
Being favoured with a fresh breeze which caused a heavy swell, a
general sickness prevailed at our first setting out, from which the
most experienced seamen were not exempted, and which affected me
so severely, as to preclude all possibility of making any remarks
previous to our landing in Shetland.
On the 25th at noon, we cast anchor in Bressay Sound, opposite Lerwick,
the capital of the Shetland Isles.
This town is situated in Mainland, so called from its being the
principal of these Isles. It is about half a mile long, and is
irregularly built; but contains some good houses, and is inhabited by
about one thousand eight hundred persons. It is the seat of the courts
held by the Sheriff-depute, or Stewart-depute. Two packets, or traders,
having good cabins, and tolerable accommodation for passengers, sail
occasionally between this and Leith.
Lerwick derives its chief support from the courts of law, and from
the vessels employed in the whale-fishery making this harbour their
rendezvous.
Near the north end of the town stands Fort Charlotte, a small
fortification mounting eighteen large guns, from eighteen to thirty
pounders, besides several very large field pieces. It commands the
north entry to Bressay Sound, and is garrisoned by a small detachment
of invalids.
In the neighbourhood of this town there is a chalybeate spring, but it
is not much esteemed for its medical virtues.
Bressay Sound lies between Lerwick and Bressay Island, and forms an
extensive and commodious harbour, in which 1000 vessels well found may
ride at all seasons in the greatest safety. Here the Dutch herring
fleet used to rendezvous about the middle of June. This harbour has the
particular advantage of two entries, one from the south, and another
from the north.
On the outside of the north entry lies a sunk rock, called the Unicorn.
On this rock was wrecked the Unicorn man-of-war sent out in pursuit
of the Earl of Bothwell, who fled to Shetland; hence the rock has its
name. The paltry village of Scallaway lies also on the Mainland, and
has an excellent harbour. Near this is the ancient castle of Scallaway,
built by one of the Earls of Orkney.
These are the only two towns, or villages, in the Shetland Isles.
Mainland is upwards of sixty miles long from north to south; and in
some places upwards of twelve miles in breadth; it is so shaped, that
no part of it lies above _three miles from the sea_; and consists of
a great multitude of irregular promontories, and a vast number of
peninsulæ connected by narrow isthmuses, insomuch that it abounds with
bays and harbours almost innumerable.
In the parish of North Mevan, a peninsula belonging to this Island,
stands the cloud-capt mountain of Rona, the highest in Shetland. It
is eight miles long, four broad, and three thousand nine hundred and
forty-four geometrical feet above the level of the sea; serving for
a land-mark to fishers and vessels coming from the Northern Ocean.
From the top of this lofty eminence the eye commands an extensive and
pleasing prospect, stretching fifty miles at least in every direction.
The great number of small islands and peninsulas scattered beneath, and
often a distant view of vessels, in summer, affords a most agreeable
diversified scene.
On the summit of this mountain stands a house, called the watch-house,
in which six or seven men can sit. It is constructed of four large
stones, covered by two more for a roof, on the top of which is erected
a pyramidal tower of small stones.
In the same parish stands a rock rising perpendicular on all sides
to a vast height, which, at a few miles’ distance, looks like a ship
under full sail. Near to this are two very high inaccessible pillars,
on which the large species of cormorants breed. What is extraordinary,
the rocks possessed by these birds one year is deserted the next,
and returned to again after being a year unpossessed. This singular
practice has been carried on time immemorial.
Here is a small isle, called Dorholm, perforated by a vast arch,
seventy feet in height, under which boats fish, having light from an
opening at the top.
Next to this is the holm and isle of Stenness, so much celebrated for
the great number of kittiweaks which resort to it; the young of which
being esteemed delicious food, are taken in great abundance.
To the north of Stenness is the Maiden Skerry, a rock so called from
its having never been trodden on by man. The lofty rock called the
Ocean Skerry, stands about two miles from this, and serves as a good
landmark for ships wanting a harbour in their passage from the north.
Not far from this rock is the island of Papa, having a natural cave of
three entrances, through which the tide ebbs and flows. It has several
apartments, and is wide enough to admit a large boat with the oars at
full length on each side. This gloomy cavern grows gradually wider
towards the centre, which nature has ornamented with a beautiful arch.
Beyond this, the boat is directed by a small gleam of light from an
aperture in the top.
The island of Bressay lies to the east of Mainland, and is about four
miles long, and two broad.
Adjoining to this Island, and on the south-east side of it, lies the
small but fertile Island of Noss, the south headland of which is
not less than four hundred and eighty feet in perpendicular height.
Opposite to this, and distant ninety-six feet from the island, stands
another perpendicular rock or holm, of the same height, quite level at
the top, and producing excellent pasture for sheep.
To transport them there, however, might well have been thought
impossible; but human ingenuity requires only the exhibition of
difficulties in order to overcome them. An islander climbed up the
rock, and having fastened some ropes to stakes he drove into the soil
on the top, threw them across the intervening chasm to the headland,
where they were in like manner fastened. A cradle or basket was then
drawn along these ropes, and sheep are thus transported to, and from
the holm; and the eggs or young of the sea-fowl, which there breed in
vast numbers, fall an easy prey to the skill and industry of man.
The adventurous islander who first ascended the holm, and showed the
possibility of joining it to the island, from an excess of bravery,
met with an untimely end. Disdaining to pass over in the cradle, and
trusting that the same expertness which had conducted him to the summit
of the rock would enable him to descend to its base,--he fell, and was
dashed to pieces.
“_Quem si non tenuit, magnis tamen excidit ausis._”
It may be observed, that both men and horses are transported over the
rapid rivers of South America in a similar manner. Vid. _Ull. Voyage de
l’Amerique_, vol. i. p. 358.
As there is a considerable discrepancy in authors as to the height
of this rock, and the breadth of the chasm; and not having myself an
opportunity of examining it, I have followed the account given by the
accurate Pennant in his _Arctic Zoology_.
The erection of a light-house on the Island of Noss would be of
essential service to the interests of navigation. Many valuable ships,
and, among others, a Russian frigate of 38 guns, have been lost on the
east coast of the Shetland Isles.
To the north of Mainland lies Yell, an Island twenty miles long, and
nearly twelve broad, with several good harbours, or voes, as they are
called by the inhabitants.
Foula lies to the west of Mainland. It is about three miles long, and
one and a half broad, and has only one harbour. This is called Ham, and
is much resorted to by fishermen. Foula is thought by some to be that
island which the ancients reckoned the ultimate limit of the habitable
globe, and to which, therefore, they gave the appellation of “Ultima
Thule.” This supposition is not founded solely on the mere analogy of
the name, but also on the authority of Tacitus, who, speaking of the
victories obtained by Agricola, and how far he penetrated northward,
uses this expression: “_Insulas quas Orcadas vocant invenit domuitque;
dispecta est et Thule quadamtenus._” _Tacit. Vit. Agric._ §10. But
though the high land of Foula may be easily seen, in a clear day, from
the northern part of the Orkneys, still it is doubtful whether this
be really the island so called; because had the Roman fleet passed
to the north of the Orkneys, they must have seen Mainland, Yell,
and Unst, lying to the north of Foula. It may be further observed,
that the description of Thule, as given by Pomp. Mela, lib. 3, §6,
and Pliny, lib. 2, §75, and lib. 4, §16, is not reconcileable with
the supposition of its being identical with Foula. At Thule, says
Pomponius, “_Per Solstitium vero nullae (noctes sunt) quod tum jam
manifestior non fulgorem modo sed sui quoque partem maximam ostentat._”
This phenomenon, as Vossius has observed, can only belong to the 66th
and 67th degree of latitude, and gives considerable countenance to the
opinion of Thule being the same with Iceland.
