BRAZIL: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Brazil presents in physical characteristics more variety than is
generally supposed. As the great Amazon Basin is in striking contrast
to the immense Andean Range, the entire country is thought of as hot.
Since it extends from 5° 10′ N. Lat. to 33° 45′ S. Lat. with the
widest part near the equator, the greater portion of the territory is
evidently in the torrid zone, 11° only in the temperate, with more than
twice that in the tropics. However, in this comparatively low country,
there is happily a variation in altitude sufficient to affect the
climate and to give rise to variety in productions; to which diversity
the 11° in the temperate zone also contribute. The territory may be
considered as in four general sections: the Amazon Basin, the Plata
(the two almost connected over low elevations), the Coastal Belt, and
a mass of mountains and highlands along the coastal states, extending
also at a lower level across to Bolivia. In addition there are the
Guiana Highlands at the north.
THE COASTAL BELT
The coastal section is largely a low-lying sandy tract, varied by swamp
lands overgrown with palms or other verdure, and slopes covered with
dense tropical vegetation. Without deep indentations in the form of
gulfs and bays there is a considerable number of good harbors. In the
far south two large lakes have been created which are connected with
the ocean. The coastal strip varies in width from one to 100 miles.
THE GUIANA HIGHLANDS
Of the mountainous regions, the range forming the boundary line with
Venezuela and Guiana on the north with its offshoots and the country
between has attracted little interest and been but slightly explored.
From Mt. Roraima, 8500 feet, at the corner of Venezuela and British
Guiana, the range lowers toward the East, the highest point on the
French frontier being about 2600 feet. South of this are broken
ranges and deep river courses on the Brazilian plateau, which with
an altitude of 2000 feet slopes south and east. Excepting the part
near the coast, this section called Brazilian Guiana is semi-arid, on
account of the mountains extracting the moisture from the northeast
trade winds. Inhabited by a few roving bands of Indians and in the east
visited by white mining adventurers, it has been deemed one of the
least attractive parts of the Republic. Recent exploration, however,
has reported an extent of valuable forest lands and immense areas of
open country suited to cattle ranges. A railway from British Guiana is
talked of to render this district accessible to the outside world.
THE PLATEAU AND MOUNTAIN REGION
An important part of Brazil is the plateau region (altitude 1000-3000
feet) south of the Amazon, especially that portion extending along
the coastal states. The greater part of the central section was once
covered with a thick sandstone sheet, now deeply eroded by numerous
rivers which have left high flat ridges between the lower basins. The
true mountain systems which rise from the plateau are parallel ranges
following the coast, and the Central or Goyana system. An almost
continuous range, the Serra do Mar, stretches from Rio Grande do Sul
to Cape Frio, just east of Rio de Janeiro; beyond this, farther from
the coast, broken sections extend well towards Cape St. Roque in Rio
Grande do Norte. The highest point in the Serra do Mar or Coast Range
is 7223 feet in the Organ Mountains near Rio, as the capital city is
often called for short and may be so understood when here used.
A second parallel range runs from Eastern São Paulo northeast and
north to the point where the São Francisco River turns east in Bahia;
Itatiaiá, 9823 feet, in Rio de Janeiro State, is its culminating point
in Brazil. West of the São Francisco River is the Central or Goyaz
Range, also in two branches, running from the southern part of Goyaz
northeast, one branch across western Minas Geraes, the other in Goyaz
with highlands extending far north separating the Tocantins Basin from
the São Francisco, and in the south separating it from the Paraná. The
highest point is near the city of Goyaz, Mt. Pyraneus, 7750 feet. How
the great table-land has been broken down by rivers is shown by the
Tocantins-Araguaya Basin excavated northward for 700 miles. From 100 to
500 miles wide, it is from 10 to 1500 feet deep.
The eastern margin of the plateau is near the Atlantic where it breaks
off suddenly with an average height of 2600-3200 feet. This plateau is
the best part of the country, the Atlantic slope heavily wooded, the
more gradual west slope with many grass covered plains. A fertile soil,
rich forests, and regular rainfall make this a favored region. Farther
north than Minas Geraes, the section has less rain, is thinly wooded in
places, with large areas suited to grazing but subject to drought. The
plateau extends across Brazil north of Paraguay abruptly breaking down
from a height of 2600-3000 feet towards the Paraná and Paraguay Basins.
