DOCTORS (AMAGQIRA).
The Kaffirs have great faith in the power of their “Medicine man” and
consult him on every possible event. They requisition his services for
sickness and pain, and accident, foretelling and causing the fall of
rain; as detectives to find stolen or strayed or lost property; to
point out criminals and bewitchers; to steer them clear of witchcraft,
to make them brave in war; to secure their departed spirits rest; and
so on almost “ad infinitum.”
One day talking to a Fingo headman, a Wesleyan preacher, over the case
of a sick Fingo woman, and arguing that, after all the District Surgeon
should be trusted to know best what to do, as he had had years of study
so as to recognise and treat disease. I was met by this reason for his
preferring his native doctor, “Oh yes but you see our native doctors
are taught by God.”
The “Medicine man” is in all ordinary cases openly called in; but in
cases where witchcraft is suspected he is (owing to such an accusation
and its consequences being now-a-days criminal), called by stealth and
works in secrecy. He is paid a retaining fee and a good one if
successful.
Speaking generally his powers are quite unlimited; although in many
instances, some particular Medico will specialize and become famous for
some one or group of diseases, his patients often coming great
distances to consult him or her as the case may be, for sex makes,
except in a few cases, no difference.
As a general rule some form of Incantation is used to exorcise the
demon of disease, and if the doctor attributes the illness to the work
of some departed spirit, sacrifices are offered to appease his wrath.
As one gathers more and more information on the Medicine Man, and
medicine practices of the natives, one is struck with the conviction,
that, as pointed out by Herbert Spencer, the “Medicine man” as such, is
a natural evolution from the priest, and he is a natural sequence to a
belief in ghosts and the continuous existence and influence for good or
evil of the souls, spirits, ghosts or something else of dead ancestors.
As one would expect there is a gradual evolution amongst the natives of
the Bantu tribes, from the Priest, pure and simple, to the “Medicine
man” proper; one who leaves the supernatural out of his method of
treatment and depends on nature and combination of nature’s products
for the cure of disease. Thus we have the “Isanuse,” the witch doctor,
diviner of secrets, etc., and on the other hand the “Igquira
Elemicisa,” the herb doctor; some of these latter even going the length
of specializing different classes of diseases; and the “Awamatambo,”
Kaffir Surgeons.
The Kaffir Doctor may be of either sex, except in the case of the war
doctor, who is always a male; and in the puberty rites of (intonyana)
and (ubukweta), each sex is treated by a practitioner of like sex.
Some of these “doctors” inherit, or are taught the knowledge possessed
by their father or mother, e.g., the Awemiciza; others become so by
voluntary submission to rites and training, vide Isanusi, where the
process of Ukutwasa is described. They all carry on their person charms
of numerous kinds; dried lizards, tiger’s teeth, fish bones, etc.,
etc., etc., that have for them special virtues; and the large majority
claim to have power over the demons of disease; for to the
unsophisticated Kaffir, all disease is caused by “Umtagati” or
witchcraft, and although the doctor may rely on his herbs and treatment
to cure his patient, he is led to practice spells and go through
incantations to meet the evident expectations of his patients, and
perhaps more so of the relatives.
Taking a “Herb Doctor” all-round he is often a clever fellow, good at
the cure of some diseases, and his methods and principles compare
favourably with those ascribed to Aesculapius and Galen in the early
history of medicine.
The Kaffir uses a pronominal prefixual polysyllabic language, and
attention to the structure of Kaffir words is necessary in order to
understand the terms applied to the various kinds of Kaffir doctors.
“Isanuse” is a substantive term of unknown origin, meaning a witch
finder or witch doctor.
Most of the other names consist of two parts—a distinguishing part
preceded by Igqira, which means “doctor,” just as we use the term
Doctor of Herbs, the Kaffir uses that of
Singular Plural
igqira elemicisa amagqira awemicisa
the doctor of herbs. the doctors of herbs.
and so on.
The etymology may be briefly shown thus:
Singular—Iligqira, or contracted, i-gqira—the doctor.
e la imi cisa } elemicisa
who of the herbs }
Plural—Amagqira. Plural prefix—ama.
a wa imi cisa } awemicisa
who of the herbs }
There are five classes of “Doctors,” each having sub-classes.
