or speciality in mediæval wood-carving. It can be advantageously used
as a centre, and sets off to good effect surrounding flat or plain
carving. It is sometimes used as a handle for chests. It is, when a
simple half-circle, very easily sketched into shape. It may be formed
into the head of an animal, a flower, a single curling leaf, or several
leaves. The student is specially urged to copy as many as he can from
Gothic designs. A boss at the bottom of a bowl, or in a saucer or
_plaque_, produces a good effect, the concave surface round it making
a beautiful effect of shade, which might be more frequently employed
by picture-frame makers. This ornament, which is very easily made and
very striking, is thus prepared. Get a bowl or a shallow round platter;
any turner will make one for you. Then carve from a hemisphere of wood
a head or a boss of leaves or flowers, or a dragon. Round the bottom
with a file to fit, and with glue and a screw fasten it to the bowl. The
interior of the bowl may be polished, varnished, gilded, or ivoried.
_Clock Cases._ A common clock is not very expensive, and when it is
properly repainted and set in a well-carved frame its value will be very
much enhanced. A tower is a very good subject for a clock case.
_Vestibule._ The small ante-hall, between the first and second door,
common in very many houses. This can be ornamented with a wainscot or
dados in long panels. It is very often thus decorated in America. For
cottages and country houses, or even for town mansions, such panels
may be beautifully and fitly decorated with gouge-work in grooves, a
flat pattern in simple cutting-in, such as any person may learn how to
execute in a few hours. Fill in the pattern or cuts with dark paint,
and if exposed to changes of temperament or rubbing, let it be oiled or
varnished. The same work is of course as appropriate to halls as any
other rooms, but the vestibule, being small, may serve for a beginning.
_Staircase Balusters._ These afforded inexhaustible work for the artists
of the olden time, and they should be tempting to every wood-carver.
It is not at all necessary that they should be strictly of open work,
in lattices or rails, as beautiful objects of the kind were once often
made in panels. But the carver should especially be aware of projecting
leaves or crochets, as they are very apt to "catch" garments.
_Garden-work._ Much bold wood-carving may be executed for gardens in a
great variety of forms. Stands or tables for potted flowers and tubs
may be decorated, panels placed in walls, and summer-houses made in far
greater variety than they are at present. Poetry supplies an infinite
variety of inscriptions appropriate to gardens, which may be carved
and ornamented. It is worth noting that statues of Flora and Pomona
and Vertumnus in simple archaic forms were used to protect gardens and
orchards among the Romans, and it would be an easy matter to carve these
in low relief in panels.
_Gates._ The gates of country places, gardens, etc., afford a wide scope
for the skill of the carver, and as they are the first objects generally
seen about a house they may be most appropriately ornamented. In this,
as in much other work, the art of the carpenter is combined with that of
the carver. It should be, however, remembered, as regards gates, as of
all decoration whatever, that anything which can ever be in any manner
in the way is not beautiful, sensible, or proper. There should never be
a jagged or pointed ornament wherever it can "catch" clothing.
_Bedsteads._ The bedstead was of old considered so appropriate for
carving, that I find in an excellent old Italian work on furniture more
illustrations of this article than any other. Even very simple and cheap
ones may be redoubled in value by a little judicious carving.
_Trays._ These may be made in great variety, to contain many kinds of
objects. As a rule the tray is a long shallow box, but it may be carved
from one piece of wood, and is then used to carry objects in, the single
piece being necessary to give it strength. If ornamented with carving
the tray forms an attractive object when hung up on the wall. And it
may be here remarked that one great object of all carving is, that most
objects which are useful in some way shall be ornamental when not in
use. We do not wish to have trays and coal-boxes in the way if they are
plain, but when decorated they serve as well as pictures to ornament a
room.
_Coal or Wood Boxes. See Wood or Coal Boxes._
_Salt Boxes, Collection Boxes._ These very useful articles need not
be limited as regards contents, nor confined to the kitchen or to
"collection." If the part of the box which goes against the wall, or
its back, be lengthened, the salt box becomes a kind of bracket. _Vide
Hanging Boxes._
_Shelf-boards._ It very often happens that a literary man, or
draughtsman, or architect, though his work-table may be large, finds
it crowded with books, etc. To find place for these the shelf-board is
very convenient. It is simply a board, let us say one foot wide, placed
on two supports, which lift it twelve or fifteen inches from the table.
