THE COPYISTS; AND THE PRINCIPAL CENTRES OF THE COPYING BUSINESS.
It is a matter of some importance to know by what class of persons,
chiefly, the business of copying books was practised; and it gives
no little support to our confidence in the genuineness of existing
manuscripts, to find that individuals of all ranks, influenced by
very different motives, were accustomed to devote themselves to this
employment. From the earliest times in which literature flourished,
there were, in all the principal cities of Greece and its colonies,
great numbers of professional scribes; that is to say, persons who
gained their subsistence by copying books. Labourers of this class,
it may well be supposed, aimed, in general, at nothing but to gain
custom by the fairness and the fidelity of their copies. But it appears
to have been not uncommon for persons of rank and leisure to occupy
themselves in this employment. Thus it is that in the list of copyists
we find the names of the nobles of the Constantinopolitan empire.
Some created their libraries for themselves by transcribing every
book that came in their way. To persons of a sedate temper, or who by
indisposition were confined to their homes, this occupation may be
imagined to have been highly agreeable. Nor was it a wasted labour to
those who had leisure at command; since the high price of books made
the collection of a library, by purchase, scarcely practicable, except
to the most opulent.
The influence of Christianity very greatly extended the practice
of private copying; for motives of piety operated to stimulate the
industry of very many in the good work of multiplying the sacred
books, and the works of Christian writers. The highest dignitaries
of the Church, and princes even, thought themselves well employed in
transcribing the Gospels and Epistles, the Psalter, or the homilies or
meditations of the Fathers; nor were the classic authors, as we shall
see, entirely neglected by these gratuitous copyists.
But from the third or fourth century downwards, the religious houses
were the chief sources of books, and the monks were almost the only
copyists. The employment was better suited than any other that can
be imagined, to the rules, and usages, and to the modes of feeling
peculiar to the monastic life. The mental and bodily inertness which
the spirit and rules of the conventual orders tended to produce, when
conjoined, in individuals, with some measure of native industry,
would find precisely a field for that lethargic assiduity which it
needed, in the business of copying books. In many monasteries this
employment formed the chief occupation of the inmates; and by few was
it altogether neglected.
Various appellations occur in the Greek authors, by which the several
orders of writers were designated. Among the scribes or notaries
attached to the service of public persons, there were always some who
were eminent for the rapidity with which they wrote, and who therefore
bore the title of _tachygraphoi_, or “swift writers.” But those who
followed the business of copying books, in which legibility was the
chief excellence, generally called themselves _kalligraphoi_, or “fair
writers.” Yet these appellations are often used interchangeably.
The copyists usually subscribed their names at the end of every book,
with the year in which it was executed: to which they often added the
name of the reigning emperor; sometimes, though rarely, the name of
the patriarch of Constantinople, for the time being, is added to the
subscription of the copyist. Manuscripts written in Sicily, bear the
name of its kings; those executed in the East, mention the Arabian or
Turkish princes. The Greeks of the early ages commonly dated from the
creation of the world, which they placed 5508 years before Christ.
Sometimes they reckoned time from the death of Alexander the Great;
sometimes from the accession of Philip Aridæus; sometimes from the
accession of Diocletian; and, occasionally, they give some notice of
the signal events of their times. From these incidental references
much important historical information has often been collected. These
signatures are usually written by the hand of the transcriber of the
book.
Besides the signature of the copyist, the margins of many manuscripts
contain notes--often very trivial or absurd, from the hands of
successive proprietors of the book; each accompanied with some date
or reference to persons or events, serving to fix the time of the
annotator, and, by inference, proving the antiquity of the manuscript.
In a few instances the transcribers copied the subscription of the
transcribers of the book from which they wrote; and if that former
subscription bears a date, we have a double indication of antiquity.