A. The Witch doctors.
1. Isanuse—Diviner of secrets.
2. Igqira elemishologu—Spirit doctor.
3. Igqira eliligogo—Foreteller of events.
4. Igqira elemilozi—Doctor of sounds or whistles.
5. Igqira elokuvumisa—Doctor who goes by consent.
6. Igqira elamatambo—Doctor who uses bones.
7. Igqira elobulongo—Cow-dung doctor.
8. Igqira ilixukwazana—The learning student.
9. Igqira elokuqubula—The doctor who rubs, etc.
10. Igqira elilicamagu—Faith healer.
B. Surgeon or Bonesetter.
Igqira elokuqapula—The Doctor who inoculates or lets blood.
C. Herb Doctor. Physician.
Igqira elemiciza—Doctor of herbs.
D. Rain Doctor.
Igqira elesebe—The doctor who controls the rain bird, “Isebe.”
E. War Doctor.
Igqira elilitola—The war doctor.
A. THE WITCH DOCTORS.
1. The Isanuse (Umgoma of the Zulus) is a witch doctor, who professes
to have direct intercourse with the spirit world, and practices
divination, or in his language, “Ukunuka” or “smelling out.” Their
assistance and influence is employed in “smelling out” sorcerers or
bewitchers, “Amagqira” or “Abatakati,” and although they are forbidden
to practice in the Cape Colony or Natal under heavy penalties if
discovered, they practice secretly and do much harm; mysterious
burnings of Kraals, etc., taking place after the departure of one of
these gentry. Until recently they practiced unrestrained in Zululand
and Pondoland, and exercised a truly awful power for evil; hundreds and
even thousands having been “smelled out” and put to death within recent
times.
Probably no more villainous and unmitigated fraud than the Kaffir
“Isanuse” exists on the face of the earth. Pretending to possess the
faculty of divination, he trains his memory and powers of observation
to an extraordinary degree. Every little circumstance coming within his
cognisance is hoarded up for future use. Nothing is too trivial, and by
the assistance of spies he is kept informed of everything that goes on
in his clan or tribe. Rich and influential men are, of course, the
special objects of his keenest regard.
Nothing is unimportant, and such things as the pattern of a snuffbox, a
dent in an assegai handle or blade, the number and etc., of shells worn
in a necklet or charm, are noted for possible use against the owner,
should it be advisable to convict him of Sorcery.
Scully thus describes an hypothetical case.
Let us suppose that a child is ill, and the friends have decided to
consult their Isanuse, and find out who has bewitched him, for, to the
Kaffir, sickness is always due to witchcraft or “Umtagati.” A present
of a goat or ox or something else is brought, depending on the wealth
of the individual and the importance of the Isanuse. The friends sit
down in front of the Isanuse’s hut, when he, being previously warned of
their coming and its object, comes forth and tells them to “Vuma” or
acknowledge what he says to be the truth. After a time of consideration
he will say, “You have come to find out who has bewitched the child of
‘Sogolima.’” All clap their hands and shout “Vuma” “Siyavuma,” we
acknowledge.
If a false statement is made, the clapping and shouting is
involuntarily not so emphatic, when he will say, “No you lie, it is not
so and so,” when loud shouts of “Siyavuma, Siyavuma mhloko!
Siyavuma!!!” and clapping of hands will show how his hearers admire his
wonderful powers.
The next stage is to say who has been the bewitcher. He points at the
individual whom he has decided to incriminate saying, “you took the
assegai with the crack in the handle which you mended with a thong of
goat hide in the spring last year, and digging in front of the hut of
the sick person, buried something (previously and in secret placed
there by the Isanuse), by which you bewitched the child.” This
knowledge of details fills the spectators with dread and wonder at the
powers of the “doctor” and convinces his friends, who know that he has
an assegai, so mended, of his guilt. The subsequent finding of the
buried charm drives away all further doubt from their minds.
The accused is then dealt with, by heavy fines or physical torture or
even death.
No doubt these individuals come in time, to believe that they actually
possess magical powers; and certainly it must be allowed that their
faculties are often wonderfully trained, with at times startling
results, at least startling to the uninitiated.
Usually the Isanuse takes his cue from the Chief as to whom he may
accuse; but not always; and is of course amenable to bribery from other
sources.
Women practice this horrible form of “doctoring” more than men.