To economize room these supports may each be a square open box, in
which books may be placed. The advantage of this shelf is that it may
be displaced at any time when the table is cleared. A plain board in a
room is not an attractive object, its edge, or even one side of it, may
therefore be carved.
_Brackets and Bracket Shelves._ These useful objects may be made in a
great variety of forms. The simplest is merely three pieces of board
fastened together in a triangle. In the illustration, Fig. 77, there
are five pieces. The centre of _b_ slopes at an angle of 45°. Bracket
shelves are made by hanging two brackets and laying a board across them.
A bracket may be made on a longer board, and have two or more shelves,
it then becomes a hanging rack or cabinet. Or the support may be a long
strip in which pegs of wood or metal are placed, on which objects are
hung. A very great variety of carved or stamped ornament may be adapted
to brackets.
[Illustration: Fig. 77. BRACKET. THE TANNHÄUSER.]
_Violin and Guitar Cases._ In the old times these were often elaborately
carved, and thus formed an ornament, instead of being, like all now
used, anything but attractive.
_Handles for Drawers._ The hanging or hinge style of old-fashioned
handles, now so prevalent, has the drawbacks of not being always easy to
open or "find," and of frequently breaking. The knob, which was screwed
on, was always wearing out and getting out of order. The best and most
practical kind is made with a square shank which passes through a square
hole in the drawer. It has also in itself a square hole into which a
square pin is driven, which holds it fast. Carving in very low relief
may be applied to ornament these handles, but it should never be such as
to produce positive inequalities, such as press into, or may hurt the
hand. If the pin be slightly wedge-shaped, it can never wear out, nor
can the handle become loose, since when it does, all that is required is
to drive it in further. A very plain chest of drawers may be made much
more attractive with a handsome set of handles. Handles are another form
of bosses.
_Applied Ornaments._ Old Roman bronze coins, such as may be bought for
two or three pence, are often quite handsome enough to be applied with
beautiful effect in caskets, tankards, or boxes. Lay the coin on the
wood, draw its exact circle with a pin, and do this until the line is
rather deeply scratched. Cut out the disc with great care, so that the
coin may fit tightly into it. For this purpose very thick coins are
preferable. Let it project a little from the surface. Fasten it in with
diamond or Turkey cement. Of course, medals or coins of any kind may be
used. Make a border in the wood round the coin, and if you like, apply
other ornament to this border. Large nails with circular boss heads are
very effective in furniture. Chests may be beautifully ornamented with
them.
_Waste-Paper Box._ A carved box is much more "sightly" and solid than an
ordinary waste-paper basket. The box may be carved in a basket pattern,
and made rather wider at the top than the bottom.
_Borders._ Any ornament continued in a line or strip forms a border. A
wave line, or one made of hemi-circles, joined or not with ornaments
in every compartment, is a good plan for a border. So is a vine of any
kind. When the hemi-circles are squared and joined, it becomes the basis
for the Greek Meander or Wall of Troy. Angles and other forms are also
used. Any diaper may be repeated so as to form a border. Borders around
panels and other margins, and all along the edges of boards for shelves,
brackets and most of the works mentioned in this list, may be executed
in highly decorative effect, and with an ease and precision difficult
to attain by carving, with the hammer and stamps mentioned in the first
lesson. Lines are first drawn on the work as guides to place the punches
to insure regularity.
[Illustration: Fig. 78. LECTERN.]
_Pilaster._ Though this term is generally applied to what may be
called a flat-sided pillar against a wall, or a flat half pillar, in
wood-carving it means quite as often a perpendicular border in relief.
Like borders, pilasters are used in many ways in decoration, as on
walls, bureaux, cabinets, sideboards, tables, or wherever a long "strip"
is to be filled.
_Base Moulding._ This is generally a border which is the lower portion
of a piece of furniture, etc. Thus, if there is a panel and frame,
and under this, just over the "feet," a carved strip, it is a base
moulding. Narrow fillets on these may be also decorated by stamping.
_Sideboard or Buffet._ A piece of furniture eminently adapted to
ornament. It may be made with a back or with shelves, niches, or a
cabinet placed on it instead of a back.
_Alms Boxes, Money Boxes._ These are made up for churches, generally
after Gothic designs, and afford a wide range of design.