It has a gradual slope towards the Amazon, the parts excavated by the
rivers having lowland characteristics.
THE AMAZON BASIN
The section of the Amazon Basin is indeed immense. The whole drainage
area with that of the Tocantins, generally included though not strictly
a component part, spreads over 2,700,000 square miles, much of it as
we have already seen outside of Brazil, and occupying two-fifths of
South America. This area is greater than the basins of the Mississippi,
Missouri, Danube, and Nile, all combined. The course of one tributary
to the sea is 3200 miles. Of the 55 largest rivers in the world, it is
said that 33 are mainly if not wholly in Brazil. Twenty-seven thousand
miles of navigable rivers are found in the country, the greater part
connected with the Amazon, which is itself navigable for ocean steamers
to Iquitos, Peru, a distance of 2300 miles, and 486 miles farther for
vessels of 14 feet draft. The true mouth of the Amazon is west and
north of the Marajos Island which is greater in area than Holland
or Belgium, while the Pará River at the south and east is the mouth
of the Tocantins. This, however, is the usual entrance for Amazon
steamers even when they do not wish to call at Pará, for this river is
connected by natural channels among islands with the greater stream,
and the northern entrance has too strong a current to be desirable
for navigation. As a matter of convenience the Tocantins is generally
included with the Amazon in descriptions. The depth of the estuary is
90-900 feet, averaging 150.
=The Tocantins River= is a great artery of Brazil flowing from south
to north a distance of 1600 miles, with a west affluent, the Araguaya,
almost its equal in size and 1000 miles long above the union. Both
rivers receive many tributaries. The flat broad valleys are overlooked
by steep bluffs. The cataracts and rapids which occur on nearly all of
the rivers as they come down from the plateau greatly interfere with
navigation, but in their lower courses many are navigable for hundreds
of miles, the Tocantins for 130.
=The Xingú=, the next river, with a length of 1260 miles is the first
true tributary of the Amazon on the south. This also flows nearly
north with many rapids and at last a fall, Itamaracá, at the head of
navigation, 105 miles from its mouth. Near this the river expands
into a great lake which communicates with the Amazon by many natural
channels.
=The Tapajós=, 1158 miles long, entering the Amazon about 500 miles
above Pará, rises near Diamantino on the plateau, and flows through a
long, hot, unhealthful valley. One hundred and eighty-eight miles are
navigable, the lower 100 of these being 4-9 miles wide and throughout
much of its course very deep. Along the lower river valley are bluffs
300-400 feet high.
=The Madeira=, entering 870 miles above Pará, almost rivals the Amazon
in volume. In the rainy season, during which it rises 50 feet, the
largest ocean steamers may ascend 665 miles to the falls of Santo
Antonio and the Madeira-Mamoré Railway; from June to December it is
navigable for vessels of 5-6 foot draft only. Tributary to the Madeira
on the east is the river formerly called the Duvida, first completely
traversed by Colonel Roosevelt and his party and now named in his honor
Rio Roosevelt. The Madeira which has 90 tributaries and a basin of
over 600,000 square miles is formed a little higher up by the junction
of the Beni and Mamoré, both of which streams rise close to the head
waters of the Paraguay. From Santo Antonio south, the Madeira-Mamoré
is obstructed for 263 miles by a series of rapids and cataracts, the
Madeira Falls, where the Beni comes in, presenting a vast display of
whirlpool and boiling torrents. Above Santo Antonio the drainage is
received of the southwest slope of the State of Matto Grosso, the north
slope of the Chiquitos Sierras, and the northeast slope of the Andes
from Santa Cruz de la Sierra in Bolivia to Cuzco in Peru. The most
important of the affluents are the Guaporé, Baurés, Itonamas, Mamoré,
Beni, and Madre de Dios. The almost level Mojos and Beni plains are
said to rival if not to exceed in fertility the Nile Valley; they are
the most healthful and most inviting grazing and agricultural regions
in the Amazon Basin, which has an area about equal to that of France
and Spain. However, 35,000 square miles are flooded 2-3 feet, three or
four months every year.
=The Purús=, over 2000 miles in length, is a very sluggish stream
parallel to the Madeira, in the great depression between the Brazilian
plateau and the Andes. A peculiar feature is five parallel canals
coming into it from the Amazon northwest at almost regular intervals,
making five low islands; and nearer to the great river are three more.