Scully from whom I have obtained much information tells how an aged and
rich Pondo becoming a convert to christianity became a suspect, was
accused at a smelling out, of treachery to his chief and was hunted
down and murdered while fleeing for sanctuary at a Mission Station,
within sight of the missionary, who was powerless to interfere.
Mission Stations were respected and acknowledged as “Sanctuary” for
people smelt out, but they dared never return to their kraals.
The following description, culled from the same source, of the ordinary
course of action in the event of illness admirably describes what may
well have taken place.
A fine baby is born. His proud mother fastens round his neck the seeds
of the “Rhiza” to keep away convulsions, a piece of “Mooti” or
medicinal wood to prevent illness generally. The father gave a
Leopard’s tooth to hang on, “to make him brave.”
He takes measels, followed by chronic cough and wasting “Phtisis.” An
“Isanuse” is consulted as above described. He decides on the illness
and advises a certain Gqira. This Gqira (Native doctor) is sent for and
a goat killed for his entertainment. He doses the little patient with
infusion of various herbs, frog’s feet, baboon’s hair, lizard’s tails
and other items of his grotesque pharmacopœia. He then hangs some
infallible charms, tied up in the inevitable bag round the child’s neck
and departs next morning with an ox or other good fee, promising
certain cure: Result nil.
Another “Gqira” a most celebrated practitioner is sent for. This one
requires a fat black ox to be killed. With the blood of this animal he
freely sprinkles all the members of the family, the little patient
getting an extra share. After speaking in most slighting terms of the
other doctor’s treatment, he makes a powder of burnt bones of several
kinds of snakes and birds, then, making small incisions with a sharp
stick across the chest and round the neck, arms and legs of the
patient, he rubs the powder well into them. After this he applies a
plaster of fresh cowdung to the sick child’s chest, and wrapping him up
in the skin of the black ox killed on the previous evening, he carries
him out of the hut and lays him in the middle of the cattle kraal. It
is now noon and until sundown the “Gqira” dances and chants around his
patient in the most grotesque and frantic manner conceivable.
Just at sundown, he falls down in a swoon or fit, foaming at the mouth
and yelling horribly, presently he comes to, and crawling over to where
the poor little child is looking on with horrified eyes from the wraps,
he inserts his hands amongst the folds of the skin and extracts a
lizard about 4 in. in length, and holds it up to the gaze of the
admiring and applauding crowd. Here was the cause of the malady, rid of
which the child will at once mend! The mother weeps tears of joy as she
loosens the child from its unsavoury durance.
The “Gqira” leaves next morning having established his reputation;
taking as fees two of the best cattle. Result nil.
As the child got worse, the mother becomes convinced that someone has
bewitched him, and goes to consult one of the wizards or witch doctors
“Awamatambo,” who is believed to be able to foretell the future and
reveal the secrets of the past, by the method known as throwing the
“Indawuli” (Dutch, dolossi bones). These are the metatarsal or
metacarpal bones of sheep and antelopes variously coloured. They are
thrown, about a dozen, like dice; and the “Gqira” studies them and
reads the answer.
His procedure is something thus:—Having been paid his fee, a goat or
something, he sits down with his kaross, throws the “Indawuli” and then
proceeds.
First he recapitulates the disease and details of treatment that have
been adopted, and then accuses someone of witchcraft, someone whom he
has a spite against or whom he knows to be suspected. Says the child
was charmed by the individual by means of magic medicines which he had
burned, which drew the lizard and toad and snake, “Uhili, Icanti and
Impundulu” to the mother’s hut and then the child sickened. He predicts
his certain death: a self evident fact by this time and which soon
takes place, resulting in much trouble in the king’s household and
often bloodshed.
The story is told of a great witch doctor being called to cure a girl
of Epilepsy, which was supposed to be “Umdhlemyana,” sickness caused by
the casting of a love spell by a young man in the neighbourhood; also
of an instance where a child accidently buried in a landslip alive, and
heard crying is allowed to die unreleased, while witch doctors have
cattle and then goats driven over the place to appease the “Imishologu”
in whose custody the child was.
