A MANUAL OF WOOD-CARVING.
[Illustration: PANEL. _P. 124._]
A MANUAL OF WOOD
CARVING
BY
CHARLES G. LELAND, F.R.L.S., M.A.
_Late Director of the Public Industrial Art School of Philadelphia;
Member (Committee) of the Home Arts and Ind. Assn.; also Comm. Member
of the French-American and Hungarian Folk Lore Societies; Pres.
British Gypsy Lore Soc., &c.; Author of "The Minor Arts," "Twelve
Manuals of Arts," "Practical Education," "Album and Handbook of
Retoussé Work," &c. &c._
REVISED BY
JOHN J. HOLTZAPFFEL
_Associate Member of the Institute of Civil Engineers, London;
Corresponding Member of the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia; Member
of the British Horological Institute; Examiner, City and Guilds of
London; Institute for the Advancement of Technical Education, &c. &c._
NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
1909
COPYRIGHT, 1891, BY
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
PUBLISHERS' NOTE.
This manual, like that on Drawing and Designing, previously published,
is intended to form one of a series in furtherance of the principles
set forth in Mr. Leland's work on "Practical Education." It has rarely
happened that a volume such as this latter, proposing (as one critic
declared) nothing less than a complete revolution in Education, has
been so favourably received by the public, and so highly approved by
competent authorities, as was the case with it. Should it be unknown
to any friends of educational reform into whose hands this handbook
may fall, it is to be hoped that they will think it worth while to
make themselves acquainted with the principles upon which Mr. Leland's
practical manuals are based.
As regards this in particular, it may be observed that it is almost the
only one which treats Wood-carving in a general and extended sense, and
regards it as an art widely applicable to ornamentation, and not one
confined to small _chefs-d'oeuvre_ and prize toys, facsimiles of fruit
and leaves, or the like. It is the first book in which the sweep-cut,
which is the very soul of all good and bold carving, has ever been
described. It may be added that the work has derived great advantage
from the friendly interest taken in it by Mr. John J. Holtzapffel, for
which the thanks of both author and publishers are due.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
INTRODUCTION.
Woods, Tools, and Sharpening 1
FIRST LESSON.
Indenting and Stamping 15
SECOND LESSON.
Cutting Grooves with a Gouge 22
THIRD LESSON.
Flat Patterns made with cuts and lines--Cavo Relievo or Intaglio
Rilevato (Cavo-cutting) 28
FOURTH LESSON.
Cutting out a Flat Panel with a Ground 34
FIFTH LESSON.
Cutting Simple Leaves--Carving with the Left Hand--Modelling or
Rounding--Shaded Patterns and Modelling--Progress towards Relief 39
SIXTH LESSON.
Cutting with the Grain--Turning the Tool--the Drill--Bold
Carving--and large work 44
SEVENTH LESSON.
The Sweep-cut or Free-hand Carving--Cutting Notches in
Leaves--the Round-cut 49
EIGHTH LESSON.
Further application of the Sweep-cut to Higher Relief 53
NINTH LESSON.
Carving Simple Figures or Animal Forms--Figurini for
Cabinets--Simple Rounded Edges and approach to Modelling 59
TENTH LESSON.
Finishing off--Imitation of old and worn work--Where Polishing
is required 64
ELEVENTH LESSON.
Diaper-work--Stamped Diaper-patterns--Cutting Diapers 69
TWELFTH LESSON.
Building-up, or Appliqué work 75
THIRTEENTH LESSON.
Carving in the Round 79
APPENDIX TO THIRTEENTH LESSON.
On the Use of the Saw 83
FOURTEENTH LESSON.
Incised, Intaglio, or Sunk Carving 86
FIFTEENTH LESSON.
Carving Curved Surfaces: Cocoa-nuts, Bowls, Horns, Casks,
Tankards, etc. 93
SIXTEENTH LESSON.
Bosses, Knobs, Bars, and Polished Ornaments 101
SEVENTEENTH LESSON.
To Repair Wood-Carving--Glue--Nitric Acid Glue--Preparing
Decayed Wood--Artificial Wood--Fillers--Spraying--To make Glue
"take" 105
EIGHTEENTH LESSON.
Colouring Wood-work--Oiling--Soda--Stains and Dyes--Ivorying
Surfaces--Black Dyes and Ink 110
NINETEENTH LESSON.
Making Moulds or Squeezes for Wood-Carvers 115
TWENTIETH LESSON.
Spot Cutting 118
APPENDIX.
Objects for Wood-Carving 121
LIST OF PLATES.