The Purús is navigable for light steamers 1648 miles five months in the
year; for 800 miles its depth is not less than 45 feet. The lands are
subject to inundation, the river at times rising 50 feet.
=The Juruá= is a similar river, navigable for 1133 miles.
=The Javary=, the boundary line between Brazil and Peru, is navigable
for craft 260 miles. The region is occupied by savages.
=The Trombetes.= On the north side of the Amazon there are fewer
important rivers, the Trombetes, the first from the east, which is
navigable 135 miles, comes from the Guiana Highlands.
=The Negro=, 900 miles from Pará, 1500 miles long, is navigable for
450 miles forming midway a succession of lagoons, and overflowing its
banks, often for a width of 20 miles. The rivers farther west have been
sufficiently described.
The average depth of the Amazon is 50 feet, the current is three miles
an hour. Beginning to rise in November the river is fullest in June,
then falling to November. The Madeira, which rises and falls two months
earlier, is in places 4-6 miles wide. The width of the Amazon is 20-60
miles, while in periods of inundation the forest is partly submerged
for a width of 400 miles.
THE PLATA BASIN
A much smaller portion of Brazil lies in the basin of La Plata; this,
at least for the moment, is the best and richest part of the entire
country, containing the greatest population outside of the coastal
fringe.
=The Uruguay.= At the south the several rivers forming the Uruguay,
which rise in the Serra do Mar, drain Rio Grande do Sul and part of
Santa Catharina, while from there up to the north end of São Paulo and
into Goyaz only a narrow coast region is outside the Paraná Basin.
=The Paraná.= The most remote source of the Paraná, that of the branch
Paranahyba, is in the Serra Pyreneos in Goyaz, while the Rio Grande
branch rises in the Serra da Mantiqueira near the peak Itatiaiá, so to
say, in sight of Rio. Many affluents are received from the States of
São Paulo and Paraná, these generally flowing northwest or west; the
Paraná itself flows southwest forming the western boundary of those
States. A branch, the Tiété, in São Paulo, 700 miles long, is broken by
54 rapids and two falls. The Paranapanema in Paraná, 600 miles long,
is navigable for 30 miles. The Iguassú, rising in the Serra do Mar in
Santa Catharina and flowing west is hardly navigable for canoes.
Twenty-eight miles above the mouth of the Tiété the course of the
Paraná is interrupted by the Falls of Urubupungá. From here to
the Guaira or Sete Quedas Falls, 400 miles, there is unobstructed
navigation. At this point the river forms a lake 4¹⁄₂ miles long and
2¹⁄₂ wide before cutting through the Serra de Maracajú. Then after
rushing through a deep and narrow gorge for two miles, it plunges
down a long cañon hardly 200 feet wide in a series of rapids or falls
called the Sete Quedas, Seven Falls. It is reported as able to supply
over a million horse power, probably the most of any cataract in the
world. Again the river is navigable from a little below the falls, and
with regular service it forms an outlet for the State of Paraná to the
ocean.
=The Paraguay.= The River Paraguay rises near Diamantino in Matto
Grosso receiving a number of tributaries from that State, one of which,
the Cuyabá, called the São Lourenço lower down, has its source close to
that of the Tapajós branch of the Amazon.
COAST RIVERS AND LAKES
=Other rivers= flow directly into the Atlantic, several of some
importance. North of the Amazon a few small rivers are called
auriferous, the Araguary of considerable length. South of the Amazon
Delta, some rivers flow north and northeast among the mountain ridges,
others directly to the ocean. Of the former the most important are the
Parnahyba, 900 miles long, navigable in sections, and farther south the
São Francisco, the largest river of the coastal region, navigable 192
miles from the coast to the fine Paulo Affonso Falls, and above these
for a much greater distance. The Jequitinhonha, 500 miles long, has 84
miles navigable. The most important river south of the São Francisco is
the Parahyba do Sul, 658 miles long, rising in the State of São Paulo
and flowing across Rio. It is navigable from its mouth a distance of 57
miles and 90 in its upper course.