There is another form of “smelling out,” a more fearful affair the
“Umhlalho,” or in Zulu “Ingoboko.” This is a tribal affair, and is
carried out in the following manner:
The chief agrees to the summoning of a great “Umhlalho,” a great public
dance, to which selected tribes are invited, and must attend. The
“Gqira,” the tribes being assembled, after various incantations and
probably working himself or herself (for females often take to this
profession) into a frenzy, will single out an individual, or even at
times a whole tribe as a guilty party, by throwing ashes over them.
This act being called “Ukunuka.” These parties may have been guilty of,
say, causing sickness in the king’s household, making one of his wives
miscarry, or, in the case of a tribe, having assisted in the escape of
a fugitive.
Those proclaimed guilty at an “Umhlalho” by means of the “Ukunuka”
(throwing ashes), the signs of being “smelled out,” are often summarily
slaughtered or at least severely punished, often with horrible
tortures.
It was an “Isanusi” called “Malakaza,” who was responsible, under the
direction of Kreli, for the great “Cattle Slaughter of the Kaffirs in
1856,” by which, according to the Hon. Charles Brownlee, an undoubted
authority, it is computed that over 20,000 natives died of starvation
and other diseases, and 30,000 were forced to seek relief in the Cape
Colony.
An “Insanuse” goes through a regular course of initiation and education
after the following methods:—
He or she gets an inspiration or has a dream in which he is called to
visit a river, near a deep and quiet pool, alone. He is said to be
called by the spirit king of the river, or the “Ingwenya,” or
alligator, with a view to his destruction. He is, however, protected by
his guardian spirits, “Iminyanga.” While he is at the river he is
instructed by the “Ihili,” a sort of fairy who also guards his
interests. He begins to see visions, and is supposed to have some
intercourse with spirits. In this stage of his initiation, or as it is
called “Ukutwasa,” he is known as “Elemishologu,” analogous to the
condition of a medical student. He, however, does some practising on
his own account even now.
Later he pays in kind or in service, a superior or full fledged doctor
to complete his education; this stage being called “Uku penleleliva,”
and eventually becomes a full fledged member of one or other or perhaps
several of the numerous classes of native doctors or “Amagqira”
(singular, “Igqira”).
The fees paid to these “Amagqira” vary considerably. They usually take
the form of cattle or other live stock or agricultural produce, and
seem to depend on the case and the wealth of the individual seeking
assistance.
The general plan is to pay fees as follows:—
1. A small fee, about 5s., to get him to speak.
2. The after payment to a regular practitioner is “Umkonto,” a visiting
fee for diagnosing the disease or advising a specialist.
3. “Umlandu.” Fee for actual attendance, generally an animal, large or
small; only given if the treatment proves successful.
A truly excellent method of remuneration, and which might be followed
in more civilized communities.
This “Insanuse” is therefore a sage or diviner, who treats all kinds of
disease, often by charms and incantations, calculated to drive out the
evil spirits (for to him all disease is caused by “Umtagati,” or
witchcraft), and frequently by the use of herbs and drugs. He does not
practice surgery.
A 2.
Singular. I-gqira elemishologu. e-la-imishologu. The doctor who (is) of
spirits. Plural. Ama gqira Awemishologu. A-wa imi shologu. The doctors
who (are) of spirits.
This is a spirit doctor, one who professes to see and be guided by
spirits. He is really the (medical) student stage of the “Inanuse,” and
has gone through the initiation “Ukutwasa,” only. He has still to pass
his “Uku Penleleliva” to become an “Isanuse.” Many, however, remain at
this stage, and are recognised as diviners and spiritualists.
A 3. Igqira Eliligogo (e-la-igogo—who is “Igogo?” i.e., and observer.
Plural—“Ama-gogo”).
“Igogo,” is a native name for a sort of antelope, which usually, when
seen, is gazing or observing.
The title is applied to an individual, who foresees or foretells coming
events. Some of them, from continued observations, are very able in
estimating chances or judging of future events by present and past
facts, and so come to have quite a reputation as seers. They will be
asked such things as: “Will the rains be early, late or severe? Will
the crops suffer from hailstorms? Is an enemy to be expected, when and
from where?” They pretend to be told by dreams and visions that which
they reveal, and some of them go through forms of incantations, e.g.,
throwing certain roots on a fire, &c., while using passes and phrases.
As the Kaffir prophets, like other prophets, are often wrong, the term
“Igogo” is sometimes used to mean a pretender.