The statement of Pliny, who is not celebrated for geographical
accuracy, is alike irreconcileable with either hypothesis, and belongs
only to the Pole itself.
These, (with the exception of Unst,) are all the islands belonging to
Shetland that are worth notice, though they are nearly forty in number.
About seventeen of these are inhabited; the rest being inconsiderable,
are called Holms, and used only for pasture.
On our arrival in Bressay Sound, there were anchored twenty-six ships
from London, Hull, and Whitby, each of which, in turn, gave us three
cheers, which we as often returned. All these ships were waiting for
men, it being the place where most of the ships bound to the Greenland
fishery call at to make up their complement.
The Captain finding men very scarce, and wages high, did not engage any
hands at Lerwick. We afterwards weighed anchor, and sailed out of the
north entrance for Balti Sound, Island of Unst.
Balti Sound is in the middle of the east side of the island, into
which it stretches nearly two miles. Before the entrance, is a large
narrow island, called Balti, whence the Sound derives its name, and
which shelters it from all winds, forming an excellent safe harbour or
anchoring place. If a ship be leaky, there are several very commodious
beaches on which she may be laid until thoroughly repaired. This
harbour used to be the most frequented of any in Shetland, especially
by ships going to Archangel and Greenland.
Unst, the remotest of the Shetland Isles, and most northern part of his
Britannic Majesty’s dominions, is supposed to be about eight miles long
and four broad.
A hill called Vallafield rises within a mile and a half of its northern
extremity, and runs directly parallel to the western coast, to the
very northern point. It is six hundred feet high. At right angles with
this hill, stands Crossfield, nearly in the middle of the island. To
the north lies Saxaforth, which is seven hundred feet high. It is the
highest in the island, and may be seen upwards of forty miles off the
coast. A hill, called Vordhill, runs parallel to the east coast.
Among these hills are tracts of level fertile ground, and the highest
hill is some feet covered with black moss. Unst contains many fresh
water lochs. That of Cliff is two miles long, and nearly half a mile
broad. The banks of this loch exhibit pleasant and most beautiful
scenery. From this loch a few smaller ones run to the southern part of
the island.
The headlands here rise to the height of sixty or seventy fathoms; but
the shores of the bays and harbours are low and sandy.
About this island are scattered here and there a great many very small
ones.
Around the coast are several curious natural caves. One at Sha has its
roof supported by octagonal pillars.
At Burra Firth are a vast number of small caves, running from the sea
under the hills. One of these only is entered once a-year, and robbed
of the seals which frequent it. The rest are mostly inaccessible.
To the east of this, under an arm of the hill of Saxaforth, is
a magnificent natural arch, three hundred feet long, and of a
considerable height, through which a boat can row.
The Shetland Isles, (called by the Dutch, Zetland; and, by the Danes,
Yetland,) lie between sixty and sixty-one degrees of north latitude,
and have their longest day about nineteen, and their shortest about
five hours.
These islands, with those of the Orkneys, make one of the counties of
Scotland, which send a representative to the British Parliament.
The climate of these, as of all other isles of like size, is far from
being settled. The atmosphere is, in general moist. They have also
heavy snows, but not much frost; and are often visited by dreadful
storms of wind, rain, and thunder, in so much that the water is
agitated even to the bottom of these comparatively shallow seas.
Owing to the great refraction of northern latitudes, for about three
months in summer they enjoy the sight of the sun almost without
intermission; but for the same space in winter, (especially in
December,) that luminary hardly rises above the horizon, and is
commonly obscured by clouds and mists.
“The sun from far shows with a sickly face,
Too weak the fogs and mighty dews to chase.”
In this gloomy season, the absence of day is supplied partly by
moon-light, and partly by the radiance of the _aurora borealis_, or
merry-dancers, as they are called in these islands. These are the
constant attendants of clear evenings, and prove great reliefs, amidst
the gloom of the dark winter night. They commonly appear at twilight,
near the horizon, of a dun colour, approaching to yellow; sometimes
continuing in that state for several hours without any apparent motion,
after which they break out into streams of stronger light, spreading
into columns, and altering slowly into ten thousand different shapes,
varying their colours from all the lines of yellow to the most obscure
russet. They often cover the whole hemisphere, and then make the most
brilliant appearance. Their motions at these times are amazingly
quick; and they astonish the spectator with the rapid change of their
form. They break out in places where none were seen before, skimming
briskly along the heavens: are suddenly extinguished, and leave behind
an uniform dusky tract. This again is brilliantly illuminated in the
same manner, and as suddenly left a dull blank. In certain nights they
assume the appearance of vast columns, on one side of the deepest
yellow, on the other declining away, till it become undistinguished
from the sky.
They have generally a strong tremulous motion from end to end, which
continues till the whole vanish. According to the state of the
atmosphere, they differ in colours. They often assume the colour
of blood, and make a most dreadful appearance. The rustic sages
represent these phenomena as prognosticative of future events, and
thereby affright the gaping multitude with dread of war, famine, and
pestilential devastations. Vid. Pen. _Arct. Zool._ vol. i. p. 27.
The ebb tides here run north, and the flood tides to the southward,
unless on the north and south extremities of the country, where they
run east and west; but their rapidity is inconsiderable when compared
to that of the firths of Orkney.
The shores are generally lofty, and rise almost perpendicular from the
ocean.
I went out with the captain in one of the ship’s boats, and sailed
round some of the headlands of Unst. The scene was truly sublime:--fogs
immured their summits; the noise of the sea dashing against the
rocks;[2] and the screams of the eagles and other birds of prey, which
there enjoy perfect security; combined with the sombre and terrific
appearance exhibited by these bulwarks of nature, impressed us with
awe and a pleasing kind of astonishment. The prospect to me was quite
novel. I had formerly been familiar only with champaign countries;
but I had no difficulty in declaring, that it was from some such scene
as this only, that one could form an adequate conception of natural
magnificence.
[2] _Planctus illisæ cautibus undæ._
The face of the country exhibits a prospect of black craggy mountains
and marshy plains, interspersed with some verdant spots which appear
smooth and fertile. Neither tree nor shrub is to be seen, except the
juniper and heath.
“Throughout the horrid wild no tree was seen,
Earth, clad in russet, scorn’d the lively green.”
This want of trees and shrubs is the more remarkable, as in different
parts of these islands there are evident marks of their having been
once a wooded country. In the island of Foula are often found the
remains of large trees laid bare by the violence of some tempest,
carrying away the strata which covered them. At present, however, no
kind of wood can be made grow; and it is found extremely difficult
to cultivate even the lowest and most common shrub. This decrease of
vegetation has not been satisfactorily accounted for.
