THE SELECTION OF MILCH COWS.
We have now reviewed the prominent races of cattle found in American
dairy herds, and devoted some space to an examination of the principles
to be followed in the breeding of dairy stock; and this has involved, to
some extent, the choice of breeds, and the selection of individual
animals, with special reference, however, to transmitting and improving
their milking properties. But the selection of cows for the dairy is of
such importance as to demand the most careful consideration.
The objects of a dairy are three-fold: the production of milk for sale,
mainly confined to milk-dairies, and to smaller farms in the vicinity of
large towns, where a mixed husbandry is followed; the production of
butter, chiefly confined to farms at a distance from cities and large
towns, which furnish a ready market for milk; and the fabrication of
cheese, carried on under circumstances somewhat, similar to the
manufacture of butter, and sometimes united with it as an object of
pursuit, on the farm.
These different objects should, therefore, be kept in view, in the
selection of cows; for animals which would be most profitable for the
milk-dairy might be very unprofitable in the butter-dairy--a fact of
almost daily experience. The productiveness of the cow does not depend
on her breed so much as upon her food and management, her temperament
and health, and the activity and energy of the organs of digestion and
secretion. These latter, it is true, depending upon the structure of
the chest and other parts, are far better developed, and more
permanently fixed, in some races than in others, and are derived more or
less by descent, and capable of being transmitted. The breed, therefore,
cannot be wholly disregarded, inasmuch as it is an element in forming a
judgment of the merits of a milch cow.
Cows, of whatever breed, having the best developed external marks of
good milkers, will very rarely disappoint the practised eye or the
skilful hand; while cows of breeds in highest repute for the dairy, and
which do not show these marks, will as certainly fail to answer the
expectations of those who select them simply for the breed. Those who
would obtain skill in judging of these marks, and by means of them be
able to estimate the value of a cow, need not expect to attain this end
without long study and practical observation, for which some men have
far greater talent than others; being able, while examining a particular
mark or favorite characteristic of a milker, to take in all others at a
glance, and so, while appearing to form their opinion from one or two
important points, actually to estimate the whole development of the
animal, while others must examine in detail each point by itself. Long
practice is required, therefore, to become an adept in the judgment and
selection of milch cows; but still much assistance may, unquestionably,
be derived by careful attention to the external signs which have been
long observed to indicate the milking qualities.
It is important, in the first place, to be able to judge of the age of
the cow. Few farmers wish to purchase a cow for the dairy after she has
passed her prime, which will ordinarily be at the age of nine or ten
years, varying, of course, according to care, feeding, &c., in the
earlier part of her life.
The most usual mode of forming an estimate of the age of cattle is by an
examination of the horn. At three years old, as a general rule, the
horns are perfectly smooth; after this, a ring appears near the root,
and annually afterward a new one is formed; so that, by adding two years
to the first ring, the age is calculated. This is a very uncertain mode
of judging. The rings are distinct only in the cow; and it is well known
that, if a heifer goes to bull when she is two years old, or a little
before or after that time, a change takes place in the horn, and the
first ring appears; so that a real three-year-old would carry the mark
of a four-year-old.
The rings on the horns of a bull are either not seen until five, or they
cannot be traced at all; while in the ox they do not appear till he is
five years old, and then are often very indistinct. In addition to this,
it is by no means an uncommon practice to file the horns, so as to make
them smooth, and to give the animal the appearance of being much younger
than it really is. This is, therefore, an exceedingly fallacious guide,
and we cannot rely on it without being subject to imposition.
[Illustration: Fig. 15. Teeth at birth.]
[Illustration: Fig. 16. Second week.]
The surest indication of the age is given by the teeth. The calf, at
birth, will usually have two incisor or front teeth; in some cases just
appearing through the gums; in others, fully set, varying as the cow
falls short or exceeds her regular time of calving. If she overruns
several days, the teeth will have set and attained considerable size, as
appears in Fig. 15. During the second week, a tooth will usually be
added on each side, and the mouth will generally appear as in Fig. 16;
and, before the end of the third week, the animal will generally have
six incisor teeth, as shown in Fig. 17; and in a week from that time the
full number of incisors will have appeared, as seen in Fig. 18.
[Illustration: Fig. 17. Third week.]
[Illustration: Fig. 18. Month.]
These teeth are temporary, and are often called milk-teeth. Their edge
is very sharp; and, as the animal begins to live upon more solid food,
this edge becomes worn, showing the bony part of the tooth beneath, and
indicates, with considerable precision, the length of time they have
been used. The centre or oldest teeth show the marks of age first, and
often become somewhat worn before the corner teeth appear. At eight
weeks, the four inner teeth are nearly as sharp as before. They appear
worn not so much on the outer edge or line of the tooth, as inside this
line; but, after this, the edge begins gradually to lose its sharpness,
and to present a more flattened surface; while the next outer teeth wear
down like the four central ones; and at three months this wearing off is
very apparent, till at four months all the incisor teeth appear worn,
but the inner ones the most. Now the teeth begin slowly to diminish in
size by a kind of contraction, as well as wearing down, and the
distance apart becomes more and more apparent.