DECORATIVE PANEL _Frontispiece_
PANEL IN LOW-RELIEF _to face page_ 40
HIGHLY-FINISHED STUDIES OF FOLIAGE " " 48
CIRCULAR PANEL IN HIGHER RELIEF " " 56
HEAD BY CIVITALE " " 82
MINIATURE FRAME " " 128
Wood-Carving.
INTRODUCTION.
WOODS, TOOLS, AND SHARPENING.
Skill in wood-carving, as in every other art, is to be attained only by
thoroughness. Let the pupil therefore bear in mind that he or she must
be careful to master the _first_ lessons, and to go no further until
these can be executed with ease and accuracy. This will be greatly aided
if the book is read with care, and not used for mere reference.
TEACHERS will please observe that the work is in a regular series of
progressive lessons, the first being extremely easy; and that these
lessons lead so gradually one to another that the last are no harder
than the first to one who has gone on carefully from the beginning. This
will be found to aid teaching and self-instruction greatly.
Every item of information will be found under its proper head, and not
scattered here and there through different chapters: for every lesson
is complete in itself, and from the first the pupil is taught how to
produce some satisfactory work of its kind. Thus, indenting or stamping,
which can be learned at once, and grooving with a gouge, which is not
more difficult, are capable of producing very beautiful decoration even
if the worker goes no further. No writer has, indeed, ever seriously
considered what valuable and varied results may be produced by these
simple processes.
Finally, the author has endeavoured in these pages to treat wood-carving
not merely as a fine art, whose chief aim is to produce specimens
of fancy work for exhibitions, and facsimiles of flowers, never to
be touched, but also to qualify the learner for a calling, and what
nine-tenths of all practical wood-carving really consists of, that is,
house and other large decoration, and of work which is to be perhaps
painted, and exposed to the air. There is no reason why the artist
should not be prepared to undertake figure-heads for ships, garden
gates, cornices for roofs and rooms, dados, door panels, and similar
work, as well as mere drawing-room toys, which should have no finish
save the delicate touch of the cutting tool.
The author would observe as regards this work that he has been under
very great obligation to Mr. John J. HOLTZAPFFEL, Assoc. M. Inst.
C.E., whose name is so well known to all workers in wood and metal,
for revisions, suggestions, and addition of the chapter on the use
of the saw in carving. He is also indebted to Mr. CADDY, teacher of
wood-carving in Brighton for valuable suggestions.
TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS. The first and most important is a strong, and, if
possible, a _heavy_ table or bench. If the pupil cannot afford this,
an ordinary small kitchen table must be found. It should be used for
carving alone, as it will be necessary to bore holes and drive screws
into it. But if a table cannot be spared for this, the pupil must make
shift by putting a board at least an inch in thickness on a common table
and fastening it with clamps. At a more advanced stage he will carve
standing up at a higher bench, or with his work on a stand. Pupils in
wood-carving "shops" often carve standing from the beginning.
[Illustration: _a_ _b_]
_Carving Tools_ are generally divided into two classes: chisels, which
are flat at the end and in the blade; and gouges, which are hollow.
Among professional wood-carvers the former is generally known as a
_firmer_, in order to distinguish it from the chisel used by carpenters.
A carver's chisel is always ground on _both_ sides, so as to form a
wedge like a very high, steep roof (_a_), while that of the carpenter is
a stouter implement, its edge being like a wedge which is flat on _one_
side (_b_), as it is only ground on the other. The object of grinding
carvers' chisels on _both_ sides is that there are many cuts which
cannot be executed by a carpenter's chisel at all, or at least not with
ease, for one would be obliged, while using it, to continually turn it
around.
[Illustration: Fig. 1 _a_.
GOUGE.
FIRMER.]
_Carvers Chisels or Firmers_, Fig. 1 _b_, are of many and all sizes,
from an inch in breadth down to the "pick," which, across the end or
edge, is no wider than a small hyphen (-). To these may be added the
"skew-chisels," also called "skews" or "corner-firmers," which are
firmers ground off diagonally, so that the point is on one side. These
are also sharpened on both sides.
[Illustration: Fig. 1 _b_. FIRMERS.]
[Illustration: Figs. 2-5. GOUGES.]
_Gouges_, Figs. 2-5, are chisels more or less rounded. These, of all
widths, vary from the _extra flat_, which is so slightly curved that
it might at a casual glance be taken for an ordinary chisel, to the
ordinary "flat." A little more bend or convexity gives the _scroll
gouge_. A semi-circle or any narrower portion of the same curve is a
_hollow gouge_, the smaller sizes of which are called _veiners_, the
very smallest of the latter being known as _eye-tools_. There are some
differences of names for these among writers, as well as workmen, but
for all practical purposes the terms here used may be accepted, and are
understood by all who sell the tools.