The nature of the soil is very different. In some places it consists of
deep moss, with a sandy bottom; in others the moss is only about a foot
deep over a stratum of clay. The cultivated parts consist generally of
a mixture of clay and small stones. In some places there is abundance
of tough clay, similar to that used in Britain in the manufacture of
bricks or pottery.
No coal has hitherto been discovered in these Islands, but in several
of them are found limestone, freestone, rock-crystal, corals, white
spar, iron-ore, copper-ore, sulphur, fuller’s earth, and veins of
variegated jasper.
Springs of fresh water are frequent in the mountains; and there are
numerous lakes and streams, abounding in salmon, trout, &c.
Along the shores are a great many ancient towers, originally known
by the names of Burrows or Duns; but by the inhabitants they are now
called Wart or Wardhills. They were so arranged, that the whole Islands
could, by signals from one to another, be apprised of approaching
danger in a very short time. Sometimes they were used for state
prisons. Vid. Baxter, _Gloss. Antiq. Brit._
Some of these are surrounded with dry ditches, others with walls. I saw
one in Unst, called Snaburg, which has both a wet and a dry ditch. One
of these ditches is cut with great labour through the solid rock.
There is another in Fetlar, (one of the most remote of the Shetland
Isles,) in the form of a Roman Camp, having in the middle a rectangular
area surrounded by a wall, and that by an earthen rampart of the same
figure. Vid. Plate, _Pen. Arct. Zool._ vol. i. p. 33.
Druidical circles of stones are also common here.
There have also been found swords made of the bones of large fish,
flint heads of arrows, flint hatchets, &c.
In the Island of Unst are two curious sepulchral circles. The largest
consist of three concentric circles, its greatest being fifty feet in
diameter. The outermost circle is formed of small stones, the other two
of earth. Through all these is a single narrow entrance to a _tumulus_
which stands in the centre.
The other circle is considerably less, and has only two rings made of
earth.
An extensive burying-place has also been discovered in the Isle of
Westra, by the violence of the winds blowing away the sands which
covered the bodies twenty feet below the surface of the earth. Near
this are a great many graves, discovered only by a few short upright
stones set in the level sand.
Among the human bones have been found those of oxen, horses, dogs, and
sheep; as also battle-axes, different kinds of swords, brazen daggers,
knives, spoons, cups, curious stones, beads, &c. At one time there was
found a thigh bone closely encircled by a ring of gold. Pen. _Arct.
Zool._ vol. i. p. 36.
In the more early stages of society, this custom of burying weapons,
and the rude symbols of worship along with the dead, was perhaps every
where practised. The Catacombs of Egypt, and the Tumuli of Peru, abound
with relics of this description. The following verses of Virgil allude
to the same ceremony:
“Some in the flames,[3] the wheels and bridles throw,
The swords and helmets of the vanquish’d foe;
Some the known shields their brethren bore in vain,
And unsuccessful jav’lins of the slain.”
PITT’S _Virg._ lib. I. xi. 266.
[3] The funeral piles.
It has been long since observed, that the two extremes of heat and
cold are alike unfavourable to the growth of such animals as may be
considered indigenous to the temperate zone. Excessive heat in the
one case induces relaxation; while the contrary extreme diminishes
the vital principle, and stunts the growth of the animal. The animals
common to Britain are, in the Shetland Isles, of a greatly reduced
size. Their horses, familiar to us by the name of shelties, are very
numerous, and seldom more than nine or ten hands high. They are
covered with long hair, and are remarkably strong, spirited, and not
unhandsome. They are chiefly used for carrying home peats, and never
receive any food but what they gather from the scanty herbage of the
ground. Neither are they ever put into a house, so that many of them
die in the winter.
The steadiness with which these ponies travel through the most rugged
paths is surprising. In both 1806 and 1807, I made several expeditions
into the country mounted on them. An islander preceded me to point out
the way. At first I thought my brains must have been dashed out, but I
soon recovered from this panic. In the most wretched and precipitous
paths, the animal never made a single false step, and also travelled
with considerable agility.
The Shetland cows are also very small, and, owing to the scarcity of
fodder, give but little milk. They are kept close in the house, summer
and winter; and are littered with heath, and sometimes with peat mould.
The women of Shetland are, in general, ignorant of making cheese; but
their butter, when manufactured for sale, is equal to any that can
be found elsewhere. That made for the payment of rent is of a much
inferior quality.
It was an old custom here to pay their rent one half in grease butter
at Lammas, and the other half in money at Martinmas. This custom,
however, is generally relinquished, and the butter converted into money.
Their method of making butter being curious, I have thought proper to
describe it. They fill their churn with milk, which they churn in the
usual way till the oleaginous part be made to separate from the serum.
They then throw in some red-hot stones, and continue churning till the
butter float at the top, when it is taken out, and carefully washed and
salted. The butter-milk being boiled, what floats on the surface is
used as food, and the residue is esteemed an excellent beverage; and
when kept over winter, they reckon it an efficacious antidote against
the bad effects arising from the constant use of fish.
Their swine are of a remarkably small size, short-backed, and easily
fed. A pig ready for the spit is often sold at two shillings.
Their sheep (the most profitable part of their live stock, and which
are calculated to be from 110,000 to 120,000 in number,) are likewise
of very small growth. One between three and five years old, sells from
four to seven shillings.
In winter, especially when the ground is covered with snow, these
animals feed on the sea-weed, with which the shores are covered. This
they resort to by a kind of natural instinct; for as soon as the tide
begins to ebb, the whole body of them (although feeding several miles
off) make for the seashores, where they stay as long as the tide will
permit them, and then return to their usual walks.
The wool of these sheep is remarkably soft and fine; but there is so
much diversity in its quality, that some stockings at L.2, 2s. per
pair, and others at sixpence, are made from it. The common price of
tolerable good stockings is from five shillings to half-a-guinea per
pair. They are all knitted. The very fine ones, which are esteemed
superior in value to silk, will pass through a small finger ring.
The different colours of the wool are white, black, light grey, and
sometimes a russet. The sheep are never shorn; but early in June the
wool is pulled off without injuring the animal. In this process care
is taken to leave the long hairs which grow amongst the wool, by
which means the young wool is sheltered, and the animal kept warm and
comfortable.[4]
[4] Shetland sheep seem to be peculiarly calculated for an insular
situation, hence they are distinguished by Sir John Sinclair by the
name of “Island sheep.”
“It has been lately discovered that the skin of this breed, with the
fleece on, may be prepared so as to make a beautiful fur; and their
excellent quality may probably make them fit to be converted into
morocco leather, the raw material of which cannot easily be procured in
sufficient quantities.” Vid. Report of the Society for Improvement of
British Wool.
The people of these isles have attempted to introduce a larger breed of
sheep from Britain, but the inclemency of the climate rendered their
labours abortive. This verifies what the famous Scottish historian says
of these Isles:
“_Adeo fera, ut nullum animal nisi illic natum ferat._” Buch. lib. 1. §
50.