[Illustration: Fig. 19. Five to eight months.]
[Illustration: Fig. 20. Ten months.]
[Illustration: Fig. 21. Twelve months.]
[Illustration: Fig. 22. Fifteen months.]
From the fifth to the eighth month the inner teeth will usually appear
as in Fig. 19; and at ten months this change shows more clearly, as in
Fig. 20, and the spaces between them begin to show very plainly, till at
a year old they ordinarily present the appearance of Fig. 21; and at the
age of fifteen months that shown in Fig. 22, where the corner teeth are
not more than half the original size, and the centre ones still smaller.
[Illustration: Fig. 23. Eighteen months.]
[Illustration: Fig. 24. Two years past.]
The permanent teeth are now rapidly growing, and preparing to take the
place of the milk-teeth, which are gradually absorbed till they
disappear, or are pushed out to give place to the two permanent central
incisors, which, at a year and a half, will generally present the
appearance indicated in Fig. 23, which shows the internal structure of
the lower jaw at this time, with the cells of the teeth, the two central
ones protruding into the mouth, the two next pushing up, but not quite
grown to the surface, with the third pair just perceptible. These
changes require time; and at two years past the jaw will usually appear
as in Fig. 24, where four of the permanent central incisors are seen.
After this the other milk-teeth decrease rapidly, but are slow to
disappear; and at three years old the third pair of permanent teeth are
but formed, as in Fig. 25; and at four years the last pair of incisors
will be up, as in Fig. 26; but the outside ones are not yet fully grown,
and the beast can hardly be said to be full-mouthed till the age of five
years. But before this age, or at the age of four years, the two inner
pairs of permanent teeth are beginning to wear at the edges, as shown in
Fig. 26, while at five years old the whole set becomes somewhat worn
down at the top, and on the two centre ones a darker line appears in the
middle, along a line of harder bone, as appears in Fig. 27.
[Illustration: Fig. 25. Three years past.]
[Illustration: Fig. 26. Four years past.]
Now will come a year or two, and sometimes three, when the teeth do not
so clearly indicate the exact age, and the judgment must be guided by
the extent to which the dark middle lines are worn. This will depend
somewhat upon the exposure and feeding of the animal; but at seven years
these lines extend over all the teeth. At eight years another change
begins, which cannot be mistaken. A kind of absorption begins with the
two central incisors, slow, at first, but perceptible, and these two
teeth become smaller than the rest, while the dark lines are worn into
one in all but the corner teeth, till at ten years four of the central
incisors have become smaller in size, with a smaller and fainter mark,
as seen in Fig. 28. At eleven the six inner teeth are smaller than the
corner ones; and at twelve all become smaller than they were, while the
dark lines are nearly gone, except in the corner teeth, and the inner
edge is worn to the gum.
[Illustration: Fig. 27. Five years past.]
[Illustration: Fig. 28. Ten years past.]
After being satisfied with regard to the age of a cow, we should examine
her with reference to her soundness of constitution. A good constitution
is indicated by large lungs, which are found in a deep, broad, and
prominent chest, broad and well-spread ribs, a respiration somewhat slow
and regular, a good appetite, and if in milk a strong inclination to
drink, which a large secretion of milk almost invariably stimulates. In
such cows the digestive organs are active and energetic, and they make
an abundance of good blood, which in turn stimulates the activity of
the nervous system, and furnishes the milky glands with the means of
abundant secretion. Such cows, when dry, readily take on fat. When
activity of the milk-glands is found united with close ribs, small and
feeble lungs, and a slow appetite, often attended by great thirst, the
cow will generally possess only a weak and feeble constitution; and if
the milk is plentiful, it will generally be of bad quality, while the
animal, if she does not die of diseased lungs, will not take on fat
readily when dry and fed.
Other external marks of great milkers have already been given in part.
They should be found united, as far as possible; for, though no one of
them, however well developed, can be taken as a sure indication of
extraordinary milking powers, several of them united may, as a general
rule, be implicitly relied on.
In order to have no superfluous flesh, the cow should have a small,
clean, and rather long head, tapering towards the muzzle. A cow with a
large, coarse head will seldom fatten readily, or give a large quantity
of milk. A coarse head increases the proportion of weight of the least
valuable parts, while it is a sure indication that the whole bony
structure is too heavy. The mouth should be large and broad; the eye
bright and sparkling, but of a peculiar placidness of expression, with
no indication of wildness, but rather a mild and feminine look. These
points will indicate gentleness of disposition. Such cows seem to like
to be milked, are fond of being caressed, and often return caresses. The
horns should be small, short, tapering, yellowish, and glistening. The
neck should be small, thin, and tapering towards the head, but
thickening when it approaches the shoulder; the dewlaps small. The fore
quarters should be rather small when compared with the hind quarters.