_Lectern._ A church reading desk. This has always been a favourite
subject with wood-carvers, Fig. 78.
_Ends of Pews._ A favourite subject for carvers in the days of old,
_vide_ Fig. 80.
_Porte-papier._ A very useful article to carry paper, or a sketchbook,
or to press leaves and flowers and convey them home. Take two pieces of
board, from one-third to one-half an inch in thickness, and six inches
by eight in size, more or less as may be desired. The paper is placed
between these boards and the whole secured with a hand-strap. It is
usual to carve a flower pattern on these.
_Ring or Circular Boxes._ Take a board, of any thickness, _e.g._ one of
two inches, and make of it a disc or circle, using the steel fret saw,
Fig. 16; then marking out another circle within this, saw out a ring
about three-quarters of an inch in thickness. Adapt to this a bottom
and lid, both, of course, also circular. It will be like what is known
as a cheese box. To double the depth saw out two rings and glue them
together. This will give four inches depth. Boxes may thus be made of
any shape, such as a fish, and then carved.
_Photograph or Mirror Frames, or Mounts._ Take a piece of thin board,
six inches by four or five, or any size required. Cut out of one corner
of this as much as will be required for the photograph or mirror,
leaving enough wood for a pattern. These have become very popular of
late, Fig. 79.
[Illustration: Fig. 79. FRAME FOR A PHOTOGRAPH, LOOKING GLASS, ETC.]
_Triptych._ Two folding covers or boards on hinges, intended to cover a
picture or carved or enamelled or inlaid work. These triptychs may be
used reversed as writing desks, or else carved on both sides, and then
when open hung on the wall as ornaments. When there are only two boards,
as in an album, it is called a diptych.
_Encoignures._ Tables made with an angle to fit into a corner of a room.
_Shields._ Carved in wood, these form beautiful ornaments.
_Incitega._ A kind of stand or table for flowers. It was generally made
of rods or strips, but it may be very easily formed like a box, that is,
a truncated pyramid reversed. The sides are carved.
_Monopodium or Centre-table._ A small circular table supported on a
central stem or foot, used by the ancients at social entertainments.
_Orb._ A globe covered with ornaments carved in low relief. They form
very effective decorations.
_Finial._ A terminating ornament, corresponding to a flower as a crochet
does to a side leaf, Fig. 80, etc.
_Coin-brackets._ Brackets made to fit into the corner of a room.
_Corner-cabinets._ Cabinets adapted to a corner of a room. There are
also coin or corner objects of furniture of all kinds.
_Mouldings._ These are narrow borders or strips, and are very effective
in giving relief in long spaces. A good effect for a full border,
a diaper ground or a broad pattern, may often be made by doubling,
trebling, etc., mouldings. By using the folding mirror a segment of any
moulding or border may be converted into an ornament to fill up any
given space, of any shape. There are several tools specially made for
cutting figures in mouldings.
[Illustration: Fig. 80. POPPY-HEAD.]
_Poppy-heads._ There are many cases where carving may be applied with
good effect to relieve bareness. "Such ornaments, generally small groups
of foliage" (though often figures with leaves), "were formerly placed on
the summits of bench-ends desks, and other clerical wood-work" (F. W.
Fairholt). Poppy-heads can be placed, however, or adapted, to all kinds
of furniture, with a variation in form, Fig. 80.
_Sconce._ A wall candlestick, which usually takes the form of a
projecting bracketed support in wood or metal. They originated in the
fifteenth century, and were generally of enriched design. They may be
sawed out of boards, or carved in many forms.
_Trellis-screens._ These are thin boards of open lattice-work, generally
made by fret-sawing and subsequent carving. They are useful to place
behind windows, and for many purposes.
_Tympanum._ A triangular space, which may be filled in with carved
ornament.
_Verge or Barge-board._ The gable ornament of wood-work, used
extensively for houses in the fifteenth century. It affords a wide field
for decoration.
_Wreaths._ Carved circles or rings of wood, which form beautiful
ornaments, especially when hung up at intervals. They may be used for
picture-frames, Fig. 81.
_Acerra._ A square box, on legs or supports.
_Heads and Legs._ When a cylinder, or square stick, or horn, or oval
box, is made to rudely resemble a figure by adding to it a head and
legs, this is so called.