Here are neither hares nor foxes, though rabbits are plenty; the skins
of which are sold at about half-a-guinea per dozen. The flesh of these
is nothing inferior to those of Britain, though they are somewhat less
in size.
The other wild quadrupeds which have reached these islands, are the
otter, brown rat, common mouse, fetid shrew, and bat.
The Shetland Isles abound with several kinds of birds, as curlews,
snipes, grouse, green plovers, redshanks, herons, and other _waders_.
The short-eared owl is also frequently seen here, and makes its nest
on the ground. This species never flies, like other owls, in search of
prey, but sits quiet on an eminence, watching like a cat the appearance
of mice or other vermin. No partridges are found in these Isles, and
many of the other birds migrate to a warmer clime on the approach of
winter.
The lofty cliffs impending over the ocean, are the haunts of eagles,
falcons, ravens, hawks, hooded crows, &c. The Erne-eagles, which are
very ravenous, and destructive among the lambs, possess the most
exalted precipices, and, like the falcons, will not admit of any
society. This, Pliny, in his _Hist. Nat._ lib. 10. c. 3. beautifully
expresses:-- “_Unum par Aquilarum magno ad populandum tractu, ut
satietur, indiget; determinant ergo spatia nec in proximo prædantur._”
A premium of three shillings and fourpence is obtained for killing
one of these eagles; and smaller premiums are given for killing less
destructive birds.
Here are also seen grey linnets, larks, sparrows, red-breasts, wrens,
landrails, and stone chatters. The tame fowl are, geese, ducks,
pigeons, dung-hill fowl, and some turkeys.
To the winding bays resort swans, dunter, clack, and soland geese;
teal, Greenland doves, shearwaters, kittiweaks, (which are amazingly
numerous,) different kinds of gulls, cormorants, and other aquatic
birds.
In the islands of Unst and Foula is bred a bird of the web-footed kind,
called Skua, about two feet long, having its claws sharp, strong, and
hooked, like those of a kite. It preys on the lesser water fowl, like
a rapacious land bird, and is so remarkably courageous and fierce in
defending its young, that it will even repel the eagle from its haunts.
Some birds are driven here by the frost from the inclement north, and
pass their winter in the Shetland bays; whilst others, (mostly of the
palmated kind,) retire in the spring to more southern latitudes. The
guillemot remains in these islands till November.
This is a very pretty bird, about one foot and a half long. Its bill
is about three inches long; head, neck, back, wings, and tail of a
deep mouse colour. Its breast and belly milk white. There is another
bird, called the stormy petrel, of a black and white colour, with a
black bill much hooked at the end. It breeds commonly among the loose
stones on the shore; and, bounding into the water, often affrights the
superstitious fishermen, who take it to be an omen of some impending
disaster. These birds are found at all distances from land, in all
parts of the Atlantic, from Great Britain to the coast of North
America; and follow ships in great flocks. On account of their clamour
at night (being silent through the day) they are hated by sailors, who
(imagining they forbode a storm) call them witches.
Our sailors shot many of these birds, but that had not much effect in
making the others keep a more respectful distance.
Many of the inhabitants of these islands feed, during the season,
on the eggs and young of wild birds. These they procure in a very
dangerous manner from cliffs, in some places from sixty to one hundred
fathoms high. The attempt is mostly made from above. The dauntless
adventurer descends by a rope made either of straw or hog’s bristles,
and held by a person at the top. Oftentimes the rope breaks, and the
unhappy fowler is either dashed to pieces or drowned. The necessity of
shifting the rope from place to place, with the impending weight of the
fowler and his prey, renders the attempt much more hazardous.
In Foula they drive a small stake or dagger in the soil at the top of
the precipice, to which they fasten a fishing line. By this slender
assistance they descend to the place where the nests are, which they
plunder, and ascend again with amazing intrepidity. This manner of
fowling was, by the Norwegian law, considered a species of suicide.
What is still more extraordinary, custom has so hardened the
Shetlanders against all sense of danger, that they will wander among
the rocks at night, in order to surprise the old fowl upon the nest.
The eggs and young of the black-backed and herring gulls, compose the
chief part of the booty acquired in these predatory and desperate
attempts.
The seas[5] abound with cod, turbot, haddock, ling, and two certain
species of northern fish, called torsk and opah. Lobsters, crabs,
oysters, &c. are also very plentiful. At certain seasons vast shoals of
herrings visit these shores. In June they appear in surprising columns,
and perform the circuit of the islands; after which they totally
disappear, especially in time of storm. After they first approach from
the north, the appearance of the ocean is materially altered. They
are divided into columns of five or six miles long, and three or four
broad; and, in their passage, the water is propelled before them like
an impetuous current. Sometimes they sink for a little while, then
rise again to the surface. When the sun shines, the appearance of this
finny tribe is most beautiful, being similar to a spacious field of
variegated gems.
[5] _Divitiæ eis sunt a mari, ab omni parte summa piscandi commoditate
objecta._ Buch. lib. 1. § 50.
They afford a sure subsistence to vast multitudes of birds, of whales,
and other fish; and, to complete their destruction, man himself joins
in the common chase.
For this purpose, vessels from many nations used to rendezvous in
Bressay Sound, to lay in treasures of this useful species.[6]
[6] The Dutch formerly carried on this fishery very extensively. It
has, however, been on the decline with them ever since the year 1703.
They had then about 500 busses in Shetland, under the convoy of four
ships of war, but a French fleet of six ships of war sent out for the
purpose, fell in with the Dutch, and, an engagement taking place,
the Dutch Admiral’s ship was sunk, on which the remaining three ran
away and made their escape; whereupon, the French fleet sailed for
the entry of Bressay Sound, sent their boats into the bay, and burned
and destroyed about 400 of the Dutch fishing vessels, sparing only a
number barely sufficient to carry home the crews of the whole.
The fishing business here engrosses the whole attention of the men. To
this they constantly resort in all seasons and weathers, in small light
skiffs which they get from Norway. These boats go out about noon, and
do not return until three, and sometimes six o’clock the following day.
During that time they often go twelve leagues from land. The yearly
export of fish to foreign markets, particularly those of Spain and
Italy, amounts to several hundred tons.
Agriculture, in the Shetland Isles, is at a very low ebb. The land
being in general very barren, rocky, and chiefly depending on the
tillage of the women, yields but scanty produce. The labour, in the
lesser isles, is performed by digging over the soil like a garden.
Their spade is narrow, like that used in cutting peats, and not at all
similar to that with which they dig in Britain and Ireland.
After the seed is sown, (which they do in a very awkward manner, going
backwards as if sowing onion seeds,) the women drag a kind of harrow,
made _wholly_ of wood, over it, taking hold of a straw rope fastened
to the harrow, and passing over their shoulders. This I have seen them
do, at the same time that the men were lying beside them looking on.
In Mainland, where the farms are more level and extensive, they
make use of a sort of plough, such as was common in times of remote
antiquity, and which a man may carry to any distance in one hand. The
ploughman walks by the side of the plough, which he directs by a small
handle fixed on the top of it. The driver (if so he may be called) goes
before the oxen, and pulls them on by a rope tied round their horns;
and some with spades follow, to level the furrow and break the clods.
