METHODS OF CLASSIFICATION OF THE STRATA.
Earth-history like human history is the record of an unbroken chain of
events. The agents which have produced geological phenomena have been
in operation since the earth came into existence. Accordingly a
perfect earth-history would be written as a continuous narrative, just
as would a complete history of the human race. The historian of man
finds it not only convenient but necessary to divide the epoch of
which he is writing into periods of time, and so does the geologist,
and in each case the division is necessarily more or less arbitrary.
It is true that in writing the history or geology of a country, marked
events stand out which form a convenient means of making divisions,
but the marked events occurring in one country are not likely to take
place simultaneously with those of another country, and consequently a
classification of this character is only locally applicable.
The classification which is at present used by geologists was
originally founded upon definite principles, and although our
principles of classification have, as will appear, been somewhat
altered subsequently, it has been found more convenient to modify the
original classification than to adopt a new one in its entirety.
The largest divisions into which the strata of the geological column
were separated were instituted because of the supposed extinction of
faunas, and sudden or rapid replacement by other faunas of an entirely
different character. This supposed rapid extinction and replacement is
now known to have been only apparent and due to observation in
restricted areas, and it is doubtful whether the three great divisions
founded upon them are not rather mischievous than useful, as tending
to disseminate wrong notions.
Moreover there is considerable diversity of opinion as to the terms to
be adopted. The rocks were formerly divided into Primary, Secondary,
and Tertiary. Owing chiefly to the use of the term Primary in another
sense, the alternative titles Palæozoic, Mesozoic and Cainozoic (or
Cænozoic) were suggested, and though the term Primary has been
definitely abandoned in favour of Palæozoic, the words Secondary and
Tertiary are used extensively as synonyms of Mesozoic and Cainozoic.
It was soon perceived that the period of time included in the
Palæozoic age was much longer than the combined periods of Secondary
and Tertiary ages, and it was proposed to group the latter under one
title Neozoic, whilst another suggestion was to split the Palæozoic
age into an earlier Proterozoic and later Deuterozoic division. The
interest excited by the advent of man is probably the cause of the
attempt to establish a Quaternary division, which some hold to be a
minor subdivision of the Tertiary, whilst others would separate it
altogether. The terms Palæozoic, Mesozoic (or Secondary) and Cainozoic
(or Tertiary) are now used so generally that any attempt to abolish
them would be doomed to failure, but it must be remembered that they
are purely arbitrary expressions, and the other terms which are not in
general use, might be dropped with advantage.
The other subdivisions have been used somewhat loosely, and although
an attempt has been made by the International Geological Congress to
restrict certain names to subdivisions of varying degrees of value, it
will probably be found best to allow of a certain elasticity in the
use of terms, merely agreeing that they shall be used as nearly as
possible with the signification assigned to them by the Congress.
According to this classification, and apart from the division into
Palæozoic, Mesozoic and Cainozoic, the strata of the geological column
are grouped into _Systems_, which are subdivided into _Series_, and
the series are further split up into _Stages_. A number of
chronological terms were also suggested, of equivalent importance,
thus the beds of a _system_ would be deposited during a _Period_,
those of a _series_ during an _Epoch_, and those of a _stage_ during
an _Age_[15].
[Footnote 15: The chronological words have been used so loosely that
it is doubtful whether any good will come of trying to restrict their
use, and Sir A. Geikie has pointed out the confusion which would arise
if the term _group_ be employed for the largest divisions (Palæozoic,
&c.). The terms _System_, _Series_ and _Stage_ may well be employed in
the senses suggested by the Congress.]
The rocks of the Geological Column were originally divided into
systems, owing to the occurrence of marked physical and
palæontological breaks between the rocks of two adjacent systems,
except in cases where a complete change occurred locally in the
lithological characters of the rocks of two systems which were in
juxtaposition: it is necessary to consider for awhile the nature of
these breaks.
The most apparent physical break is where the rocks of one set of
deposits rest unconformably upon the rocks of another one, indicating
that the older set has been uplifted and to some extent eroded before
the deposition of the strata of the newer set. This uplift and erosion
signifies a change from oceanic to continental conditions in the area
in which unconformity is found on a large scale, and accordingly a
long period of time would elapse during which the continental surface
would not receive deposits, so that the highest rocks of the
underlying system would be considerably older than the lowest rocks of
the one which succeeds it. Such a break may be obviously utilised for
purposes of classification, but as some areas of the earth's surface
must have been occupied by the waters of the ocean when other regions
formed land, deposit in some areas must constantly have occurred
simultaneously with denudation in others, and any classification
founded upon the existence of unconformities will therefore have a
purely local value.