The fidelity of the copyists, and the genuineness and integrity of
ancient manuscripts, have been warmly and learnedly defended by the
laborious Father Mabillon, on every occasion throughout his great
work, _De Re Diplomatica_.[2] The leading motive which impelled the
indefatigable author to the prosecution of the researches of which
this work gives the result, seems to have been the desire to establish
the genuineness and integrity of ecclesiastical, and especially of
monastic charters. In the course of his inquiries, he brings forward a
vast variety and amount of information relating to the modes of writing
practised in the monasteries, and in the courts of the French kings,
during the middle ages. These facts are of course most available in
arguments that relate to the genuineness and antiquity of existing
manuscripts in the _Latin_ language; but there is so much of the
substance of the argument touching the genuineness of all ancient
writings in the following passages, that they may well be placed
before the reader. The work itself is little likely to come under the
eye of those for whom this volume is intended.
This learned writer says:--“Before I conclude this supplement, I
think it may be proper to say something concerning the integrity and
authority of ancient books, which some persons dispute. For assuredly,
if the genuineness of charters and public deeds is doubted, the
authority of ancient manuscripts in general is also called in question;
and, if these doubts can be substantiated, it will appear that those
who employ themselves in collating the printed editions of the Fathers,
or other sacred books, with ancient manuscripts, spend their labour in
vain. And hence, too, we must believe, contrary to the opinion of all
learned persons, who think the world greatly indebted to the labours of
the monks in transcribing books, that they toiled to no good purpose.
Such persons, to give colour to their opinion, affirm that the existing
ancient manuscripts were executed by ignorant men, whose blunders
are easily perceived by the learned; and on this prejudice they have
founded the decision, that manuscripts having been written, for the
most part, by unskilful hands, and derived many from one, are of little
avail in understanding or restoring an author.
“But if this principle were admitted, our confidence in the printed
editions, as well as in the ancient manuscripts, must fall to the
ground. Neither the acts of councils, the works of the Fathers, nor
the Holy Scriptures, would retain any authority. For whence, I ask,
proceeded the printed editions, both of profane and sacred writers?
were they not derived from ancient manuscripts? If, therefore, these
are of no authority, those can have none; and thus, by this paradoxical
opinion, the foundations, both of literature and of religion, are torn
up. And, on this principle, there would be no force in the argument
used by St. Augustine against the Manichæans, who calumniously affirmed
every place of Holy Scripture, by which their errors might be confuted,
to be falsified and corrupted. But Augustine, in reply to Faustus,
reminds him that whoever had first attempted such a corruption of the
Scriptures, would have immediately been confuted by a multitude of
ancient manuscripts, which were in the hands of all Christians.
“On this principle the labours of the Fathers, Jerome, Augustine, and
others, in collating ancient books with modern copies, would have been
fruitless. In vain the appeals of councils to such authorities for the
determination of controversies; in vain the costs and cares of princes
and kings in collecting manuscripts from the remotest countries. And
if the case be thus, the Vatican, the Florentine, the Ambrosian, and
the royal (French) libraries are nothing better than useless heaps of
parchment. And it was to no purpose that the Roman pontiffs and the
kings of France, as well as other prelates and princes, sent learned
men to the farthest parts of the East to obtain ancient books in
the Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and other languages. And then the ancient
transcribers must lose their credit, and especially the monks, who
devoted themselves entirely to the copying of books; such were the
disciples of St. Martin, among whom, according to Sulpicius, no art
but that of writing was practised. For they thought they could not be
better employed than while at once edifying themselves in the continual
perusal of the Holy Scriptures, and spreading the precepts of the Lord
far and wide by their pens. Of this opinion was the pious Guigo: ‘As
we cannot preach the word with our lips,’ says he, ‘let us do it with
our hands; for as many books as we transcribe, so many heralds of the
truth do we send forth.’ And thus also Peter the venerable, writing to
Gislebert, a recluse, exhorts him to diligence in this exercise: ‘For
so you may become a silent preacher of the Divine Word; and though your
tongue be mute, your hand will speak aloud in the ears of many people.
And in future times, after your death, the fruit of your toils will
remain, even as long as these books shall endure.’