[Illustration: Fig. 6. BENT TOOLS.]
_Bent Tools._ Both chisels and gouges are made straight, or bent or
curved in the shank. It often happens that in deep cutting, or in
hollowed spaces, it is impossible to cut with an implement having a
straight shaft, while with one differently shaped the wood can be easily
removed, Fig. 6.
_Holdfasts._--_Carver's Screws_, and _Clamps_, _Hand Screws_, _Bench
Screws_, _&c._ As the carver holds his tool with one hand and directs it
with the other, it is evident that some means must be taken to secure in
place the piece of work which he cuts.
I. The simplest method of doing this is to drive three or four nails or
screws into the table at a convenient distance. The work may be held
between these to prevent its slipping.
[Illustration: Fig. 7. HOLDFAST AND SAW TABLE.]
II. HOLDFASTS.--_Clamps_ or _Cramps_, Fig. 7. These cramps are small
iron frames, like three sides of a square, with a screw in the under
limb. They are used on the edge of the table to hold the work firmly
down to its surface; two or more are always employed. Their fault is
that they indent and damage the work; a piece of waste wood may be
interposed between the work and the upper limb to prevent this, but
such a guard is generally in the way and otherwise objectionable. _Hand
Screws_, Figs. 8 and 9, are a far better tool, entirely free from the
above-named objection. They consist of two strips of hard wood rounded
at the one end, or jaws, and two screws, also of wood, one of which
passes through both jaws, and the other through only one; the end of
this second screw entering a recess made in the other jaw to retain
it in position. To use them the handles are grasped firmly in the two
hands, and the hands are revolved around one another away from you,
which causes the jaws to open exactly parallel with one another. When
the opening between the jaws equals the thickness of the work and the
table, the hand screws are slipped over them, and the second screw then
alone receives an extra half turn, this throws the jaws slightly out of
parallelism, and effects a powerful grip upon the work at their points.
They are exceedingly powerful also in holding work for gluing together
and other purposes, and are made of all sizes.
[Illustration: Fig. 8. Fig. 9.
HAND SCREWS.]
[Illustration: Fig. 10. CARVERS' SCREWS.]
III. _Carvers' Screws_, Fig. 10. These are iron screws about 12 or 14
in. long, with a finer pointed screw, like that of a gimlet, at the one
end, and a square at the other; on the screw is a winged or fly nut. To
use them the point is screwed firmly into the under side of the work,
with the fly nut removed and used as a lever by one of the holes in
its wings placed on the square on the end of the shaft. The shaft is
then passed through a hole made through the top of the bench or table,
and the fly nut replaced on the screw below the table to fix the work
down to it. The screws are long, which is sometimes convenient, but if
the work be thin it is usual to put a block of waste wood on the shaft
before the fly nut, to avoid the tedium of having to screw the latter up
a long way. Slackening the nut enables the work to be turned round to
any required position, and there is nothing above the table except the
work.
IV. _Snibs or Dogs_, Figs. 11, 12. These are pieces of wood screwed
down to the table, which hold the panel or other piece of work by a
projection. They are easily made by simply sawing out a piece of wood
fairly corresponding in thickness to the panel.
[Illustration: Fig. 11. Fig. 12.
SNIBS OR DOGS.]
[Illustration: Fig. 13.]
V. Take an ordinary "button," Fig. 13, such as is common on cupboards in
country cottages to fasten the door. Saw out a piece of the panel, one
or more inches square. Put the screw through the button and turn it over
the panel and the little waste piece of wood. Two or more of these will
hold the work perfectly fast.
VI. The simplest method of all is to leave about an inch at either end
of the panel and pass screws through these extra portions into the
table. When the work is carved these ends may be sawn off.
[Illustration: Fig. 14. SCRATCH.]
_The Scratch_, Fig. 14. This is a very convenient and ingenious tool.
"It is used," says J. S. Gibson ("The Wood-Carver," Edinburgh, 1889),
"for running small mouldings and hollows. Where the lines are long
and straight it makes finer work than is possible by means of gouges.
The cutters are made from pieces of steel barely 1-16th of an inch
thick. Broken pieces of saws are generally used for cutters. They must
be tightly fixed in the stock. It is worked backwards and forwards
gently. When the cutters are filed to the required shape, they have
to be finished with a slip stone to take out the file marks. They are
sharpened straight across the edges."
[Illustration: Fig. 15. ROUTER.]