Another, and less apparent physical break, which will also be locally
applicable, may be due to the depression of an area to so great a
depth that little or no deposit was formed upon the ocean floor there
during the period of great depression; but as a break of this
character is difficult to detect, the existence of unconformities has
alone been practically utilised as a means of separating strata into
systems owing to marked physical change, except in the cases where the
lithological character of the strata completely changes, as between
the Triassic and Jurassic rocks of England.
[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
Palæontological breaks or breaks in the succession of organisms are in
many cases, the result of physical breaks, and accordingly it is often
possible to separate one set of strata from another by the existence
of a combined physical and palæontological break between them. It is
by no means necessary however that a physical break should be
accompanied by a break in succession of the organisms, and the latter
may also occur without the former. It was once maintained that a
palæontological break was due to the complete and sudden extinction of
a fauna and its entire replacement by a new one, but this is far from
true, and accordingly the breaks differ in degree. Study of the strata
shows that when the succession is not to any extent interrupted, the
species do not appear simultaneously, but come in at different
horizons, and they disappear in the same way. In Figure 2 let _A_
represent a set of conformable strata _ab ... k_, and suppose the
vertical lines represent the ranges of the various species found in
these strata. It will be seen that of 27 species whose range is shown
only 2 pass through the whole thickness, so that the fauna of _k_ is
very different from the fauna of _a_, nevertheless the fauna of each
stratum is closely similar to that of the underlying as well as to
that of the overlying stratum, and though most of the species of _k_
are different from those of _a_, this need not be the case with the
genera. The fauna of the set of strata would contain every species
whose range is represented, and for convenience' sake it might be said
to be composed of sub-faunas, one of which occurs in each division
_ab_ ..., but the separation into sub-faunas would be artificial and
merely for convenience' sake, for there is no break between any two
sub-faunas. Turning now to _B_ (Fig. 2), an attempt is made there to
show what happens when there has been a physical break, resulting in
the denudation of the strata _ghik_, and the deposition of another set
_op_ ... unconformably upon those deposits of the earlier set which
have not been denuded. As the result of this we note, first, that the
relics of organisms which existed in the area during the deposition of
_ghik_, and were entombed in those strata, are destroyed by the
processes of denudation, and a large number of organisms which lived
long after the deposition of _f_, and disappeared not simultaneously
but at different times during the period when denudation was in
operation, seem to become extinct simultaneously at the top of _f_,
though, if we could visit an area which was receiving sediment during
the period of denudation, we should find them dying out in the rocks
of that region at different levels. Furthermore, whilst denudation is
going on, a longer or shorter period of time elapses, during which the
upheaved area receives no deposit, and accordingly no organisms which
lived during that period are preserved in the upheaved area. During
this time a set of deposits _lmn_ may have been laid down elsewhere,
and besides the gradual disappearance of some of the organisms of _ab
... k_, there will have been a gradual appearance of new species.
When the upheaved area is once more submerged, a new set of deposits
_op_ ... is accumulated in it, and the species which gradually
appeared in adjoining regions will now migrate to it, and will seem to
come in simultaneously at the bottom of _o_; accordingly we may find
that there is not a single species which passes through from _f_ to
_o_ and the palæontological break in this area is complete, though it
is clear that it only implies local change, and that we may and indeed
must find intermediate forms in other regions which fill up the gap.
As an illustration of the local character of a palæontological break
we may cite the case of the Carboniferous and Permian systems of
Britain. These rocks are separated from one another in our area by a
physical and palæontological break, but in parts of India, and other
places, we find a group of rocks now known as the Permo-Carboniferous
rocks which contain a fauna intermediate in character between those of
the Permian and Carboniferous systems, and a study of this fauna shows
that the hiatus which exists locally is filled by the species
contained in the Permo-Carboniferous rocks.
A palæontological break may, like a physical one, result from
depression of the ocean-floor to so great a depth, that no organisms
are preserved there during the period of great depression, and the
remarks made concerning a depression of this nature when speaking of
physical breaks will apply here also.
A local palæontological break may result owing to physical changes
without the production of an unconformity in the area, or its
submergence to a great depth, or if an unconformity is found, the
break may be more marked owing to other physical changes. The
difference between the Upper and Lower Carboniferous faunas is very
marked in England, where the Upper Carboniferous beds were deposited
under physical conditions different from those of the Lower
Carboniferous, and accordingly the corals, crinoids and other
open-water animals which flourished in Lower Carboniferous times are
rare or altogether absent in the higher rocks. Where the change of
conditions did not occur to a great extent as in parts of Spain and
North America, the similarity between the two faunas is much more
pronounced. Again, there is an unconformity between the Cretaceous and
Eocene beds of England, which is accompanied by a palæontological
break, but this break is more pronounced owing to difference of
physical conditions, for we find abundance of gastropods in the lower
Tertiary beds, and a rarity of these shells at the top of the chalk of
England, though where physical conditions were favourable for the
growth of gastropods, their shells are found in the higher strata of
chalk age, and the palæontological break is not so apparent.