The form of the barrel will be large, and each rib should project
further than the preceding one, up to the loins. She should be well
formed across the hips and in the rump.
The spine or back-bone should be straight and long, rather loosely hung,
or open along the middle part, the result of the distance between the
dorsal vertebræ, which sometimes causes a slight depression, or sway
back. By some good judges this mark is regarded as of great importance,
especially when the bones of the hind quarters are also rather loosely
put together, leaving the rump of great width, and the pelvis large, and
the organs and milk-vessels lodged in the cavities largely developed.
The skin over the rump should be loose and flexible. This point is of
great importance; and as, when the cow is in low condition, or very
poor, it will appear somewhat harder and closer than it otherwise would,
some practice and close observation are required to judge well of this
mark. The skin, indeed, all over the body, should be soft and mellow to
the touch, with soft and glossy hair. The tail, if thick at the setting
on, should taper and be fine below.
But the udder is of special importance. It should be large in proportion
to the size of the animal, and the skin thin, with soft, loose folds
extending well back, capable of great distension when filled, but
shrinking to a small compass when entirely empty. It must be free from
lumps in every part, and provided with four teats set well apart, and of
medium size. Nor are the milk-veins less important to be carefully
observed. The principal ones under the belly should be large and
prominent, and extend forward to the navel, losing themselves,
apparently, in the very best milkers, in a large cavity in the flesh,
into which the end of the finger can be inserted; but, when the cow is
not in full milk, the milk-vein, at other times very prominent, is not
so distinctly traced; and hence, to judge of its size when the cow is
dry, or nearly so, this vein may be pressed near its end, or at its
entrance into the body, when it will immediately fill up to its full
size. This vein does not carry the milk to the udder, as some suppose,
but is the channel by which the blood returns; and its contents consist
of the refuse of the secretion, or what has not been taken up in forming
milk. There are, also, veins in the udder, and the perineum, or the
space above the udder, and between that and the buttocks, which it is of
special importance to observe. These veins should be largely developed,
and irregular or knotted, especially those of the udder. They may be
seen in Figs. 29, 30, 31, &c. They are largest in great milkers.
The knotted veins of the perineum, extending from above downwards in a
winding line, are not readily seen in young heifers, and are very
difficult to find in poor cows, or cows of only a medium quality. They
are easily found in very good milkers, and, if not at first apparent,
they are made so by pressing upon them at the base of the perineum, when
they swell up, and send the blood back towards the vulva. They form a
kind of thick network under the skin of the perineum, raising it up
somewhat, in some cases near the vulva, in others lower down and nearer
to the udder. It is important to look for these veins, as they often
form a very important guide, and by some they would be considered as
furnishing the surest indications of the milking qualities of the cow.
Their full development almost always indicates an abundant secretion of
milk; but they are far better developed after the cow has had two or
three calves, when two or three years’ milking has given full activity
to the milky glands, and attracted a large flow of blood. The larger and
more prominent these veins, the better. It is needless to say that in
observing them some regard should be had to the condition of the cow,
the thickness of skin and fat by which they may be surrounded, and the
general activity and food of the animal. Food calculated to stimulate
the greatest flow of milk will naturally increase these veins, and give
them more than usual prominence.
We come now to an examination of the system of Guénon, whose discovery,
whatever may be said of it, has proved of immense importance to
agriculture. Guénon was a man of remarkable practical sagacity, a close
observer of stock, and an excellent judge. This gave him a great
advantage in securing the respect of those with whom he came in contact,
and assisted him vastly in introducing his ideas to the knowledge of
intelligent men. Born in France, in the vicinity of Bordeaux, in humble
circumstances, he early had the care of cows, and spent his whole life
with them. His discovery, for which a gold medal was awarded by the
agricultural society of Bordeaux, on the 4th of July, 1837, consisted in
the connection between the milking qualities of the cow and certain
external marks on the udder, and on the space above it, called the
perineum, extending to the buttocks. To these marks he gave the name of
milk-mirror, or escutcheon, which consists in certain perceptible spots
rising up from the udder in different directions, forms, and sizes, on
which the hair grows upwards, whilst the hair on other parts of the body
grows downwards. To these spots various names have been given, according
to their size and position, as tufts, fringes, figures or escutcheons,
which last, is the most common term used. The reduction of these marks
into a system, explaining the value of particular forms and sizes of the
milk-mirror, belongs, so far as I know, exclusively to Guénon, though
the connection of the milking qualities of the cow and the size of the
ovals with downward-growing hair on the back part of the udder above
the teats was observed and known in Massachusetts more than forty years
age, and some of the old farmers of that day were accustomed to say that
when these spots were large and well developed the cow would be a good
milker.