_Ædicula._ A small house or tower, generally used as a box. Very
effective and beautiful articles are thus made.
_Ante-fix._ Ornament carved in stone or wood, or made from terra-cotta,
"to give an ornamental finish or to conceal unsightly junctions in
masonry" (Fairholt). There are few country houses or cottages where they
cannot be applied.
_Ciborium, Synedoche._ Very richly adorned receptacles in which the
Host is kept. They may be imitated for cabinets. In Spanish churches
they are called _custodia_.
[Illustration: Fig. 81. RING-BOX, WREATH, OR BREAD PLATTER.]
_Cyma._ A moulding consisting of a round and hollow conjoined, termed
_cyma recta_ when hollow above, and _cyma reversa_ when the cavity is
below.
_Modillons._ Brackets in Gothic architecture, the lower portion often in
the form of a grotesque animal or human being.
[Illustration: Fig. 82. HAND MIRROR.]
_Hand Mirrors._ These afford an endless field for design. Fig. 82.
_Echinus._ The egg and tongue or egg and anchor moulding, much like the
heart and dart ornament. It is easily made and is very effective. Faces
may be cut on the "eggs."
_Outlines._ Figures of men, animals, etc., cut or sawed out of boards,
and either painted or carved. They are common in Italian churches. They
form very effective hanging ornaments. Birds can be adapted to beautiful
outlines.
_Hammer Beam._ The projecting end of a beam, often carved.
_Hood Moulding._ The moulding which covers or surmounts a door or
window on the outside, forming a sort of hood or weather-guard. It is
also called a dripstone or weather moulding. It can be beautifully
ornamented, and thus becomes a striking decoration.
_Impost._ The horizontal moulding on the summit of a pillar from which
the arch springs.
_Console._ (French.) Brackets in furniture.
_Perfume Chests._ Boxes with perforated lids in which is kept
_pot-pourri_ of rose leaves, or a mixture of powdered orris-root and
spice.
_Churns._ A carved churn is a fanciful ornament, used to contain papers,
etc. The handle is fixed to the cover and serves to lift it.
_Handles for Bowls, Cups, or Boxes._ These are sawn from board from one
half to an inch in thickness, and then fastened to the bowl or box,
generally with screws. When gracefully or quaintly shaped they convert
any ordinary bowl or tankard, with very little trouble, to an attractive
ornament. They are almost peculiar to Sweden and Norway, where they may
be seen in museums in very great variety.
_Bark Frames._ A curious and striking ornament may be made in this
manner. Take a piece of cork, oak, or other bark, which may be a foot in
length by six inches. Make in it an oval or circle, in which carve any
subject. The writer once had an image of the Virgin thus carved, which
was much admired. Dark brown bark is much improved by having gilding
roughly spread on its projecting points. If the ground of the carving be
gilt and the bark left in its natural condition the effect will also be
good.
_Three-legged_, or _Milking Stools_. These are commonly carved on the
seat. Ornaments may be carved and better applied as in Fig. 83.
[Illustration: Fig. 83. THREE-LEGGED STOOL.]
INDEX.
Acerra, 151
Ædicula, 151
Album-covers, 129, 131
Alms boxes, 148
Alpenstocks, carved, 136
Ammonia as a wood stain, 112
Animal forms, carving, 59
Antefix, 151
_Appliqué_ work, 75, 84;
it may be carried too far, 76
Art, "high," and carving, 64, 76.
_See also_ Conventional, the, Rule, etc.
Artist, the, and the workman in wood-carving, 82
Balusters, carving, 142
Barge-board, 151
Bark frames, 154
Bars, and other ornaments, 101
Base moulding, 147
Basket-work, imitation of, 128
Beam, hammer, 154
Beams, carving, 141
Bedsteads, carved, 143
Bellows, carving, 137, 138
Bench, the working, 3;
screws, 5
Benches, carving, 132
Bend, getting the, 55
Bent tools, 5, 95
Bichromate of Potash as a dye, 113
Black dyes, 114
Blocking-out, 50, 56
Bold, large work, 48, 49
Bone, ivory, etc., carving, 14
Book-box, 136
Book-covers, carved, 88, 91, 129
Books and authorities, quoted and referred to:
Caddy, Mr., 3;
Fairholt's Dictionary, 151;
Gibson's "Wood Carver," 8;
Holtzapffel, J. J., 2, 83;
Leland's "Drawing and Designing," 72, 122;
Mitchell's "Lessons in Carpentry," 126;
Rowe, Eleanor, 42, 112;
Seaton, General, 11, 88, 96, 114.