A palæontological break may occur also as the result of climatic
change, though actual instances of this occurrence are much more
difficult to detect owing to the general absence of any evidence of
climatic change other than that supplied by the organisms themselves.
Still, when no physical break exists, and the lithological characters
of a group of sediments remain constant throughout, indicating the
prevalence of similar physical conditions through the period of
deposition of the sediments, if the fauna suddenly changes, there must
have been cause for the change, and in the absence of any other cause
which is likely to produce the change, alteration of the character of
the climate may be suspected.
It follows from the observations which have been made, that although
the rocks of the Geological Column may be divided into systems owing
to the existence of physical and palæontological breaks, and this
classification may be and has been applied generally, the line of
demarcation between the rocks of two systems will be a purely
conventional one, where there is no break, and, to avoid confusion,
that line when once drawn should be adopted by everyone, unless good
cause can be shown for its abandonment.
The subdivision of systems into series has been conducted in a manner
generally similar to that in which large masses of strata have been
grouped into systems, with the exception that actual breaks need not
occur. The subdivision was usually made on account of marked
differences in the lithological characters or fossil contents of the
rocks of the various series, and frequently the lithological
characters as well as the fossil contents are dissimilar; taking the
rocks of the Silurian system of the typical Silurian area as an
example, we find the Llandovery rocks largely arenaceous, the Wenlock
rocks largely calcareo-argillaceous, and the Ludlow rocks
argillaceo-arenaceous, whilst the fauna of the Wenlock rocks differs
from that of the Llandovery rocks below and also from that of the
Ludlow rocks above. The Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow therefore
constitute three series of the Silurian system, but the lines of
demarcation between these series are nevertheless conventional, for it
has been suggested that a more natural division, as far as the British
rocks are concerned, could be made by drawing a line, not as at
present at the base of the Ludlow, but in the middle of that series as
now defined, and uniting the Lower Ludlow beds with the Wenlock strata
to form a single series.
The same process as that adopted in the case of series has been
essentially pursued in subdividing these into stages. Each stage is
usually different from that above and below in its lithological
characters, fossil contents, or both, though the difference is usually
less in degree than that which has been utilised for the demarcation
of series. A stage is often, though not always, composed of deposits
of one kind of sediment, and is furthermore frequently characterised
by the possession of one or, it may be, two, three or more
characteristic fossils. Thus the Wenlock series is divided in the
typical area into Woolhope limestone, Wenlock shale, and Wenlock
limestone, and the very names given to these stages indicate that each
is largely composed of one kind of material. Their fossils are also to
some extent different, though the difference between them is not
likely to be of so marked a nature as that which exists between the
faunas of separate series.
It will be seen that the system differs from the series and the series
from the stage in degree rather than in kind, and no hard line can be
drawn between divisions of different degrees of magnitude. It follows
therefore that frequently a mass of sediment which one author will
consider sufficiently important to constitute a system will be defined
by another as a series, and similarly a series of one writer may
become a stage of another.
The student of Stratigraphical Geology will find the expression
'fossil zone' occurring over and over again in geological literature,
and as the term has been used somewhat vaguely by many writers and is
apt to be misunderstood, it will be useful to notice the expression at
some length.
Strictly speaking the term zone (a belt or girdle), when applied to
distribution of fossils, should refer to the belt of strata through
which a fossil or group of fossils ranges. Generally speaking, the
expression is used in connexion with one fossil; thus we speak of the
zone of _Coenograptus gracilis_, the zone of _Cidaris florigemma_ and
the zone of _Belemnites jaculum_, though sometimes it is used with
reference to more than one species, as the zone of Micrasters and the
_Olenellus_ zone. The term has been used not of a belt of strata but
of a group of organisms[16], and zones defined as "assemblages of
organic remains of which one abundant and characteristic form is
chosen as an index," but if it be agreed that the term should be
applied to strata and not to organisms this might be modified and the
definition run:--'Zones are belts of strata, each of which is
characterised by an assemblage of organic remains of which one
abundant and characteristic form is chosen as an index.'
[Footnote 16: See H. B. Woodward, "On Geological Zones," _Proc. Geol.