_The Router_, Fig. 15. This is a small copy of the joiner's plane of the
same name. It consists of a block of wood with a perfectly flat sole; a
hole through it at an angle carries the cutter and the wedge by which it
is fixed. It is employed for flattening the groundwork after that has
been partially excavated with the chisels. The sole of the router rests
upon any margins left of the original surface, and being worked about
over the ground, the fixed projection of the cutter rapidly reduces the
latter to one true level. These routers are made from about nine inches
long in the sole to about three inches, the smallest, which little tools
have cutters about 1-8th of an inch wide.
[Illustration: Fig. 16. FRET BOW SAW.]
_Saws._ These are of various kinds; perhaps the most useful is the Fret
Bow Saw, Fig. 16. This consists of a light thin steel frame with screw
jaws, at the open end in which the thin saw-blades are clamped. The
handle is also formed as a screw, by which its jaw can be advanced about
an inch towards its fellow. To place the saw in position for work, the
end of the handle is screwed round until its jaw has advanced about an
inch, the saw is then fixed in the opposite jaw by its thumb-screw,
then in the handle jaw in the same way, after which the handle is turned
until its jaw has travelled back again the distance it had previously
advanced, thus straining the saw by the tension of the steel spring
saw-frame. This saw is very useful for removing superfluous pieces from
the outline, both in flat works and when carving in the round, as will
be explained; its primary purpose is for cutting out pierced and buhl
and fretwork, but for such work, as the apertures cut do not always cut
out to the edges, a drill is required to pierce holes to thread the
saw through the work before it is placed in the second jaw to strain
it. Fig. 16 is required for pierced work laid down on a ground and
then carved, a style of carving which will be described. The ordinary
joiners "dovetail" or "tenon" saws, their blades with stiff backs, are
required, and are almost indispensable for cutting off portions of the
work and trimming it to shape; these saws are too well known to require
description.
[Illustration: Fig. 17. KNUCKLE-BEND.]
In addition to the tools already described, the pupil will need for
more and varied work the following:--I. _The Spade Chisel_, and _Spade
Gouge_. These are very light, and are used for finishing by hand, as,
for instance, in cutting around grapes or plums or in fine work. II.
_Knuckle-bends_, Fig. 17. These are gouges scooped or bent in a curve
like a knuckle. III. _The Macaroni Tool_, Fig. 18. This is like the
three sides of a square. It is for removing wood on each side of a vein
or leaf, or similar delicate work. It is not very commonly used. IV.
_The Parting Tool or _V_, straight or curved_. This is a useful
tool for outlining a pattern or veining leaves. Beginners find it, like
the Macaroni, rather difficult to sharpen, or to keep an edge on it. It
must not be used recklessly for carving, as it is apt to break unless
handled with care. It should be kept with a cork on the end.
[Illustration: Fig. 18. MACARONI TOOLS.]
It is a question among experts as to whether the tools for beginners
should have long or short handles, which is as sensible as if they
should debate whether the pupils should have large or small hands.
General Seaton, who is in other matters a good authority, declares that
"small, short, neatly-turned boxwood handles must be avoided; they are
nearly useless. Get good-sized beech or ash handles quite five inches
long, and if the steel is four or four and a half inches long you will
have a really serviceable tool." Common sense teaches that between a
child or a young lady who has a palm "the size of a cardinal's seal"
(to borrow a simile from Benvenuto Cellini), and a workman who would
burst a number ten glove, there must be very great differences in the
size of handles, and it is certain that for young beginners short ones
are to be advised. If they are not to be obtained ready made, then take
an ordinary long handle, saw it off to the requisite length, say from
three to three and a half inches, round the sharp edge of the wood,
firstly with a knife or chisel, then with a rasp, and finish it off with
glass-paper. See that the tools when set into the handles are _well
ringed_ and _firm_. In most shops it is usual to sharpen them if it be
required. After becoming accustomed to such handles the pupil may, as he
progresses, familiarize himself with those which are in general use.
There is really only one _trouble_ in wood-carving. This is the
sharpening the tools, and keeping them in good condition. For this the
grindstone and oilstone are indispensable, and the beginner must take
pains to learn to sharpen his tools well and readily.