“If it is affirmed that the manuscripts we possess were, for the most
part, written by unlearned persons; are they therefore undeserving of
regard? In the first place, I deny that they were generally written by
the unlearned. Certainly the blessed martyr Pamphilus, who wrote out
the greater part of the works of Origen, was not unlearned; nor was
Jerome unlearned, nor Hilarius. Of Fulgentius, the celebrated bishop
(of Ruspa), it is reported that he was famed for his skill in the
writer’s art. The same praise was earned by those holy men Lucianus,
Philoromus, and Marcellus; also by the blessed Plato and Theophanus.
The blessed Marcella the younger, as says Jerome, wrote quickly and
without fault. The venerable Bede, Radbert, Raban and others among our
learned men, discharged the function of copyists, not of their own
works only, but of those of others.
“And even if the greater part of manuscripts were written by unlearned
men, they are not therefore to be accounted unskilful copyists,
provided they read and copied accurately. Experience proves every day
that those compositors are not the most correct who understand Latin,
but that such are commonly the most faulty; especially in attempting to
correct that which they do not properly understand, and which those who
know nothing of the language set up accurately. But let it be granted
that the copyists were unlearned: we know that the printed editions are
not derived from a single copy, but from a comparison of many: the most
careless scribe does not always err, and where he does, his mistakes
are amended by the collation of the copies of others.
“In a word, there were in all well-ordered churches and monasteries,
not only learned writers who transcribed books themselves, but learned
correctors, who compared the copies made by others with the originals,
and amended whatever was erroneous. A devoted scribe, says Trithemius,
when he has carefully written a book, compares it anew with the
original, and subjects it to a diligent revision. Many instances might
be adduced in proof of this revision and correction of manuscripts.
One or two may suffice. In the library of the Vatican there is a
manuscript written towards the close of the fifth, or in the beginning
of the sixth century, containing the books of St. Hilary on the
Trinity, which has been collated with an older copy by some studious
person, as appears by a note at the end. Again, Paul Warnefrid, deacon
and monk of Casina, having copied the epistles of Gregory the Great,
sent the book to Adalhard, abbot of Corbeia, requesting him to revise
the copy; but the abbot, fearing lest he might alter the genuine text
of so learned a doctor, contented himself with placing a mark in the
margin at every place where there appeared to him to be an error.
“But it is affirmed that there are many faulty, and many falsified
manuscripts. That there are not a few faulty books I grant; but that
there are many falsified manuscripts I stoutly deny. The difference
between a _faulty_ and a _falsified_ book is essential: of the former
sort are those which, from the mistakes or negligence of the writer,
contain some blemishes: of the latter kind are those which have been
wilfully corrupted. Many, indeed, may appear to be falsified which are
not so really, nor are even faulty. Which I may thus explain.--It could
not but happen that the copyists, in transcribing large works, should
sometimes wander from the true reading--putting perhaps one word for
another. When they observed their error, they might rectify it in two
ways, either by erasing the word and inserting the genuine reading; or
by inserting the true word beneath the other, which they marked with
points. Now some persons, not understanding this, or purposely putting
upon it an unfavourable construction, found upon the first case a
charge of _erasure_, and in the second, place both words in the text of
the author, though the pointed word ought to be omitted. Sometimes also
it happened that words or initials written in vermilion, having grown
pale, were renewed by a later hand, which alterations have occasioned
an unfounded suspicion of falsification.”