_See also_ under names, as Gibbons, Grinling.
Borders, carved, 78, 146
Bosses, or centres, 75, 101, 141
Bosting, 38, 50, 56
Bowl, to carve a, 95, 142, 154
Boxes, carving, 125, 136, 144, 148;
hanging, 132, 133;
pen and pencil, 134.
_See also_ Cabinets, Caskets, Perfume, etc.
Brackets, 125, 144, 145;
coin (or corner), 150
Bread platters, 137, 140, 152
Buffets, 148
Building-up, or _appliqué_ work, 75
Butternut as a dye, 111
Cabinet-making, 124
Cabinets, 133, 152;
Figurini for, 59, 62;
corner, 150
Caddy, Mr., his suggestions, 3
Canoes, carving, 129
Carpentry, C. F. Mitchell's Lessons in, 126
Carving, early, 33, 54, 68, 70, 101, 130, 134, 141;
objects for, 121.
_See also_ Cabinets, Horns, Italian work, etc.
Carvings, decayed, restoration of, 106
Carvings, imitation of, 108
Case for papers or music, 117
Caskets, 136;
for cigars, 127.
_See also_ Boxes, etc.
Casks, carving, 97, 128
Casts. _See_ Moulds, etc.
Cavo-cutting, 28
Cavo Relievo cutting, 28, 32
Cellini, Benvenuto, 11
Celtic patterns, 26
Cement, for glass and china, 109;
for wood, 97, 106, 146.
_See also_ Fillers, Glue, etc.
Centres, or bosses, 75, 89
Chairs for carving, 124
Chimney-pieces, decoration of, 140.
_See also_ Lunettes, etc.
Chipping, or wasting, 42
Chisels, 3, 10
Churns, ornamental, 154
Ciborium, Synedoche, 151
Clamps, or Cramps. _See_ Holdfasts.
Clock-cases, 142
Coal boxes, etc., 140
Cocoa-nut goblet, 100
Cocoa-nut shell cement, 97;
powder, etc., 108
Cocoa-nuts, carving, 95
Coin (or corner) brackets, 150
Coins as ornaments, 146
Collection boxes, 144
Colouring and staining wood, 110
Common-place, the, _v._ the grotesque, 140
Console, or bracket, 125, 154
Conventional, the, preferable to the real, 54, 57
Corner-cabinets, 150;
firmers, 4
Cramps, or Clamps. _See_ Holdfasts.
Crossing the pattern, 103
Cups, handles for, 154
Curve carving, 26
Curved surfaces, carving, 93
_Custodia_, Spanish, 152
Cyma, 152
Decoration, early, 130;
of rooms, 130
_See also_ Rooms, etc.
Deep carving. _See_ Intaglio.
"Design, Manual of." _See_ Leland.
Diaper cutting, 18, 69, 70, 76;
patterns, 70, 129, 147
Diptych, 150
Dogs, or snibs, 8
Door-knobs, 104;
pieces, 139
Doors, panels of, 129
Drawers, handles for, 145
Drawing, 61, 72
Drill, use of the, 47
Dripstone, 154
Dyes for wood, 110
Ebony and other black dyes, 114
Echinus, 154
Egyptian intaglio, 90
Egyptian Mummies (boxes), 136
Encoignures, 150
Engravings, imitation of, 91
Eye-tools, 5
Façade pieces, 139
Figures, carving simple, 59
Figurini, 62, 83
Files for finishing, 64
Fillers, or cements for wood, 106, 119
Finger painting, Venetian, 113
Finial, 150
Finishing off, 50, 64
Firmer, the, 3
Flasks, carving, 134
Flat-cutting, 26, 35, 48
Flat patterns, 28, 30, 31
Flemish carvers, the old, 33
Florence, ornament from, 58
Fluter, the, 22, 34
Foot-stools, 132
Frames, bark, 154;
or borders, 78;
picture, etc., 128, 148, 149, 151
Free-hand carving, 49
Fret bow saw, the, 9.
_See also_ under Saw.