SHARPENING. Tools which are as yet unground, or which have had the
edge broken, may, with patience and care, be sharpened on a harsh flat
stone, but round grindstones which revolve with a handle are not dear;
you can, however, always get your tools ground by any carpenter. Every
carver should therefore, if possible, own one of these grindstones. It
will serve as well for a large class as for an individual. The next
indispensable is the _oilstone_. This is to be found of different
kinds; the ordinary Turkey stone, set in a block of wood, will answer
for firmers, skews, and flat gouges, for finer tools the best Arkansas
stones may be employed. Before using one, let fall on it a few drops
of oil, which is to be kept in a small can with a narrow spout, made
expressly for such dropping. Have a coarse rag, and when you have done
with the stone, always wipe it clean of the oil. Take great care not to
wear a hollow in the middle of the stone. It is by far the best plan to
get some wood-carver or carpenter to show you how to sharpen the tools.
There are very few places where there is not somebody who can teach
this art. It is usual to have a box-cover to the oilstone, which should
always be over it when not in use, to prevent dust from settling on the
surface. A very little dust indeed combined with the oil is a great
hindrance to sharpening.
[Illustration: Fig. 19. SLIP HOLDER.]
_Slips._ These are pieces of Arkansas, Turkey, and other stones, made
of a variety of shapes, to fit the inside of such tools as cannot be
sharpened on a flat surface, like that of oil-stone. They require great
care in handling lest the fingers be cut. To avoid this, take a piece
of wood, and cut a deep groove in it, exactly adapted to hold the stone
firmly, leaving as much of it projecting as may be required for use,
Fig. 19. If you cannot obtain a slip exactly suited to any particular
tool, then grind or cut it to shape on the grindstone or with a file;
some carvers use a very coarse whetstone adapted to this purpose. The
safe method of using a slip when not mounted in wood is to "lay the back
of the gouge at an inch and a half from the edge on the edge of the
table; the edge of the tool must be slightly raised, and the slip can
then be applied with perfect safety and with great effect." (Seaton.)
The V, or parting tool, is difficult to sharpen because, until one
has had practice with it, it is hard to cut down each side in _exact_
uniformity with the other. For this it is necessary to have a slip
ground to a V edge, so as to exactly fit the inside of the tool.
_The Strap._ This is a piece of hard, smooth leather, glued on a flat
bit of board. This may be prepared with sweet oil and emery powder, or
Tripoli, to be renewed as occasion requires, or with a preparation of
lard and crocus powder. Emery paste sold at the tool-shop will answer
for all ordinary work. When no strap is at hand a final sharp, or a
razor edge, may be given even on a smooth pine board, especially if a
very little fine air-dust be on it.
Sharpening the tools is like threading the needle in sewing, or putting
a point on lead pencils when drawing, something which is a great
trouble, and a constant interruption to earnest work, yet which must be
constantly seen to. Never go on carving for a second if you find that a
tool is growing in the least dull or "scratchy." There can be no good
work whatever without really good tools in perfect order.
It may be observed that tools are never ground quite so much _inside_
as they are externally. Also that this double grinding gives a sharper
cutting-edge; but gouges require very little edging _inside_.
Should the carver be unable to obtain a Turkey or Arkansas stone, he may
use smooth slate, or almost any stone which is tolerably hard.
WOOD. All wood for carving should be of the best quality, well seasoned,
and free as possible from cracks, knots, or other irregularities.
Fine white pine or deal, being very easy to cut, is suitable for a
beginner. Lime and pear-tree wood, like pine, are even in the grain.
American walnut is also easy to cut. It is of a beautiful dark colour,
which is much improved by oiling and age. With this, but tougher than
the preceding, are beech, elm, and oak. Poplar, yellow deal, and the
so-called American wood (known as poplar in America, Middle States) are
useful for many kinds of work. The carver should accustom himself, as
soon as possible, to oak, as a hard wood is by no means hard to carve as
soon as a little skill is acquired. Bone, ivory, and pearl-shell, which
at the first effort seems to be almost impenetrable, after a few days
are "worked" with great ease.
[Illustration]
FIRST LESSON.
INDENTING AND STAMPING.
The first stage in wood-carving is to decorate a flat surface in very
low relief by a process which, strictly speaking, is not carving at
all. Let the beginner take a panel or thin flat board, let us say
one of six inches in breadth, twelve in length, and half an inch or
less in thickness. For this kind of work a finely grained, even, and
light-coloured wood, such as holly or beech, is preferable. Draw the
pattern on paper, of the size intended with a very black and soft lead
or crayon pencil, place it with the face to the wood, and turning
the edges over, gum them down to the edge of the panel. Then with
some very smooth hard object, such as an agate or steel burnisher, an
ivory paper-knife, or the end of a rounded and glossy penknife handle,
carefully rub the back of the pattern. When this is done remove the
paper, and the pattern will be found transferred to the wood. If
imperfect, touch it up.