=The Ribeira de Iguapé.= The only coast river of economic importance
south of Cape Frio is the Ribeira de Iguapé which rises on the
table-land of Paraná and after receiving several affluents breaks
through the mountains near the boundary of São Paulo. Besides a
navigable channel of 118 miles it communicates with an inland waterway
called the Iguapé or Mar Pequeno, extending many miles along the coast.
In Rio Grande do Sul, where the coastal plain extends half across the
State, several rivers partly navigable flow into the important Lagôa
dos Patos, with which is connected by a navigable channel, 61 miles
long, the Lagôa Mirím.
=Lakes.= The Lakes of Brazil are few in comparison with the rivers.
Those in the Amazon Basin are reservoirs from the overflow of the
rivers and rise and fall with these. The coastal section has lagoons
and inland channels formed by uplifted beaches; they are usually
shallow and some, as in Bahia, are associated with swamps; but on the
Alagôas coast the lakes are long, narrow, and deep. The largest coastal
lakes are the two in Rio Grande do Sul already mentioned, separated
by broad sand beaches from the ocean, with which they communicate by
a channel 42 miles long at the south end of the Lagôa dos Patos. This
lake is 140 miles long and 30 wide; the Mirím is 78 miles long and at
the most 25 wide. Both are navigable, though shallow and with many sand
bars.
CLIMATE
This great country of Brazil presents considerable diversity of
climate, as already observed. The forest covered Amazon Basin is hot,
with slight variation throughout the year, and with heavy rainfalls;
but while the average temperature is over 80°, ranging from 65° to 95°,
some locations are decidedly preferable to others. The regular rainy
season is from November to March, a second of less degree from August
to October; also the rainy season is said to last nine months. On the
upper Amazon there is a short dry season in January and February. There
is a flood time November, December, and higher water from March to
June. The average rainfall is about 78 inches, the rise of the river
45 feet. There are east winds, warm and moisture laden, the deflected
trades, and colder winds from the west and southwest.
The coast region as far south as Santos is generally warm and humid
(except for a stretch at the northeast), with a wet and dry season,
though it rains also in the latter, except on the arid northeast coast.
A variation occurs in Pernambuco where it rains from March to August,
the dry and cooler season in Rio. Here on the edge of the tropics the
annual temperature is 5° lower than on the Amazon. At Santos rainfall
is heavy and the place is hot, but farther south it is cooler with a
wider range of temperature and a more even distribution of rain. In Rio
Grande do Sul the mercury ranges from 20° to 80°. Cold southwest storms
from the Argentine pampa, occasionally as far as Rio, create discomfort
for two or three days at a time. The highest temperature in Rio is
98.7°.
The Brazilian plateau is very different. As a rule the days are
hotter and the nights cooler, the air drier, than on the coast at
the same latitude. With mean temperature 68° there is occasional
frost. Brazilian Guiana is hot and arid, though with more rain at the
east and west than in the centre. South of the Amazon from Piauhy to
southern Bahia is another semi-arid section with a rainless season
from June to December, when streams are dry and fields are burned
bare. With heavy rains from January to May, the country is covered
with verdure; when these fail, sometimes for successive years, the
droughts are destructive to agriculture and cattle. The plateaus of
Minas, São Paulo, and Rio have a climate which is modified by luxuriant
vegetation, south winds, and their altitude; though Minas Geraes,
having forests only along the rivers and at the south, is hotter by
day, but with always cool nights. The open lands of São Paulo also have
higher daily temperature; the annual mean is 68°-77°. In south Minas
and São Paulo frosts occasionally occur. In the State of Rio there is a
delightful climate in the high valleys of the Serra do Mar, temperature
45°-90°. The table-lands farther south, Paraná, Santa Catharina,
and Rio Grande do Sul enjoy a temperate climate with abundant rain,
occasional frost, but no snow. The northern valleys of the Paraná River
are sub-tropical, the mean annual temperature of Goyaz City being 77°.
The country over a large extent may be considered healthful; the
yellow fever which once afflicted Rio and some other cities has been
exterminated by rigid sanitary measures, and the conditions of life
on the eastern plateau and in the temperate south are agreeable.
The Amazon Valley is of course malarial, though some sections are
far better than others. It would seem that the lower parts which
are subject to inundation can hardly be made suitable for residence
whatever precautions are taken; but the higher lands may be to some
extent free of malarial poison, and certain parts have a climate which
some Europeans, even Englishmen enjoy.