Fret-cutting, 84
Furniture, carving for, 74;
old and German, 124, 125.
_See also_ under Cabinets, Chairs, Foot-stools, etc.
Gable ornaments, 151
Garden-work, 143
Gardens, window, 129
Gates, carving, 143
Gelatine as a preservative, 107
Gelatine glue, 109
German furniture, 124
Gibbons, Grinling, his work, 75
Gibson, Mr. J. S., his "Wood-Carver" quoted, 8
Gilding, 141, 155.
_See also_ under Finishing.
Glass, and glass-paper, for finishing, 64, 66
Glue, making and use of, 105, 108;
acidulated and liquid, 106, 108, 109
Gothic wood-carving, 40
Gouge lines, 20;
work, 22
Gouges, 3, 4, 10
Grain, cutting with the, 44
Greek, ancient, work, 47
Grindstones, etc., 12
Grooving, 2, 22
Grotesque, the, _v._ the commonplace, 140
Ground punches, 16, 17
Grounds, cutting, 34
Hammer beam, 154
Handles of tools, 11;
for drawers, 145;
Swedish, 154
Hand screws, 5, 7
Hanging boxes, 63, 132
Heads and legs, in ornament, 151
Holdfasts, or clamps, 5, 44, 94
Hollow gouge, the, 5
Holtzapffel, Mr. John J., on the Use of the Saw in wood-carving, 83
Hood moulding, 154
Hooker, Sir Joseph, 107
Horn, how to colour, 94;
how to soften, 95
Horns, carving, 93, 128
House, outside ornament of the, 139
Hulme, works of, 101
Imitation of old work, etc., 64
Implements. _See_ Tools, etc.
Impost, 154
Incised work, 86
Incitega, 150
Indenting, or stamping, 2, 15
Ink as a dye, 114
Intaglio, or sunk carving, 86;
Rilevato cutting, 28
Irish (Runic) patterns, 26;
tankard, old, 99
Italian, early, work, 62, 86, 143
Ivory and horn, dyes, etc., for, 95
Ivorying, 113
Key boxes, 133
Knobs and bosses, 101
Knuckle-bends, 10
Kraft, Adam, his work, 55
Layard, Sir A. H., his antiquities from Nineveh, 107
Leather work and carving, 90, 91
Leaves, cutting, 39, 51, 53, 64
Lecterns, 147, 148
Left hand, carving with the, 39, 46
Leland, Mr. C. G., his "Drawing and Designing," 72, 122;
design in high relief by, 81
Lunettes and spaces, filling, 139
Macaroni tool, the, 10, 42
Mander's stains for wood, 111
Metal work, _repoussé_, 15, 17
Mirrors, hand, 153
Mitchell, C. F., his "Lessons in Carpentry," 126
Modelling, 39, 49, 55, 61, 79;
or rounding, 39
Modillons, 153
Monopodium, or centre-table, 150
Mottoes, 140
Moulding, hood, 154
Mouldings and borders, 147, 150
Moulds, carving for, 90, 92;
making, 115
Mummies (boxes), 136
Mural decoration, 140
Nails, headed, as ornaments, 146
Nineveh antiquities, the, 107
Norway, ornament in, 154;
spot cutting there, 118
Notches in leaves, cutting, 51
Oak, treatment of, 111, 112;
leaves, 43, 54
Objects for wood-carvers, 121
Oiling in finishing, 66, 110
Oilstones, etc., 12
Orbs, carving, 150
Ornament, pre-historic, 118
Ornamentation, art of, 121.
_See also_ Decoration.
Ornaments, applied, 146
Outlines, 154
Outlining, 34
Pacific islands, spot cutting there, 118
Paint, etc., in finishing, 68, 91, 113
Painting, finger, of the old Venetians, 113
Panels for carving, 123, 129, 132
Paper squeezes, 115
_Papier-maché_ work, etc., and carving, 90, 92, 116
Parting tool, the, 10, 13.
_See also_ V tool.
Patterns for carvers, 74, 122
Pattern-wheel, or tracer, the, 15
Pegs and hooks, 141
Pen and pencil boxes, 134
Perfume chests, 154
Pew-ends, 148
Pick, the, 3
Pilasters, 147
Pilgrim bottles, 134, 135
Plaster casts, 116
Platters, carved, 137, 140