Such seed as I saw, was not so good as that called drawings, or small
corn, in Britain, and was also chaffy, and seemingly of a bad species.
From the appearance of a stubble, it was evident that their crops were
neither luxuriant nor prolific.
So prevalent is their rage for fishing, that the only land used in
husbandry is that along the sea coast, which bears no proportion to
that lying waste and uncultivated.
In some places where the soil is fertile, the crops are early,
especially where the substratum is limestone; but the seasons are so
various, that it is impossible to state the precise time of harvest.
The grain crop consists of a small kind of black or grey oats, and
a species of barley, commonly called bear or big. The oatmeal has a
bitter burnt taste. The potatoes, however, are tolerably good.
Very little time is, in general, devoted to gathering of manure.
Sometimes they make use of sea-weed either by itself, or made into
small dunghills with cow-dung or earth. Notwithstanding that they have
abundance of limestone and peats, they seldom use lime as a manure,
owing to which neglect, and the want of fallowing, they have frequently
a plentiful crop of weeds.
There is a very great stop to agricultural improvements still to be
considered. Most of the tenants hold their farm from year to year by
a verbal bargain; and the stipulations of the very few written leases
that are granted, consist chiefly in binding the tenant assiduously
to attend his landlord’s fishing as long as he possesses his farm.
Now, any failure in this is a forfeiture of the agreement. But he may
labour the land as he pleases; no question is asked on this head by the
landlord.
The grain is cut down in the usual way, and when fit, is carried home
either on the shoulders of the women, or on horseback.
There are not more than two or three carts in these islands, and these
are only kept by gentlemen by way of novelty. Neither are there any
roads, public or private, except the foot-paths made over the hills by
the horses, cattle, and sheep.
The landlords build the farm houses at their own expense. They are
generally mean, low huts, into which a person must enter in a bending
posture; and if he have not a guide (unless he be acquainted with
the windings of the fabric,) he will scarcely find the apartment
occupied by the family, they and their cattle being, for the most part,
inhabitants of the same building[7]. They have the fire in the middle
of the house. The beds are commonly like those of ships, with sliding
doors. A table, a pot, and some stools, are the principal furniture to
be seen.
[7]
“---- Ignemque Laremque
Et pecus et dominos communi clauderet umbra.”--JUVENAL.
Whether there were any chests, presses, cupboards, &c. in any of
the huts which I visited, the continual smoke would not admit being
ascertained. It is evident, however, that they are exempt from the
window tax, as they have only a small hole besides that of the chimney,
on which is a door to shut and open occasionally.
The office-houses (where there are any) are truly despicable. These the
tenants build at their own expense, and in the cheapest manner they
can, on account of the uncertainty of their tenure.
Here are few inclosures, so that the land lies almost wholly in open
fields; and by this breach of agricultural economy their crops are
exposed to the ravages of the numerous sheep, cattle, &c. which feed on
the commons without herdsmen.
These islanders trade chiefly to Leith, London, and Hamburgh; and
with Dutch fishermen, and such ships as visit their coasts. The chief
exports are linen and woollen yarn, rugs, stockings, butter, dried
fish, herrings, oil, feathers, skins of various kinds, and kelp; the
manufacture of which was first commenced in 1780. The commodities
imported are corn, oatmeal, spirits, tobacco, lines and hooks, salt, &c.
Here the Greenland ships are frequently served with mittens,
night-caps, comforters, wigs, &c.
The inhabitants are sure to come with their boats alongside such ships
as happen to call in here. They bring with them fish, fowl, eggs, &c.
for which they get beef, pork, flour, meal, or such provisions as they
may wish to have. They choose rather to barter than sell for money,
probably for this reason, that they generally get more than the value
of their commodities; at least, they do not fail to ask plenty, and
have cunning enough to lay down their case as very deplorable, which
tends to excite in the breasts of commanders of vessels that sympathy
which is so peculiar to sailors. The Shetlanders, by these means, find
a very good market for such things as they have to dispose of, and
generally get as much meat and drink as they can take while on board.
The Shetland Isles are divided into twelve parishes, in which are
placed twelve ministers, the office of some of whom is very laborious,
there being different small islands in one parish: besides, the paths
are remarkably bad, and the people so wretchedly poor, that they cannot
afford to accommodate their pastor in times of public examinations,
visitations, &c. insomuch, that unless he carry with him, on those
occasions, some store of _viaticum_, he must content himself with the
soothing hope of a hearty meal on his return home.
These islands enjoy the advantage of parochial schoolmasters, having
the salaries allowed on the Scottish establishment; by which means the
inhabitants are all taught to read, write, and understand arithmetic;
and among those of any rank, the Latin, Greek, and French languages are
not unknown, as also the rudiments of the mathematics.
The English language prevails in all these islands; but they being a
long time subject to the Kings of Norway, it is spoken with the accent
of that country, and is mixed with a great many Norwegian words,
especially in Foula. Neither here nor in the Orkneys is the Gaelic
language known.
English as well as Danish money is current here; but neither species is
superabundant.
According to the latest account, this group of islands contains 22,379
inhabitants, among whom are about twenty considerable proprietors, and
a great many small ones. The whole land-rent amounts to about £5000
per annum, which is a small sum when compared with the profits the
proprietors make by the fisheries, in which they are all concerned.
This business is carried on by the tenants: an affair which tends much
to affect the state of the common people at large. The landlords,
as before mentioned, make their lands subservient to this trade, by
setting them in small portions to fishermen; and, in order the more to
propagate the human species for the purpose of fishing, the young men
get premiums of small subdivisions of land, (though without lease,) on
their taking wives. The poor, who thus swallow the matrimonial bait,
getting more numerous families than they can maintain, and having no
way of supporting themselves but by the fish which they take; (and
which they are obliged to sell to their landlords at a fixed price,)
are often necessitated, either to go on board such merchant vessels as
call in here, or to enter voluntarily into his Majesty’s navy. In many
places, three or four families are found on a farm which, thirty or
forty years ago, was possessed only by one.
Unmarried men have another inducement to enter into matrimony; for when
government requires a number of men for the Navy, the proprietors take
good care to send off those who are unmarried. By these factitious
regulations, the population has become superabundant, insomuch that
the produce of the islands does not support their inhabitants more
than seven or eight months in the year. Before the proprietors of
land became so deeply engaged in the fishing business, juvenile or
premature marriages were, in these islands, looked on as next to a
crime, because thereby the population might increase to such a degree
as to become ruinous and oppressive to the whole community. For this
reason, a regulation was made against marriage, unless when the parties
could produce evidence that they possessed L.40 Scots, or L.3, 6s.
8d. Sterling. This salutary law is now never enforced, to the great
prejudice of the whole inhabitants. It is curious to observe how the
principles of Mr. Malthus accommodate themselves to, and receive
illustration from, the smallest societies.