Guénon divided the milk-mirror into eight classes, and each class into
eight orders, making in all no less than sixty-four divisions, which he
afterwards increased by sub-divisions, making the whole system
complicated in the extreme, especially as he professed to be able to
judge with accuracy, by means of the milk-mirror, not only of the exact
quantity a cow would give, but also the quality of the milk and the
length of time it would continue. He tried to prove too much, and the
consequence was that he was himself frequently at fault, notwithstanding
his excellent knowledge of other general characteristics of milch cows,
while others, of less knowledge, and far more liable to err in judgment,
were inclined to view the whole system with distrust.
My own attention was called to Guénon’s method of judging of cows some
eight or ten years ago, and since that time I have examined many
hundreds, with a view to ascertain the correctness of its main features,
inquiring, at the same time, after the views and opinions of the best
breeders and judges of stock, with regard to their experience and
judgment of it merits; and the result of my observation has been, that
cows with the most perfectly-developed milk-mirrors, or escutcheons,
are, with rare exceptions, the best milkers of their breed, and that
cows with small and slightly-developed mirrors are, in the majority of
cases, bad milkers.
I say the best milkers _of their breed_; for I do not believe that
precisely the same sized and formed milk-mirrors on a Hereford or a
Devon, and an Ayrshire or a native, will indicate anything like the
same or equal milking properties. It will not do, in my opinion, to
disregard the general and well-known characteristics of the breed, and
rely wholly on the milk-mirror. But I think it may be safely said that,
as a general rule the best-marked Hereford will turn out to be the best
milker among the Herefords, all of which are poor milkers; the
best-marked Devon the best among the Devons, and the best-marked
Ayrshire the best among the Ayrshires; that is, it will not do to
compare two animals of entirely distinct breeds, by the milk-mirrors
alone, without regard to the fixed habits and education, so to speak, of
the breed or family to which they belong.
There are cows with very small mirrors, which are, nevertheless, very
fair in the yield of milk; and among these with middling quality of
mirrors instances of rather more than ordinary milkers often occur,
while at the same time it is true that now and then cases occur where
the very best marked and developed mirrors are found on very poor
milkers. I once owned a cow of most extraordinary marks, the milk-mirror
extending out broadly upon the thighs, and rising broad and very
distinctly marked to the buttocks, giving every indication, to good
judges, of being as great a milker as ever stood over a pail; and yet,
when she calved, the calf was feeble and half nourished, and she
actually gave too little to feed it. But I believe that this exception,
and most others which appear to be direct contradictions, could be
clearly explained by the fact, of which I was not aware at the time,
that she had been largely over-fed before she came into my possession. I
mention this case simply to show how impossible it is to estimate with
mathematical accuracy either the quantity, the quality, or the duration
of the milk, since it is affected by so many chance circumstances,
which cannot always be known or estimated by even the most skilful
judge; as the food, the treatment, the temperament, accidental diseases,
inflammation of the udder, premature calving, the climate and season,
the manner in which she has been milked, and a thousand other things
which interrupt or influence the flow of milk, without, materially
changing the size or the shape of the milk-mirror. M. Magne, who appears
to me to have simplified and explained the system of Guénon, and to have
freed it from many of the useless details with which it is encumbered in
the original work, while he has preserved all that is of practical
value, very justly observes that we often see cows, equally well formed,
with precisely the same milk-mirror, and kept in the same circumstances,
yet giving neither equal quantities nor similar qualities of milk. Nor
could it be otherwise; for, assuming a particular tuft on two cows to be
of equal value at birth, it could not be the same in the course of
years, since innumerable circumstances occur to change the activity of
the milky glands without changing the form or size of the tuft; or, in
other words, the action of the organs depends not merely on their size
and form, but, to a great extent, on the general condition of each
individual.
Te give a more distinct idea of the milk-mirror, it will be necessary to
refer to the figures, and the explanations of these I translate
literally from the little work already referred to, the _Choix des
Vaches Latières_, or, the Choice of Milch Cows.
The different forms of milk-mirrors are represented by the shaded part
of figures 29, 30, 31, etc.; but it is necessary to premise that upon
the cows themselves they are always partly concealed by the thighs, the
udder, and the folds of the skin, which are not shown, and so they are
not always so uniform in nature as they appear in the cuts.