The pens of the monastic scribes were chiefly occupied in transcribing
religious books, the Holy Scriptures, the works of the Fathers, the
lives of saints, books of meditations and prayers; yet the classic
authors were not neglected. “The Monastery of Pomposia has been much
improved since the time of its founder Guido [about 1025], renowned for
sanctity. Incited by the fame of his piety great numbers assumed the
sacred habit in his church; marquesses, counts, and sons of noblemen
have laid aside the pomps and pleasures of the world to follow there
the duties of religion. Among these my master Jerome, afterwards
abbot, was trained up from his earliest years to follow the monastic
life, and made great proficiency in grammar and logic. He, for the
edification of the brotherhood, set himself to collect the works of
learned men; in order that amidst the variety, all might meet with the
information they sought for. Bonus--good--both in name and life, who
was first a hermit and afterwards a monk, was his librarian, a man
esteemed by all as a perfect scholar, and so eager in the acquisition
of books that he purchased all he met with, however indistinctly they
were written; for the abbot determined to have them all transcribed
for his library: and by his care almost all are now copied. He is ever
inquisitive for religious books of all kinds, so that the church of
Pomposia is become the most renowned in Italy. Thus by the goodness of
God our thirst of knowledge is increased by knowing. Indeed the abbot’s
desire of enriching his church with these treasures is unbounded. But
envious persons may ask, Why does this reverend abbot place the heathen
authors, the histories of tyrants, and such books, among theological
works? To this we answer in the words of the apostle, that there are
vessels of clay as well as of gold. By these means the tastes of all
men are excited to study--the intention of the gentile writings is the
same as that of the Scriptures, to give us a contempt for the world and
secular greatness.”[3]
By these or similar apologies those of the monks, and there were some
such in most houses, who possessed taste and learning, excused, to the
more devout, the attention they bestowed upon the works of the profane
authors. That the Greek and Latin classics were known and studied
during what are called the dark ages, is capable of abundant proof, as
we shall presently see. And those whose taste led them to be conversant
with these writings took care, by the labours of their hands, to
perpetuate the works they most admired.
During the flourishing period of the Grecian republics, that is, from
the defeat of Xerxes to the time of Alexander the Great, many of the
Greek colonies almost equalled, or even surpassed, the mother country
in wealth, refinement, and intelligence. In the neighbouring islands of
the Ægean Sea--in Asia Minor--in Italy and in Sicily, literature and
philosophy were as eagerly cultivated as at Athens. Many of the most
distinguished writers and philosophers were natives of the colonies;
and if Greece itself was the principal seat of learning, and the
fountain head of books, whatever was there produced quickly found its
way to distant settlements; for to every city along the shores of the
Mediterranean, and of the Euxine, there was a constant exportation of
books: in many of these remote cities libraries were collected, and the
business of copying was extensively carried on.
After the time of Alexander, Grecian literature flourished nowhere so
conspicuously as at Alexandria in Egypt, under the auspices of the
Ptolemies. Here all the sects of philosophy had established themselves;
numerous schools were opened; and, for the advancement of learning,
a library was collected, which was supposed, at one time, to have
contained 700,000 volumes, in all languages. Connected with the library
there were extensive offices, in which the business of transcribing
books was carried on very largely, and with every possible advantage
which royal munificence on the one hand, and learned assiduity on the
other, could insure. Nor did the literary fame of Alexandria decline
under the Roman emperors. Domitian, as Suetonius reports, sent scribes
to Alexandria to copy books for the restoration of those libraries
that had been destroyed by fire. And it seems to have been for some
centuries afterwards a common practice for those who wished to form a
library, to maintain copyists at Alexandria. The conquest of Egypt by
the Saracens, A.D. 640, who burned the Alexandrian Library, banished
learning for a time from that, as from other countries, which they
occupied.
Attalus, and his successors, the kings of Pergamus, were great
encouragers of learning; and the copying of books was carried on to so
great an extent in their capital as to occasion the establishment of
a vast manufacture of prepared skins (as mentioned above) which long
continued to be a considerable article of commerce. The library of the
kings of Pergamus is said to have contained 200,000 books.
During upwards of a thousand years, from the reign of Constantine until
the fall of Constantinople, in the fifteenth century, that city was
the principal seat of learning, and the chief source of books. The
Byzantine historians are frequent in their praises of the munificence
of the emperors in purchasing books, and in providing for their
reproduction. The manuscripts executed at Constantinople are often
remarkable for the great beauty of the writing, and the splendour
of the decorations. Besides the imperial libraries, the churches
and monasteries of the city were enriched with collections, more or
less extensive, and in all of them the business of transcription was
constantly and actively pursued.