[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
The pupil may now, with a pattern-wheel or tracer, indent or mark a line
or narrow groove in the outline of the pattern. The tracer is the same
implement of the same name which is used in _repoussé_ or brass-sheet or
metal-work. Its end is exactly like that of a screw-driver. To manage
it properly hold it upright, and run it along, tapping it as it goes
with a hammer of iron or wood, Fig. 20. In some countries a stick of
wood about six inches in length, and an inch broad at the butt, is used.
Where the wheel cannot be employed, as in small corners, use the tracer.
The pointed tracer, Fig. 21, used in leather-work, and in carpentry, is
often indispensable for the smaller pattern-work.
[Illustration: Fig. 21. POINTED AND EDGED TRACER.]
When the outline is all marked out in a groove, take one of the
_stamps_, or grounding punches, shown on Fig. 23, and with the hammer
indent the whole background, Fig. 24. If there be corners too small to
admit the stamp or stamps for the same pattern, then finish them up with
a pointed nail or any point, such as a bodkin. The result will be like
the simple design in Fig. 23. When this is done, coat the whole with
oil, rub it in, and wipe it off with care. Then with a piece of very
soft wood polish only the pattern, and finally rub it off by hand or
with a stiff brush. This kind of ornamentation is adapted to the covers
of books or albums, as it can be applied to the thinnest sheets of wood.
[Illustration: Fig. 23. STAMPS.]
Another way to improve this work is to take the tracer, and smooth down
and depress the ground, especially near the pattern edge. This gives
an improved relief. Then the ground may be stamped or "matted," Fig.
24. It may be borne in mind that the pupil who masters this process of
indenting with wheel, tracers, and stamps, will be quite able to work
patterns in damp sheet-leather, since the latter is effected in the
same way with the same tools. Nor does the first step in _repoussé_
or sheet-brass work differ greatly from it. All the minor arts have a
great deal in common; many of the tools used in one being applicable to
others. The pupil who begins with some knowledge of drawing will soon
find it easy to work in any material.
The pupil having done this, has an idea of how a pattern is _placed_
or _spaced_ and contrasted with the ground. He may now take another
panel, and having drawn the pattern, cut out the outline in a light
groove with a very small gouge or a V tool, or a _firmer_. Let him be
very careful to hold the handle in his right hand, and guide the blade
with the fingers of the left, _and never to let the latter get before
the point_. Do not cut deeply or too rapidly. Before beginning on the
pattern, practise cutting grooves on waste wood. Unless this is done the
panel will almost certainly be spoiled. It is usual among carvers to
begin with cutting the groove with a V tool, but it is well to prepare
for this by using the tracer or wheel.
[Illustration: Fig. 24.]
Fig. 27 represents the effect of a ground which is indented, and to
a degree ornamented, by using round stamps of different patterns and
sizes. Very good effects may be produced in this way, which resembles
diaper-work.
To clearly recapitulate the process, let me observe: That to begin,
the pupil must have a smooth panel without knots or imperfections. The
pattern is drawn on this or transferred to it. This pattern should be
entirely in outline, without any inside lines or drawing between the
outside edges, Fig. 24. Take a wheel or tracer and indent the whole
pattern very carefully and rather deeply, not all at one pressure, but
by going twice or thrice over the line. Then with a stamp and hammer
indent all the background and the spaces between the edges of the
pattern. Having done this once, take another panel and pattern, and
instead of _pressing in_ the outline with a wheel or tracer, cut it with
a parting tool or gouge--not too deeply. Then indent as before, Fig. 25.
This stamping the grounds is often miscalled _diaper_ carving, but
the diaper is, correctly speaking, a small pattern multiplied to make
a ground, and not roughly corrugating or dotting with a bodkin, or
pricking. This latter is, of course, indenting. Diapers may be either
stamped or carved like any other patterns.
[Illustration: Fig. 25.]
This process of flattening, wheeling, tracing, and stamping wood,
though little practised now, was so common in the Middle Ages, that
there are very few galleries containing pictures with gold backgrounds
in which there are not specimens of it. Very great masters in painting
frequently practised it. After gilding the ground, they outlined the
pattern with a prick-wheel, which is quite like the rowel of a spur, and
often traced dotted patterns with the wheel itself on the flat gold.
Black or dark brown paint was then rubbed into the dots. Sometimes
the stamp was also used, and its marks or holes filled in the same
manner. It is not necessary to gild the background to produce a fine
effect. First apply a coat of varnish, polish it when dry with finest
glass-paper, then apply a coat or two of white oil paint, toned with
Naples yellow, and when it is dry work it with wheel-tracers and stamps.