The secluded inhabitants of these solitary isles are very unhealthy,
and seem to complain of one general disorder, which is of a phthisical
and scrophulous nature, the cause of which evidently seems to be this:
the men are exposed to intense cold at the fishing, where they remain
twenty-four, thirty, and sometimes forty-eight hours in open boats; get
their feet wet: and when they come home have but very sorry cheer to
accommodate themselves with; nor is their daily employment sufficiently
laborious to prove a healthful exercise. Hence proceed colds, coughs,
phthisis pulmonalis, and every thing which renders the frame a
complete nest of complicated disorders. The women above the common
rank, lead a very sedentary life, and seldom appear out of doors,
unless at church, which, probably on account of its great distance from
them, they do not often visit. Besides, tea has found its way into
these dreary regions, a constant use of which is the well-known enemy
of those who lead sedentary lives, and do not take exercise sufficient
to promote the necessary secretions. Hence come on relaxation of the
solids, indigestion, flatulency, glandular obstructions, hysterics, &c.
None of the female sex here appeared so healthy and blooming as those
employed in cultivating the ground.
During our stay here in both 1806 and 1807, I was asked to visit
different sick patients, and found a private infirmary almost in every
house. To some of those I hope I gave useful medicines; to others I
gave only some simples to satisfy them, as I found they were fast
hastening to that “bourn whence no traveller returns.”
Medical advice and drugs are at a very exorbitant price here; and
such cordials as wine, &c. cannot be procured for love or money. As
the Captain was so charitable as to allow me to give medicines gratis
to such as were really objects of compassion, I took nothing for my
trouble in preparing them, or visiting the sick; knowing, that if God
should be pleased to make me an instrument in relieving the distressed,
I would be more than amply repaid.
April 3. Having got eight men at Balti Sound, we weighed anchor at
ten A. M. and sailed out of the north entrance with a fine south-west
breeze.
For some days we had fine clear frosty weather, during which time no
particular occurrence took place.
On the 12th, at four P. M. we saw the long narrow island of Jan Mayen,
(so called from the name of its discoverer,) bearing north-east, and
distant about ten leagues. It lies in about 71° N. Lat. and 8° 15´ E.
Long. from Ferro. Vid. Forster’s _Hist. Voy. to the North_, p. 422.
This island was once, in honour of Prince Maurice of Nassau, called
_Mauritius Island_ in _Greenland_, to distinguish it from Mauritius
island on the N. W. point of Spitzbergen. It stretches from N. E. to S.
W. The north end rises into a high mountain called Beerenberg, from its
being haunted by bears; though its steepness renders it inaccessible to
man. A hundred yards from the shore the water is about sixty fathoms
deep: but a little farther out no soundings have been found.
The seas neighbouring to this island were formerly much frequented by
whale fishers, (especially from 1611 to 1633,) but the whales are now
seldom found here, having withdrawn to the ice, where they enjoy more
security.
The bears, sea-horses, and other voracious marine animals, together
with the foxes and carnivorous birds, not finding so good a supply of
whale carrion, as usual, have also, in a great measure, deserted the
coast.
On the land are still seen some vestiges of those temporary buildings
where the fishers of that time boiled their blubber. But this practice
of boiling blubber in the North has long since been discontinued, and
is now performed on the return of the vessels to their respective ports.
In 1633, seven sailors were left in Jan Mayen Island to winter; but on
the 7th of June following they were all found dead, (chiefly of the
scurvy,) by some people from Holland, who arrived there. It was evident
that they had lived through the winter, as their journal was carried
down to the 30th of April, soon after which they must have fallen
victims to disease.
It is necessary to observe, that the Dutch at this period entertained
hopes of being able to found some permanent establishments in the
North, and that for this purpose men were sometimes left in these
islands, to make observations during the winter. The wretched fate
that generally attended these adventurers, at last induced the
States-General totally to relinquish the attempt.
Here we fell in with some _streams_ of ice, which we went through in
search of seals; but of these we saw very few, and got none. Spoke a
brig from Bergen. 15th, One sail in sight.
On the 16th we were encountered by a violent storm from the north; and
after running, as near as we could calculate, about fifty leagues in
a south-westerly direction, we were met by a great number of birds;
this clearly showed us to be at no great distance from land, and had
we continued under the same course, we perhaps would soon have fallen
in with Iceland; here however, we lay-to under close reefed top-sails,
till the weather moderated, and on the 17th we sailed in a north-east
direction. The weather at this time was so hazy that we could not take
an observation; and after a gale, and lying-to, not much reliance can
be placed on the reckoning by account.
I may here remark that top-sails are now generally reckoned the best
sails for a ship to ly-to under. They are not exposed to accidents
from becalming in a heavy sea; and, from their height, they have more
power to steady the ship than a sail of treble size nearer the deck;
top-sails used for lying-to should be made of stouter canvass than
usual.
22d, The Greenland fleet in sight.
23d, Eighteen sail in company. Lay-to about three quarters of an hour
to get some fresh water ice, which is known from that of salt water
by its crystalline transparency, the other being very opaque. We
occasionally brought large pieces of it on board in a boat, which were
piled upon the deck to serve as water for the use of the men, and had
also a hogshead filled with it for the tea-water in the cabin.
24th, Several showers of snow. To-day we passed that solitary spot
called Bear, or Cherry Island, in Lat. 74° 30´ N. Long. 19° 5´ E.
The surface of this island is mountainous, craggy, and dreary in
its aspect; exhibiting in some places a scene of black, stupendous
precipices; and in others lofty eminences covered with snow.
The ears of people approaching this island are incessantly assailed
with the sounds of the impetuous waves dashing against the rugged
shores; the crashing collision of floating ice; the discordant notes
of innumerable birds; the barking of arctic foxes; the snorting of
walruses[8], and the dreadful roaring of the polar bears.
[8] These animals have been found here, lying huddled together, a
thousand in a heap.
The currents near the island are remarkably rapid, which renders it
impracticable to cast anchor within two miles of it, where soundings
can be had in twenty or thirty fathoms. Vid. Forster, p. 329.
In 1604, this island was visited by a ship commanded by Stephen Bennet,
who, in this and many succeeding voyages, killed prodigious numbers of
sea-horses, or walruses. He discovered also abundance of lead ore under
a mountain, (by him named Mount Misery, from its truly wretched and
forlorn appearance,) of which he brought upwards of thirty tons home to
England. Here are also found coals of an excellent quality, and very
fine virgin silver of different forms. Vid. Forster, p. 332.
Near to Cherry Island is a small spot called Gull Island, on which were
likewise found several veins of lead ore and coals.
25th, Clear weather and hard frost.
26th, Clear weather, and a considerable quantity of ice.
27th, Some snow; ice increasing.
28th, At ten A. M. the ship was made fast to a large iceberg, the
lowest part of which was about ten, and the highest forty feet from
the surface of the water. Its circumference was considerable.
These floating mountains of ice, to which Dutch navigators have given
the name of Icebergs, and which are of all different magnitudes, are
originally formed on land. The sun, even in those high latitudes, has a
considerable power in melting the snow on the mountains, which, running
down into the valleys, and again congealing, segments frequently break
off from the entire mass, and fall into the sea. The ice of which these
floating masses are composed, is of various colours. The original
fresh water ice is sometimes incrusted with that formed from the sea
water, and this again is covered with new ice formed of fallen snow.