Their size varies as the skin is more or less folded or stretched, while
we have supposed in the figures that the skin is uniform or free from
folds, but not stretched out. In order to understand the differences
which the milk-mirrors present in respect to size, according to the
state of the skin, the milk-mirror is shown in two ways in Figs. 52 and
53. In Fig. 53 the proportions are preserved the same as in the other
mirrors represented, but an effort is made to represent the folds of the
skin; while in Fig. 52 the mirror is just as it would have been had the
folds of the udder been smoothed out, and the skin between the udder and
the thighs stretched out; or, in other words, as if the skin, covered
with up-growing hair, had been fully extended.
This mirror, but little developed, just as shown in Fig. 53, was
observed on a very large Norman cow.
It is usually very easy to distinguish the milk-mirrors by the upward
direction of the hair which forms them. They are sometimes marked by a
line of bristly hair growing in the opposite direction, which surrounds
them, forming a sort of outline by the upward and downward growing hair.
Yet, when the hair is very fine and short, mixed with longer hairs, and
the skin much folded, and the udder voluminous and pressed by the
thighs, it is necessary, in order to distinguish the part enclosed
between the udder and the legs, and examine the full size of the
mirrors, to observe them attentively, and to place the legs wide apart,
and to smooth out the skin, in order to avoid the folds.
The mirrors may also be observed by holding the back of the hand against
the perineum, and drawing it from above downwards, when the nails
rubbing against the up-growing hair, make the parts covered by it very
perceptible.
As the hair of the milk-mirror has not the same direction as the hair
which surrounds it, it may often be distinguished by a difference in the
shade reflected by it. It is then sufficient to place it properly to the
light to see the difference in shade, and to make out the part covered
by the upward-growing hair. Most frequently, however, the hair of the
milk-mirror is thin and fine, and the color of the skin can easily be
seen. If we trust alone to the eye, we shall often be deceived. Thus, in
Figs. 52 and 53, the shaded part, which extends from the vulva to the
mirror E, represents a strip of hair of a brownish tint, which covered
the perineum, and which might easily have been taken for a part of the
milk-mirror.
In some countries cattle-dealers shave the back part of the cows. Just
after this operation the mirrors can neither be seen nor felt; but this
inconvenience ceases in a few days. It may be added that the shaving,
designed, as the dealers say, to beautify the cow, is generally intended
simply to destroy the milk-mirror, and to deprive buyers of one means of
judging of the milking qualities of the cows.
It is not necessary to add that the cows most carefully shaven are those
which are badly marked, and that it is prudent to take it for granted
that cows so shorn are bad milkers.
Milk-mirrors vary in position, extent, and the figure they represent.
They may be divided, according to their position, into mirrors or
escutcheons, properly so called, or into lower and upper tufts, or
escutcheons. The latter are very small in comparison with the former,
and are situated in close proximity to the vulva, as seen at S in Figs.
38, 39, 40, etc. They are very common on cows of bad milking races, but
are very rarely seen on the best milch cows. They consist of one or two
ovals, or small bands of up-growing hair, and serve to indicate the
continuance of the flow of milk. The period is short in proportion as
the tufts are large. They must not be confounded with the escutcheon
proper, which is often extended up to the vulva. They are separated from
it by bands of hair, more or less large, as in Figs. 40, 42, &c.
The mirrors shown in Figs. 38 to 42, and 29 to 35, &c., exist, more or
less developed, on nearly all cows, and indicate the quantity of milk,
which will be in proportion to their size. Sometimes they form only a
small plate on the posterior surface of the udder, as in Fig. 49. In
other cases they cover the udder, the inner surface of the legs and the
thighs, the perineum, and a part of the buttocks, as in Figs. 29, 30,
31, &c.
Two parts may be distinguished in the lower tufts: one situated on the
udder, the legs, and the thighs, as at M M, Fig. 30; and the other on
the perineum, extending sometimes more or less out upon the thighs, as
at P P, in the same figure.
The first part is represented by itself, in Figs. 37 and 49. We shall
call the former _mammary_, and the latter _perinean_. The former is
sometimes large, extending over the milky glands, the thighs, and the
legs, as shown in Figs. 29 to 37; and sometimes circumscribed, or more
or less checked over with tufts of downward-growing hair, as in Figs. 43
to 52. It is sometimes terminated towards the upper part of the udder by
a horizontal line, straight, as in Fig. 37, or angular, as in Fig. 49;
but more frequently it continues without interruption over the perineum,
and constitutes the _perinean_ part.
[Illustration: Fig. 29.]
[Illustration: Fig. 30.]
[Illustration: Fig. 31.]
[Illustration: Fig. 32.]