When dry polish it again, and rub dark brown paint into all the lines
and dots. Cover it with two coats of fine retouching varnish, and the
effect will be that of old stamped ivory.
[Illustration: Fig. 26. GOUGE LINES.]
This first lesson may be omitted by those who wish to proceed at once to
carving. It is given here because it sets forth the easiest and least
expensive manner of ornamenting wood, and one which forms a curious and
beautiful art by itself. With it one can acquire a familiarity with the
method of transferring patterns to wood, and with the management of the
tracer and stamp. The pattern-wheel should be held in the right hand,
and guided by the forefinger of the left, which is a good preparatory
practice for the chisel and gouge.
While the tools requisite for this work are few and inexpensive, it
may be observed that tolerable substitutes may be obtained for them
anywhere. Almost any knife-blade, eraser, or screw-driver can be ground
into a dull edge which may serve to trace and press the wood, while a
spike or very large nail can, with a file, be so crossed at the end as
to make a stamp.
[Illustration: Fig. 27. INDENTED GROUND.]
SECOND LESSON.
CUTTING GROOVES WITH A GOUGE.
We will now suppose that the pupil has a piece of smooth pine wood, at
least six inches by six in size, and half an inch in thickness, fastened
to the table before him. Let him draw on it two lines with a lead
pencil, across the grain, one-fourth of an inch distant from each other.
Then taking a _fluter_ or gouge of semi-circular curve, also one-fourth
of an inch in diameter, let him carefully cut away the wood between the
lines so as to form a semi-circular groove, Fig. 28 _a_. This is not to
be effected by cutting all the wood away at once. A very little should
be removed at first, so as to make a shallow groove, then this may be
cut over again till the incision is perfect. Hold the handle of the tool
firmly in the right hand, with the wrist and part of the forearm resting
on the bench; place the two first fingers of the left hand on the face
of the blade about an inch from the cutting edge, to direct and act as
a stop to prevent the tool advancing too fast. Some place the thumb
below the blade, so that it is held between the thumb and the two first
fingers.
[Illustration: Fig. 28 _a_. STRAIGHT GROOVES.]
"Keep your mind on your work--a careless movement may cause a slip of
the tool and ruin it." Let every stroke of chisel or gouge be made and
regulated by purpose and design, not haphazard, or at random. Think
_exactly_ what you wish to cut or mean to do, and leave nothing to
involuntary action. The habit of doing this may be acquired in the first
few lessons, if you try, and when it is acquired all the real difficulty
of carving is mastered.
[Illustration: Fig. 28 _b_. CROSS GROOVES.]
_Never attempt to carve anything unless it is fastened to the table._
Pupils who do this fall into the habit of holding the panel down with
the left hand, and the result is that the tool slips sooner or later,
and inflicts a wound which may be serious. Always keep both hands on the
tool.
When the pupil shall have cut perhaps twenty straight grooves with great
care with the gouge, he may then cut cross-barred grooves, Fig. 28 _b_,
and then curved ones as in Fig. 29 _a_, _b_, _c_.
[Illustration: Fig. 29. CURVED AND CROSSING GROOVES.]
Two sections of a circle thus intersecting form, as may be seen, a
leaf. One, two, or even three lessons may be devoted to this, _but let
the pupil go no further until he can cut these grooves perfectly_. He
will then find it excellent practice at odd intervals to carve grooves
in circles, spirals, or other forms. Groove-carving may be regarded as
line-drawing, for any pattern which can be drawn in simple lines can be
of course imitated with a gouge.
[Illustration: Fig. 30.]
Very pretty decorative work may be effected by this gouge-grooving
alone, and in fact it was very common in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries, as is shown by specimens in the museums of South Kensington,
Munich, Vienna, and Salzburg. The wood chosen was generally a
highly-grained or strongly-marked pine, the natural yellow colour of
which was somewhat heightened by staining, oiling, or age. The pattern,
generally a leafy one, was then outlined with a narrow, say one-third
inch gouge, and the grooves painted in with black or brown. This was
applied in many ways, but especially to large cabinets or wardrobes. It
is a very rapid and effective kind of work.
Celtic or Irish (or Runic) patterns, which resemble ropes or ribbons
crossing one another, can be very well imitated by running these lines
with a gouge, Fig. 30. No writer on wood-carving ever seems to have
noticed what beautiful, complicated, and valuable work can be executed
in this manner alone. These lines can be painted in black, dark colours,
or red, so as to make fine effects in decorative furniture or friezes.