The different positions of the spectator relatively to the incidental
rays of light, varies likewise the seeming hue of the whole. In some
parts it emulates the vividness of the emerald, and in others, the
most beautiful sapphire. When the iceberg is totally composed of
melted snow, which is sometimes but partly the case, the refraction
of the solar rays is the most beautiful; and the appearance of those
floating mountains on the side opposite the sun, presents such a blaze
of light, intermingled with different glowing tints, as totally to
baffle description. “Frost,” says the eloquent Pennant, “sports with
these icebergs, and gives them majestic as well as other singular
forms. Masses have been seen, assuming the shape of a Gothic church
with arched windows and doors, and all the rich drapery of that style,
composed of what an _Arabian_ tale would scarcely dare to relate, of
crystal of the richest sapphirine blue; tables with one or more feet;
and often immense flat roofed temples, like those of _Luxor_ on the
_Nile_, supported by round transparent columns of cerulean hue, float
by the astonished spectator.”
I have not unfrequently seen floating masses of ice which had evidently
been formed of drifted snow, since they wanted the compactness and
solidity of those formed by the melting of the snows. Many of these
contained trees, and (as there are no trees in Spitzbergen) must have
been originally formed in the northern parts of Russia or America, and,
being carried by the rapid rivers of these countries into the ocean,
had drifted into these latitudes. These trees have often the appearance
of being burnt at the ends; and Olafsen mentions, that the violent
friction which they frequently experience, occasionally sets them on
fire, and exhibits the extraordinary phenomenon of flame and smoke
issuing from this frozen ocean.--_Malte-Brun_, tome v. 241.
Between one and two o’clock this morning, I was much entertained by the
sun darting his rays through the cabin windows.
30th, Cast off from the iceberg, and endeavoured to force our way
through the ice in a northern direction, till it became so thick and
close around us, that we were forced to make fast to another large
iceberg, where a small part of the surface of the water was free from
ice.
May 1st, In the morning, about twelve or one o’clock, the Garland was
put upon the main-top-gallant stay by the last married man, as is usual
among the Greenland ships. It is formed by the crossing of three small
hoops in the form of a globe, and is covered with ribbons, &c. The
crew on this occasion blacken their faces with a mixture of grease and
soot, and dance round the decks, their chief musical instruments being
frying-pans, mess-kettles, fire-irons, &c. This rough mode of festivity
they continued till the Captain ordered them a plentiful allowance of
grog. After regaling themselves with the very acceptable donation of
their commander, they washed themselves, and began to coil away the
boat lines, and prepare for the fishing. In every boat there is a line,
720 fathoms long, to the end of which is fixed a harpoon about eight
feet five inches long; the iron part is better than two feet long,
and is extremely sharp. On each side of the point is placed a barb, or
wither, diverging from the harpoon at an angle of nearly forty degrees,
to prevent the instrument from flinching and losing its hold. There
are also several lances, or spears, about six feet long, the points of
which are about two inches broad: by these the whales are killed after
being struck with the harpoons.
A boat’s crew consists of a harpooner, a boat-steerer, a line-manager,
and three or four men, more or less, according to the size of the boat.
2d, Cast off, and made for a large iceberg, one mile to the east, to
which we made fast, and were soon after closed in by the ice. This
iceberg was twenty feet high, and mostly composed of fresh water ice.
We had not been above two hours in this situation before a strong gale
cleared away the ice, and we discovered South Cape in Spitzbergen,
bearing north-east, distant thirty miles.
May 3d, Sailed for Charles Island on the west coast of Spitzbergen, the
most southern part of which is in latitude 78°.
We were much impeded in our course by ice, which, according to the
Greenland phrase, was very _rank_, around us. The ship struck
occasionally on masses of considerable size, to the no little surprise
of those sailors who were making their first voyage hither. We had
this day a piece of fresh beef cooked for dinner, which we brought
from England; it tasted as well, and was as full of juice as if newly
killed: as did all the fowls which we got at Shetland: These were hung
by the legs to a rope upon the quarter-deck; but neither plucked nor
gutted. Our eggs likewise preserved their good taste. This proves the
antiseptic power of intense cold.
4th, Intense frost. Ice-bound, with several sail in company.
5th, Strong gales. Unhung the rudder.
6th, The ship towed through very rank ice, by four boats manned by half
the crew. Ten sail in company.
7th, Made fast to an iceberg about seventy yards long and forty broad,
and about twenty feet above the surface of the water. It was very much
furrowed, and, from its great depth, drifted but little, while the
lesser fragments of ice were driven past it at the rate of about two
knots an hour.
I had this day a complete proof of the fallacy of the opinion, which
maintained that salt water did not freeze. All around the ship, ice
was formed on the surface of the water; I observed the spiculæ darting
with considerable velocity, and in an immense variety of forms. This
ice, when newly formed, is of a bay colour, and when it has attained
the thickness of window glass is called by the sailors, _bay ice_. It
is rough on the surface, and opaque; if the frost be not interrupted
by a swell of the sea, or storm, the salt-water ice often extends to
an immense distance. It is by the Greenland sailors termed a _field_,
when of such extent that the eye cannot reach its bounds. The smaller
fragments of salt-water ice are called _seal meadows_, and on them
these animals often sport by hundreds.
In storms large masses of ice are frequently piled on each other, to a
considerable height; these are called _packs_, and often assume a very
fantastic appearance. The grinding noise occasioned by the collision of
those huge masses of ice against each other, and against the ship, not
only fills the mind of the auditor with a degree of horror, but, for a
considerable time, deprives him of the sense of hearing.
Storms in those seas are so extremely dangerous, that the most powerful
pens could convey but a faint representation of their horrific
sublimity.-- The fury of the ocean is but the least of the enemies
the sailor has to contend with. If the ship, during a storm, should be
encircled by ice, there is hardly a possibility of avoiding impending
fate.
8th, Discovered the south point of Prince Charles’ Island, bearing
east, distant six leagues.
On the 11th, we made Fair Foreland, or Vogel Hook, the northern
extremity of Charles’ Island and on the 13th, we reached the southern
extremity of the westernmost cape, forming Cross-bay in Spitzbergen, at
a short distance from which, we were made fast to a large iceberg.
Spitzbergen is a general appellation given to a vast assemblage of
frozen islands, lying between South Cape, in 76° 30´, and Verlegan
Hook, in 80° 7´ north latitude. Its greatest breadth is from the
westernmost part of Mauritius, or Amsterdam Island, called Hackluyt’s
Headland, to the extreme east point of North-Eastland, comprising from
9° to nearly 24° east longitude.
The inhospitable nature of this frozen climate has prevented
Spitzbergen from being properly explored. The best charts that have
been published are extremely defective, and its larger divisions
are but imperfectly defined. It could nowise interest the reader to
peruse a dry catalogue of headlands or straits; and a few general
observations may suffice to exhaust all that is interesting in its
appearance.