Assoc._, vol. XII. Part 7, p. 295, and vol. XII. Part 8, p. 313.]
It has been objected that the subdivision of strata into zones has
been pushed too far, but this is merely because in the establishment
of zones, workers find it easier to work out the successive zones
where the strata are thin and presumably deposited with extreme
slowness, than where they are much thicker and have been rapidly
accumulated, and accordingly, as the subdivision of strata into zones
is a recent event, geological literature contains many more references
to thin zones than to those of great thickness. Where an abundant and
characteristic form (which is chosen as an index) of an assemblage of
organic remains ranges through a great thickness of deposit, there is
no objection to speaking of the whole as a zone, and it cannot be
divided. To give some idea of the variations in the thickness of
strata through which these abundant and characteristic forms will
range, I append a list of the zones of graptolites which have been
established amongst the Silurian rocks of English Lakeland and the
thickness of each (which in the case of the thicker deposits is
naturally only approximate):--
Thickness.
Zone of Feet. Inches.
_Monograptus leintwardinensis_ 5000 0
_Monograptus bohemicus_ 5000 0
_Monograptus Nilssoni_ 1000 0
_Cyrtograptus Murchisoni_ 1000 0
_Monograptus crispus_ 22 0
_Monograptus turriculatus_ 60 0
_Rastutes maximus_ 25 0
_Monograptus spinigerus_ 3 0
_Monograptus Clingani_ 3 0
_Monograptus convolutus_ 7 6
_Monograptus argenteus_ 0 8
_Monograptus fimbriatus_ 7 6
_Dimorphograptus confertus_ 25 0
_Diplograptus acuminatus_ 2 6
It must not be supposed that each of the subdivisions in the above
list is of equal importance, and has occupied approximately the same
length of time for its formation, but a study of the strata proves by
various kinds of evidence that the deposits in which the
characteristic forms range through a small thickness of rock were on
the whole deposited much more slowly than where the range is
continuous through a great thickness of deposit.
The geological systems, as originally founded, were not very
accurately separated from one another except locally. A comprehensive
view of the characters of a system was taken, and accordingly the
lines of demarcation between the same systems adopted by workers in
different countries were by no means necessarily at or near the same
geological horizon. As the result of more recent work, the
establishment of fossil zones has been growing apace, and though many
of these are seen to have only local significance, it is found as the
result of experience that many of them are widely spread and occur in
the same order in different localities; accordingly the remarks that
have been made concerning the contemporaneity of strata apply to these
zones also. After a study of this kind, a much more accurate
comparison of strata is possible, and correlation of strata can be
carried on to a much greater extent than when the systems were only
roughly subdivided by reference to breaks, differences of lithological
character, and general comparison of the faunas; accordingly whilst
largely retaining the old names, the old method of classification is
being partly superseded, and the included faunas alone are utilised to
establish accurate correlations of the strata in various parts of the
world. How far this correlation can be carried on remains to be seen,
for the work though well advanced has by no means reached completion,
and predictions as to the ultimate issue are useless without the
experience by means of which only the work can be done. The difference
between the methods of classification is well shown by an examination
of the old and new divisions of the chalk. It was formerly roughly
divided mainly by lithological characters into Chalk Marl, Lower Chalk
without flints, Middle Chalk with few flints and Upper Chalk with many
flints, but no two observers would probably agree as to where the
deposit with few flints ceased and that with many commenced. The chalk
is now separated on palæontological grounds into Cenomanian, Turonian,
Senonian and Danian, and the superiority of the new method to the old
is practically shown by the abandonment of the old classification
except for very rough purposes, and the general acceptance of the new
one. Many other examples might be given, but this one will suffice. In
the case of some of the systems, the Carboniferous for example, the
old classification founded upon lithological characters is largely
extant, and it has been inferred therefore that no accurate
subdivisions of the Carboniferous rocks can be made by reference to
the faunas, owing to the rapidity with which the deposits were
accumulated. It is by no means certain because the work has not been
done that it cannot be done, and the experience obtained from a study
of other strata in which subdivisions have been established by
reference to the fauna would lead one to suppose that the
non-establishment of subdivisions of the Carboniferous strata is due
to our want of knowledge rather than to their non-existence.
The establishment of a classification on palæontological lines by no
means does away with the necessity for local classifications on a
lithological basis, and it has already been remarked that important
results will follow from a comparison of the classifications of
sediments founded on the two lines, results which have hitherto
largely escaped our attention owing to the existence of a cumbrous
classification attained by the application sometimes of one method, at
other times of the alternative one.