They, as a rule, receive no fees.
A 4.
Singular. Plural.
Igqira elemilozi. Amagqira alemilosi.
(The doctor of Whistlings).
“Umlozi” means a whistle or whistling sound. A doctor of whistlings is
one who pretends to hear a whistling noise about, e.g., in the roof of
the hut, which gives him the instructions required as to which charms,
roots, drugs, &c., are good for a certain case, and where to find them.
He is a sort of ventriloquist and physician; does not practice surgery;
is paid the usual fees; and is usually a Fingo.
A 5.
Igqira elokuvumisa (A doctor who goes by consent). Plural—Amagqira
Awokuvumisa.
This is a consulting practitioner who does not use medicines. He will
find out what the disease is, and directs the patient to a regular
practitioner; or he will point out the sorcerer or bewitcher.
The method adopted by this individual is described under Isanusi. He,
however, is a specialist in this line. He finds out by getting the
people collected around him to Vuma, or consent to various assertions
made by himself, and judges by the loudness of their Vuma and clapping
of hands, whether he is near the truth or otherwise. See Isanusi.
A 6.
Igqira elamatambo (The doctor of bones.) Plural—Amagqira Awamatambo.
This is a class of practitioner chiefly found amongst the Basutos, who
pretends to find out things by the manner in which his “Indawuli” (Cape
Dutch—Dolossi bones) fall when thrown.
These “Indawuli” may be thus described:—
1. Two flat pieces of bone, roughly carved, i.e., the king and queen.
2. Two others, usually thicker pieces, and of the metatarsus of a calf,
also ornamented, i.e., the ox of the king and queen respectively.
3. Eight metacarpal bones of sheep, i.e., the common people.
He proceeds thus:—Holding the bones in his hands, held horizontally,
with a turn of the wrist, he throws them on the ground as one would
throw dice. He looks at their relative position. Should they give no
indication he throws again. This time perhaps they lie favourably. The
king touches one of the common people, and the queen is looking in that
direction. He then proceeds to give his opinion.
These doctors are frequently very shrewd and possessed of wonderfully
well trained memories.
By observation and information of spies, they know everybody’s
business, and of every event, and by reasoning are often able to judge
correctly. There are well-known instances, where the information
received from these Amagqira has led to the discovery of lost or stolen
goods or cattle, after apparently all other means have been tried in
vain.
A 7. Igqira elobulongo, Amagqira awobulongo, (the doctor, who is of
cowdung).
This individual employs moist cowdung, often taken fresh from a
recently slaughtered beast, to draw out the evil spirits that are
causing the disease. He proceeds thus:—A ball of cowdung is secured
over the affected parts, and after a time removed by the Igqira, who
produces from it by sleight of hand some charm, such as a lizard,
previously had handy for his purpose. These are the “Izidlanga,”
diseased parts of the body or charms that have been put into the
patient by the evil spirits or bewitchers.
A 8.
Igqira Ililixukwazana. Plural— Amagqira Amaxukwazana.
This is a witch doctor of much inferior kind to the “Isanusi,” whose
methods he adopts. He is a learner of little experience and may become
an “Isanusi” later on.
A 9.
Igqira Elokuqubula, Uku-qubula—to fall upon, to attack.
Plural— Amagqira Awokuqubula.
This is a term used to designate the practitioner who professes to draw
out the malady by rubbing or grasping with the hand or sucking with the
mouth. They often also use herbs and leaves as applications, and, as in
the case of the “Awobulongo” (cowdung doctor), frequently produce
things as the cause of the disease, the presence of which they have
previously arranged. Thus an Igqira Elokuqubula will suck over a
painful joint after having well rubbed it, and produce from his mouth a
snake or lizard, previously placed there, as the cause of the disease
and pain.
A 10.
Igqira Elilicamagu. Plural— Amagqira Amacamagu.
These are seers, foretellers and faith healers, their practice and
treatment corresponding greatly with the faith healers of more
civilized lands.
The following is a description given me by an educated native, who
claimed to have been cured of mortification, “Ubulima,” in this way.
The doctor collects the patients friends and makes them vuma, i.e.,
confess to the disease, he then orders the slaughtering of a certain
cow, which he will most minutely describe, though he is supposed never
to have seen the herd. The cow is found and made a living sacrifice of.