A large number of existing manuscripts are dated from the monasteries
of the country immediately surrounding the metropolis of the eastern
empire; and many also, from those of Asia Minor, from the islands of
the Ægean Sea, and especially from Cyprus.
But no spot was more famed for the production of books than Mount
Athos--the lofty promontory which stretches from the Macedonian coast
far into the Ægean Sea. The heights and the sides of this mountain
were almost covered with religious houses, rendered by art and nature,
and by the universal opinion of the sanctity of the monks of the “holy
mountain,” so secure that neither the meditations nor employments of
the recluses were disturbed by the approach of violence. The chief
occupation of the inmates of these establishments is affirmed to have
been the transcription of books, of which each monastery boasted a
large collection.
Many extant manuscripts prove that the copying of books was practised
extensively during the middle ages in the monasteries of the Morea, in
those of the islands of Eubœa and of Crete. This latter island seems
indeed to have been a place of refuge for men of learning during the
latter periods of the eastern empire, who found in its monasteries,
both shelter, and the means of subsistence.
Fifty religious establishments in Calabria, and the kingdom of Naples,
are mentioned, from which proceeded a large number of books afterwards
collected in the libraries of Rome, Florence, Venice, and Milan.
In the monasteries of western Europe also, and especially in those of
the British Islands, this system of copying was carried on. Though
there were considerable diversities in the rules and practices of the
monks of different orders, the elements of the monastic life were in
all orders and in every country the same; and generally speaking,
wherever there were monasteries, there was a manufacture of books.
Yet, in some houses, these labours of the pen were much more worthily
directed than in others. For while the monks of one monastery employed
themselves in transcribing missals, legends, or romances, others
enriched their libraries with splendid copies of the fathers of the
church, and of the Holy Scriptures; and some, though a smaller number,
took care to reproduce such of the classic authors as they might be
acquainted with.
The monastic institution seemed as if it were framed for the special
purpose of transmitting the remains of ancient literature--sacred
and profane, through a period in which, except for so extraordinary
a provision, they must inevitably have perished. In every country a
large class of the community--freed from the necessity of labour, and
excluded from active employments, was constrained to seek the means
of allaying the pains of listlessness; and nothing could answer this
purpose so well as the transcription of books. And to this employment,
congruous as it was with the physical habits that are induced by an
inert mode of life, and compatible, too, with the observance of a round
of unvarying formalities, was attached an opinion of meritoriousness,
which served to animate the diligence of the labourer. “This book,
copied by M. N. for the benefit of his soul, was finished in the year
----, may the Lord think upon him.” Such are the subscriptions of many
of the manuscripts of the middle ages.
Meanwhile along the cloister’s painted side,
The monks--each bending low upon his book
With head on hand reclined--their studies plied;
Forbid to parley, or in front to look,
Lengthways their regulated seats they took:
The strutting prior gazed with pompous mien,
And wakeful tongue, prepared with prompt rebuke,
If monk asleep in sheltering hood was seen;
He wary often peeped beneath that russet screen.
Hard by, against the window’s adverse light,
Where desks were wont in length of row to stand,
The gowned artificers inclined to write;
The pen of silver glistened in the hand;
Some on their fingers rhyming Latin scanned;
Some textile gold from balls unwinding drew,
And on strained velvet stately portraits planned;
Here arms, there faces shone in embryo view,
At last to glittering life the total figures grew.
FOSBROOKE.
FOOTNOTES:
[2] DE RE DIPLOMATICA, Libri vi. in quibus quidquid ad veterum
instrumentorum antiquitatem, materiam, scripturam et stilum; quidquid
ad sigilla, monogrammata, subscriptiones ac notas chronologicas;
quidquid inde ad antiquariam, historicam, forensemque disciplinam
pertinet, explicatur et illustratur. Op. et Stud. JOH. MABILLON.--Fol.
Paris, 1709.
[3] Italian Diary.