This presents a large band, Fig. 30, straight, as in Fig. 43, and
bounded on the sides by two parallel lines, as seen in the same
figures, or by curved lines, as in Fig. 34. It sometimes rises scarcely
a fourth part up the perineum, as in Fig. 38; at others, it reaches or
passes beyond that part, forming a straight band, as in Figs. 35 and 43,
or is folded into squares, as in Figs. 31 and 36, or truncated, Fig. 38,
or terminated by one or several points, Figs. 32, 33, 41, 50. In some
cows this band extends as far as the base of the vulva, Figs. 40 and 48;
in others, it embraces more or less of the lower part of the vulva,
Figs. 29, 30, 39, and 47.
Milk-mirrors are sometimes symmetrical, as in Figs. 29, 30, 34, 35, 37,
and 38; sometimes without symmetry, as in Figs. 42, 45, and 50. When
there is a great difference in the extent of the two halves, it almost
always happens that the teats on the side where the mirror is best
developed give, as we shall see, more milk than those of the opposite
side. We will remark here that the left half of the mirror is almost
always the largest; and so, when the perinean part is folded into a
square, it is on this side of the body that it unfolds, as in Figs. 31,
36, and 42. Of three thousand cows in Denmark, M. Andersen found only a
single one whose escutcheon varied even a little from this rule. We have
observed the contrary only in a single case, and that was on a bull. The
perinean part of the mirror formed a band of an inch to an inch and a
half in breadth, irregular, but situated, in great measure, on the right
side of the body. Stretching towards the upper part of the perineum, it
formed a kind of square, with a small projecting point on the right,
Fig. 51.
[Illustration: Fig. 33.]
[Illustration: Fig. 34.]
[Illustration: Fig. 35.]
[Illustration: Fig. 36.]
[Illustration: Fig. 37.]
The mirrors having a value in proportion to the space they occupy, it is
of great importance to attend to all the rows of down-growing hairs,
which diminish its extent of surface, whether these tufts are in the
midst of the mirror, Figs. 45, 46, and 47, or form indentations on its
edges, as in Figs. 42, 44, 45, 46, and 48.
These indentations, concealed in part by the folds of the skin, are
sometimes seen with difficulty; but it is important to take them into
account, since in a great many cows they materially lessen the size of
the mirror. We often find cows whose milk-mirror at first sight appears
very large, but which are only medium milkers; and it will usually be
found that lateral indentations greatly diminish the surface of
up-growing hair. Many errors are committed in estimating the value of
such cows, from a want of attention to the real extent of the
milk-mirror.
All the interruptions in the surface of the mirror indicate a diminution
of the quantity of milk, with the exception, however, of small oval or
elliptical plates which are found in the mirror, on the back part of the
udders of the best cows, as in Figs. 29, 30, 32, 34, 35, 36, and 40.
These ovals have a peculiar tint, which is occasioned by the downward
direction of the hair which forms them. In the best cows these ovals
exist with the lower mirrors very well developed, as in Figs. 29, 30,
and 32.
In fine, we should state that in order to determine the extent and
significance of a mirror it is necessary to consider the state of the
perineum as to fat, and of the fulness of the udder. In a fat cow, with
an inflated udder, the mirror would appear larger than it really is;
whilst in a lean cow, with a loose and wrinkled udder, it appears
smaller. Fat will cover faults, a fact to be kept in mind in selecting a
cow.
In bulls, Fig. 51, the mirrors present the same peculiarities as in
cows; but they are less varied in their form, and especially much less
in size. This will easily be understood from the explanation of
mirrors given on a preceding page.
[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
In calves the mirrors show the shapes they are afterwards to have, only
they are more contracted, because the parts which they cover are but
slightly developed. They are easily seen after birth; but the hair which
then covers them is long, coarse, and stiff; and when this hair falls
off, the calf’s mirror will resemble that of the cow, but be of less
size.
With calves, however, it should be stated, in addition to what has
already been said, that the milk-mirrors are more distinctly recognized
on those from cows that are well kept, and that they will generally be
fully developed at two years old. Some changes take place in the course
of years, but the outlines of the mirror appear prominent at the time of
advanced pregnancy, or, in the case of cows giving milk, at the times
when the udder is more distended with milk than at others.
The classification adopted by Magne appears still further to simplify
the whole method, and to bring it within the easy reach and
comprehension of every one who will examine the figures and the
explanations connected with them. He divides cows, according to the
quantity they give, into four classes: First, the very good; second, the
good; third, the medium; and fourth, the bad.
In the first class he places cows both parts of whose milk-mirror, the
mammary and the perinean, are large, continuous, uniform, covering at
least a great part of the perineum, the udder, the inner surface of the
thighs, and extending more or less out upon the legs, as in Figs. 29 to
33, with no interruptions, or, if any, small ones, oval in form, and
situated on the posterior face of the udder, Figs. 29, 30, and 32.
[Illustration: Fig. 43.]
[Illustration: Fig. 44.]
[Illustration: Fig. 45.]
[Illustration: Fig. 46.]
[Illustration: Fig. 47.]