The general aspect of this gloomy and sterile country, affords a scene
truly picturesque and sombre. The shores are rugged, bold and terrific,
being in many places formed by lofty, black, inaccessible rocks, some
of which taper to exceedingly high points, and are altogether bare, and
almost destitute of vegetation. The entire face of the country exhibits
a wild, dreary landscape, of amazingly high[9] sharp-pointed mountains,
some of which rear their summits above the clouds, and are capped with
strata of snow, probably coeval with the creation of the world.
[9] The altitude of one near the Black Point, south end, was found, by
the megameter, to be 1503 yards. Phipps’ _Voyages_, p. 87.
“So Zembla’s rocks (the beauteous work of frost,)
Rise white in air, and glitter o’er the coast:
Pale suns, unfelt, at distance roll away,
And on th’ impassive ice the lightnings play;
Eternal snows, the growing mass supply,
Till the bright mountains prop th’ incumbent sky;
As Atlas fix’d each hoary pile appears,
The gather’d winter of a thousand years.”
The mountains of Spitzbergen have been observed, by voyagers, to
decline in altitude towards the east; neither are the eastern mountains
so black, steep, or naked, as those more to the west. This curious
phenomenon is considered by some naturalists as a general law of
nature. The mountains here are totally composed of one entire and
single mass of granite. The only fissures discovered in their vast
extent, are formed by the intensity of the frost rending them assunder.
They burst with a noise like thunder, and often huge fragments are torn
from the summits, and rolled with great impetuosity to the base.
The glaciers are the most astonishing of all the natural phenomena
of this county. It would only convey a faint representation of their
size and magnificence, to say, that they far surpassed those of
Switzerland. Travellers who have been in both countries, declare there
is no comparison between them. Perhaps the most proper method to form
a just conception of their magnitude, is by considering the size of
the icebergs, which, as previously stated, are fragments of them.
One of these masses, according to Phipps, has been found grounded in
twenty-four fathoms water, while it towered above the surface to the
height of fifty feet. Almost every valley can boast of its glacier,
some of which vie with the mountains in height. They are occasionally
hollow, and immense cascades of water are precipitated from them.
The magnificence of this scene it is impossible to describe. The gloomy
silence of the surrounding country, the hoarse noise of the water
dashing from an immense height, and the magnificent effect produced by
the reflection of the solar rays, form a _tout ensemble_ which can only
be faintly conceived.
Though the mountains of Spitzbergen consist generally of rocks of
primary formation, it is not altogether destitute of those of a later
origin. Captain Phipps discovered several species of marble, which
dissolved readily in muriatic acid. On the east side of the country,
potters’ clay and gypsum have been found, and different specimens of
talc, mica, and lapis olearis, are to be met with. Phipps did not
perceive any metallic ores in this country, nor, as far as I know, have
other voyagers discovered any. The interior of the country, however,
has been very little, if at all, explored, and it would therefore be
wrong to conclude against their existence from this circumstance, more
especially as they are said to be found in Greenland.
Solid as the rocks of this barren country are, their disintegration has
gone on to a considerable extent. The combined effects of cataracts,
formed of melted snow, of frosts, and tempests, are at once perceived
in the quantity of grit, or coarse sand, worn down from the mountains.
This sterile substance, (the only thing among the rocks resembling
soil,) is somewhat fertilized by the putrified _lichens_, and dung of
wild birds.
No fountains, or springs of fresh water, are to be found here; frost
arrests the watery fluid in its course, and prevents it from ascending
to the surface. The cascades falling from the glaciers, are solely
formed of melted snow, and with this only the navigators can be
supplied.
This inhospitable climate is not entirely destitute of vegetation;
some plants are found, which brave the rigour of perpetual frost,
and convey some faint representation of a more southern country.
They are generally short, crabbed, and have a wretched appearance.
The _Salix herbacea_, (dwarf willow,) the most vigorous of them all,
scarcely rises two inches from the ground. Among the few herbs, the
_Cochlearia_, (scurvy grass,) deserves the first rank, as being the
providential resource of distempered seamen. Here are also found
several species of _Lichen_, (liverwort,) _Saxifraga_, _Ranunculus_,
_Bryum_, and a few others, of little or no use in the medical world.
On the west side of Spitzbergen there are some safe harbours and roads
for ships. The sea near the shore is, for the most part, shallow,
and the bottom rocky; but it often suddenly deepens to some hundred
fathoms, where the lead sinks in soft mud, and sometimes mixed with
shells. In Smeerenberg, which has a sandy bottom, vessels may ride in
thirteen fathoms water not far from the shore, where they are sheltered
from all winds.
The tide, from the number of islands through which it passes, flows
very irregularly, in some places only three and four feet.
Mr. Marten has affirmed, that the sun here, at midnight, appears
with all the faintness of the moon; but his assertion has not been
corroborated by the experience of subsequent voyagers. During my
stay in this country, in 1806 and 1807, distinction between day and
night was almost completely lost. Any perceptible difference between
the splendour and radiance of the mid-day and mid-night sun, in
clear weather, (if these expressions may be used,) arose only from a
different degree of altitude. Some of our most experienced Greenland
sailors, when called upon deck, have frequently asked me whether it
was day or night; and I have often seen them obliged, even in clear
sun-shine, to consult the quadrant on this head. I may add, that
Captain Phipps has also contradicted Mr. Marten in the most positive
manner.
The temperature here is extremely fluctuating. Sometimes the heat is so
great as to melt the pitch on the decks and cordage of the vessels, and
in a few minutes after, succeed high winds, snow, and frost. The sky,
even in calm and serene weather, is covered with dense white clouds,
the repositories of the snow so often falling.
The degree of heat experienced in these northern latitudes being
so much greater than is experienced in the same latitudes in the
southern hemisphere, is supposed to proceed from the greater quantity
of land in the north reflecting the rays of the sun, which in the
south are absorbed by the ocean. Whatever hypothesis may be adduced
to account for the greater temperature of the north, the fact itself
is indisputable. Terra del Fuego, situated only in fifty-five degrees
south latitude, is extremely cold; and Captain Cook could not penetrate
farther than the seventy-first degree of latitude, a distance far short
of what the Greenland ships are every year in the habit of sailing
towards the other Pole.
Thunder and lightning are unknown at Spitzbergen, or at least are
extremely rare. Forster supposes that the electric exhalations in a
country so much covered with snow must be very few, and these so much
consumed by the frequency of the _Aurora Borealis_, that there is
never collected at one time a quantity of fluid sufficient to produce
thunder and lightning. That luminous appearance, so often observed
during a storm in this country, he alleges to be the effect of volcanic
eruptions; though this, I confess, seems to me extremely problematical.
Vid. Forster’s _Hist. Voyages_, p. 486.
There is a great diversity among the accounts given by different
travellers, of the forms assumed by the new fallen snow in this
country. During hard frost, I always observed that the flakes closely
resembled an asterisk with six points. As the temperature varied,
their appearance was changed, which may, perhaps, serve to explain the
differences alluded to.
The one summer day of Spitzbergen continues from about the middle of
May to the middle of October, when the sun bids a long adieu to this
northern region. The horrors of winter are discovered, not alleviated,
by the splendour of the _Aurora Borealis_, and the pale lustre of the
moon.