The beast is bound and thrown, and the people round, led by the doctor,
stab it on the navel and belly, and while the poor brute bellows from
pain, the doctor and people shout out “You are well;” “Get up,” etc.,
etc., and in some miraculous way the patient is immediately cured of
his pain. Another Agqira is then called in to complete the cure by
means of herbs, &c., which frequently produce vomiting and purging.
B. SURGEONS, BONESETTERS, &c.
Igqira Elokuqapula. Amagqira Awokuqapula.
Uku-qapula, means to inoculate or to let blood.
These Kaffir specialists show a considerable surgical skill. They are
called in for all surgical complaints.
In most cases the surgeon exhibits internal as well as external
remedies, using purgatives and emetics freely to assist healing and
relieve pain.
Blood-letting, as his name implies, is frequently had resort to by the
native surgeon. Thus, I know of a case where one of these Awokuqapula
on his own initiative incised the temporal artery for persistent
neuralgia.
Blood-letting by means of incisions or scarifications is frequently
used to relieve deep seated pain. A common method of treating pleuritic
pain is to scarify over the ribs and rub in some irritant.
The native Surgeon, whether taught by outside practice or not, it is
hard to say, resorts to venesection as one of his routine methods of
treatment for violent fevers. He usually selects one of the veins of
the forearm, using direct pressure to stop the hæmorrhage when he
considers that his patient has lost enough.
A cupping instrument called “Luneka” and needles “Izinthlum” are used
by the Kaffir Surgeon for acupuncture and bleeding in such cases as
snake bite, pleurisy, etc.
Surgical cases of any degree are put in clean huts and usually on the
top of a hill, thus shewing that the Kaffir appreciates the value of
fresh, clean surroundings: and the ashes of plants (carbon) used for
wounds shows a spontaneous knowledge, that an antiseptic is of value in
assisting healing.
C. THE HERB DOCTOR (Physician).
Igqira elemiciza. Amagqira awemiciza.
(The doctor, who is of herbs.)
The herb doctor is simply a Kaffir practitioner and differs in no
essential respect from the European “herbalist,” only, he employs South
African herbs and drugs.
Some of them devote their attention to one disease or to some small
group of maladies, and by close observation and long experience, as
also by benefitting by transmitted and traditional knowledge, they
acquire fame as specialists and experts in the cure of disease; and
people send for them, or go to them from great distances, and often
reward them very liberally if they be successful.
It is not uncommon for the isanuse (witch doctor) to practice also as
an igqira elemicisa (herb doctor).
As a witch doctor he administers emetics (see later) which have no
relation to the healing art, but as a herb doctor he acts on the same
principles as the others do and may be skilful as such. He is at any
rate not more grossly inconsistent than the Roman augurs were.
D. THE RAIN DOCTOR.
Igqira elesebe. The term elesebe (who is of isebe) is derived from
“isebe” a bird, this bird being the being from which the doctor is
supposed to receive the rain.
A doctor who has passed his initiation (ukutwasa) is supposed to have
communication with things in the water, or with wild animals; but this
individual claims to hold communication with a bird.
There are birds well-known, which by their actions or calls indicate
the approach of rain; thus we have Egyptian vulture; the turkey buzzard
which does so by its “booming” and the South African rain bird by its
call “bok—ma—keri.”
Some men of great natural observing powers are skilful in weather signs
and probably the rain doctors are no fools in this respect, and hold
off with various excuses when their natural barometer stands at “very
dry.”
E. THE WAR DOCTOR.
Igqira elilitola. (the doctor who is of war.) Plural. Amagqira amatola.
In time of war, before proceeding to battle the companies are doctored,
each soldier being submitted to the process.
The war doctor (Itola) always a man, is sent for and prepares a large
vessel of war medicine, with much ceremony and incantation, and of this
each warrior partakes, and is in consequence considered immunised from
the danger of his enemies’ weapons (always, be it understood, provided
he be at peace and in the good graces of his departed ancestors.)
These ancestors have sacrifices offered to them by every warrior,
including the king and chief indunas on the eve of battle. Many curious
practices take place at such a time which it is outside the province of
this essay to describe. They are, however, very interesting, as
evidence of various superstitions believed by the Kaffir.