Such mirrors are found on most very good cows, but may also be found
on cows which can scarcely be called good, and which should be ranked in
the next class. But cows, whether having very well-developed mirrors or
not, may be reckoned as very good, and as giving as much milk as is to
be expected from their size, feed, and the hygienic circumstances in
which they are kept, if they present the following characteristics:
Veins of the perineum large, as if swollen, and visible on the exterior,
as in Figs. 29-32, or which can be easily made to appear by pressing
upon the base of the perineum; veins of the udder large and knotted,
milk-veins large, often double, equal on both sides, and forming
zig-zags under the belly.
To the signs furnished by the veins and by the mirror may be added also
the following marks: A uniform, very large and yielding udder, shrinking
much in milking, and covered with soft skin and fine hair; good
constitution, full chest, regular appetite, and great propensity to
drink. Cows rather inclining to be poor than fat. Soft, yielding skin,
short, fine hair, small head, fine horns, bright, sparkling eye, mild
expression, feminine look, with a fine neck.
Cows of this first class are very rare. They give, even when small in
size, from ten to fourteen quarts of milk a day, and the largest sized
from eighteen to twenty-six quarts a day, and even more. Just after
calving, if arrived at maturity and fed with good, wholesome, moist food
in sufficient quantity and quality, adapted to promote the secretion of
milk, they can give about a pint of milk for every ten ounces of hay, or
its equivalent, which they eat.
They continue in milk for a long period. The best never go dry, and may
be milked even up to the time of calving, giving from eight to twelve
quarts of milk a day. The Dutch cow, Fig. 54, was giving daily
twenty-two quarts of milk, a year after calving. But even the best cows
often fall short of the quantity of milk they are able to give, from
being fed on food that is too dry, or not sufficiently varied, or not
rich enough in nutritive qualities, or deficient in quantity.
[Illustration: Fig. 48.]
[Illustration: Fig. 49.]
[Illustration: Fig. 50.]
[Illustration: Fig. 51.]
[Illustration: Fig. 52.]
[Illustration: Fig. 53.]
The second class is that of _good cows_; and to this belong the best
commonly found in the market and among the cow-feeders of cities.
They have the mammary part of the milk-mirror well developed, but the
perinean part contracted or wholly wanting, as in Figs. 34 and 37; or
both parts of the mirror are moderately developed, or slightly indented,
as Figs. 35 and 36. Figs. 38, 39, 40, and 41, belong also to this class,
in the lower part; but they denote cows which, as the upper mirrors, S S
S, indicate, dry up sooner when again in calf.
These marks, though often seen on many good cows, should be considered
as certain only when the veins of the perineum form, under the skin, a
kind of network, which, without being very apparent, may be felt by a
pressure on them; when the milk-veins on the belly are well developed,
though less knotted and less prominent than in cows of the first class;
in fine, when the udder is well developed, and presents veins which are
sufficiently numerous, though not very large.
It is necessary, then, as in the preceding class, to have a mistrust of
cows in which the mirror is not accompanied by large veins. This remark
applies especially to cows which have had several calves, and are in
full milk. They are medium or bad, let the milk-mirror be what it may,
if the veins of the belly are not large, and those of the udder
apparent.
The general characteristics which depend on form and constitution
combine less than in cows of the preceding class the marks of good
health and excellent constitution with those of a gentle and feminine
look.
[Illustration: Fig. 54. A Good Milch Cow.]
Small cows of this class give from seven to ten or eleven quarts of milk
a day, and the largest from thirteen to seventeen quarts. They can be
made to give three fourths of a pint of milk, just after calving, for
every ten ounces of hay consumed, if well cared for, and fed in a manner
favorable to the secretion of milk.
They hold out long in milk when they have no upper mirrors or tufts. At
seven or eight months in calf, they may give from five to eight quarts a
day.
The third class consists of _middling cows_. When the milk-mirror really
presents only the lower or mammary part slightly developed or indented,
and the perinean part contracted, narrow, and irregular, as in Figs. 42
to 47, the cows are middling. The udder is slightly developed or hard,
and shrinks very little after milking. The veins of the perineum are not
apparent, and those which run along the lower sides of the abdomen are
small, straight, and sometimes unequal. In this case the mirror is not
symmetrical, and the cow gives more milk on the side where the vein is
largest.
These cows often have large heads, and a thick and hard skin. Being
ordinarily in good condition, and even fat, they are beautiful to look
at, and seem to be well formed. Many of them are nervous and restive,
and not easily approached.
Cows of this class give, according to size, from three or four to ten
quarts of milk. They very rarely give, even in the most favorable
circumstances, half a pint for every ten ounces of hay which they
consume.
The milk diminishes rapidly, and dries up wholly the fourth or fifth
month in calf.
The fourth class is composed of _bad cows_. As they are ordinarily in
good condition, these cows are often the most beautiful of the herd and
in the markets. They have fleshy thighs, thick and hard skin, a large
and coarse neck and head, and horns large at the base.
The udder is hard, small, and fleshy, with a skin covered with long,
rough hair. No veins are to be seen either on the perineum or the udder,
while those of the belly are very slightly developed, and the mirrors
are ordinarily small, as in Figs. 48, 49, and 50.
With these characteristics, cows give only a few quarts of milk a day,
and dry up a short time after calving. Some such can scarcely nourish
their calves, even when they are well cared for and well fed.
Sickly habits, chronic affections of the digestive organs, the chest,
the womb, and the lacteal system, sometimes greatly affect the milk
secretions, and cause cows troubled with them to fall from the first or
second to the third, and sometimes to the fourth class.
The above classification is very similar to that of Pabst, a German
farmer of large experience and observation of stock, who, with a view to
simplify the method of Guénon, and render it of greater practical value
to the farmer, made five divisions or classes, consisting of, 1st, _Very
good_ or _extraordinary_; 2d, _Good_ or _good middling_; 3d, _Middling_
and _little below middling_; 4th, _Small_; and, 5th, _Very bad milkers_.
These classifications, adopted by Magne, Pabst, and other good breeders
and judges of cows, appear to me to be far more simple and satisfactory
than the more extended and complicated classification of Guénon himself.
Without pretending to be able to judge with any accuracy of the
quantity, the quality, or the duration, which any particular size or
form of the mirror will indicate, they give to Guénon the full credit of
his important discovery of the escutcheon, or milk-mirror, as a new and
very valuable element in forming our judgment of the milking qualities
of a cow; and simply assert, with respect to the duration or continuance
of the flow of milk, that the mirror that indicates the greatest
quantity will also indicate the longest duration. The mirror forms, in
other words, an important additional mark or point for distinguishing
good milkers; and it is safe to lay it down as a rule that, in the
selection of milch cows, as well as in the choice of young animals as
breeders, we should, by all means, examine and consider the milk-mirror,
but not limit or confine ourselves exclusively to it, and that other and
long-known marks should be equally regarded.
But there are cases where a knowledge and careful examination of the
form and size of the mirror becomes of the greatest importance. It is
well known that certain signs or marks of great milkers are developed
only as the capacities of the animal herself are fully and completely
developed by age. The milk-veins, for instance, are never so large and
prominent in heifers and young cows as in old ones, and the same may be
said of the udder, and the veins of the udder and perineum; all of which
it is of great importance to observe in the selection of milch cows.
Those signs, then, which in cows arrived at maturity are almost
sufficient in themselves to warrant a conclusion as to their merits as
milkers, are, to a great extent, wanting in younger animals, and
altogether in calves, of which there is often doubt whether they shall
be raised; and here a knowledge of the form of the mirror is of immense
advantage, since it gives, at the outset, and before any expense is
incurred, a somewhat reliable means of judging of the future milking
capacities of the animal or, if a male, of the probability of his
transmitting milking qualities to his offspring.
It will be seen, from an examination of the points of a good milch cow,
that, though the same marks which indicate the greatest milking
qualities may not indicate any great aptitude to fatten, yet that the
signs which indicate good fattening qualities are included among the
signs favorable to the production of milk, such as soundness of
constitution, indicated by good organs of digestion and respiration,
fineness and mellowness of the skin and hair, quietness of disposition,
which inclines the animal to rest and lie down in chewing the cud, and
other marks which are relied on by graziers in selecting animals to
fatten.
In buying dairy stock the farmer generally finds it for his interest to
select young heifers. They give the promise of longer usefulness. But it
is often the case that older cows are selected with the design of using
them for the dairy for a limited period, and then feeding them for the
butcher. In either case, it is advisable, as a rule, to choose animals
in low or medium condition. The farmer cannot ordinarily afford to buy
fat; it is more properly his business to make it, and to have it to
sell. Good and well-marked cows in poor condition will rapidly gain in
flesh and products when removed to better pastures and higher keeping,
and they cost less in the original purchase.
It is unnecessary to say that regard should be had to the quality of the
pasturage and keeping which a cow has previously had, as compared with
that to which she is to be subjected. The size of the animal should also
be considered with reference to the fertility of the pastures into which
she is to be put. Small or medium-sized animals accommodate themselves
to ordinary pastures far better than large ones. Where a very large cow
will do well, two small ones will usually do better, while the large
animal might fail entirely where two small ones would do well. It is
better to have the whole herd, so far as may be, uniform in size; for,
if they vary greatly, some may get more than they need, and others will
not have enough. This however, cannot always be brought about.
[Illustration: Fig. 55. A Good Dairy Cow.]