It may also be observed, that when cut they may be used for moulds for
plaster of Paris, papier-maché, and leather. The pupil would do well
to pass a few days in developing simple groove-work, which is worth
perfectly understanding. There are few who cannot with care learn to cut
grooves very well with a gouge after a few days' practice. I urge that
the pupil shall do this with ease before going further. _Secondly_, that
he shall actually realize what a great amount of beautiful work can be
made with one gouge of from one-fourth to one-third of an inch diameter;
as, for instance, in inscriptions, interlacing bands or any kind of
design formed of _lines_ or cords, Celtic decoration, interlacing ropes
or ribbons, etc. The artist who proposes to master carving for general
decoration should pay particular attention to this simple work.
Beginners in carving are, without exception, so anxious to get ornaments
or leaves in relief, and to produce some kind of high-class art work,
that they pass over grooving and curve-carving or flat-cutting as of
very little consequence, when in fact it would be in every way much
more to their advantage to develop it to the utmost. The great reason
why there is at present so little decoration of broad spaces in panels,
scrolls, or furniture, by means of carving, is because all carvers are
devoted almost exclusively to more ambitious work, and ignore what may
be done with a few tools by the simplest methods.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
THIRD LESSON.
FLAT PATTERNS MADE WITH CUTS AND LINES--CAVO RELIEVO OR INTAGLIO
RILEVATO (CAVO-CUTTING).
There is an easy kind of flat or hollow carving, if it can be so called,
which is executed with a gouge or V tool, or a firmer alone, but which
produces flat patterns. Make the design, and as it is to be executed
almost entirely with lines or grooves, or small hollows, it must be
so designed that the patterns are close fitting, or separated only by
lines. Now and then, or here and there, a small corner or larger space
or cavity may be removed by a touch of the tool, but as a rule there is
little work in it beyond mere lines. However, as in the gouge-work of
the previous lesson, although anybody can learn in a day or two to "run"
the lines, yet if good patterns be available, remarkably beautiful and
valuable work may be produced by it. It is as applicable to cabinets,
chests, panels for chairs, or other kinds of decoration. Of course the
lines, or hollows, or excavations may, as in all cases, be filled in
with colour, Fig. 31.
[Illustration: Fig. 31.]
This work can often be very well executed with the firmer (or flat
carver's chisel) alone, and it will afford good practice to acquire
familiarity with that greatly neglected tool.
Flat or cavo-cutting of this kind _as work_ is only a little advance on
grooving with a gouge, but its results may be very much more artistic.
It occupies a position between gouge grooving and cutting out the
ground. Each of these are as separated as so many distinct arts, but
they lead one to the other, Figs. 31-35.
The easiest way to prepare this work is to execute the pattern on the
wood in Indian ink, and then simply cut away all the black. The lines in
leaves, etc., must be very carefully run with the V tool; all the larger
hollows should be cut with a gouge. If very large hollows, or spaces, or
grounds are left, they must be executed as described in the next lesson.
[Illustration: Fig. 32.]
[Illustration: Fig. 33.]
FLAT PATTERNS.
[Illustration: Fig. 34.]
[Illustration: Fig. 35.]
FLAT PATTERNS.
Observe in Figs. 31 to 35 that all the carving is confined to simply
cutting away the parts indicated by the black ground. The fine lines
can be best executed with a parting or V tool, and in many instances
with the smallest gouge or veiner. Though not usual, it is excellent
practice, when possible, to learn to do this with a small _firmer_, or
carver's chisel.
These cavo relievo or _cut-out flat patterns_ are as easy of execution
as gouge-work to any one who has learned the latter. They are not now
much studied, but they are capable of a wide application in large
decorative art. The lines and cavities look best when painted or dyed.
It is the next step beyond gouge-work, which represents simple drawing
of lines in design, and corresponds to _sketching_.
[Illustration: Fig. 36.]
Contour or rounding and modelling of course correspond to light and
shade, but plain gouge and cavo-cutting is simple _sketching_. Any
animal, or a human figure, a vase, flowers, or vines may be thus carved,
the only further condition being that the outlines shall always be
broad and bold. Great care should be exercised not to make too many
lines, especially fine ones, and in all cases to avoid detail, and make
the design as simple as you can. When in thus outlining an animal you
have clearly indicated, with as few lines as possible, what it is meant
to be, you have done enough, as in all sketching the golden rule is to
give as much representation with as little work as possible, Fig. 36.
It may be observed that familiar and extensive practice of the very
easy gouge-groove work, and of simple flat or cavo-cutting in hollows,
if carried out on a _large_ scale, as for instance in wall and door
patterns, gives the pupil far more energy and confidence, and is more
conducive to free-hand carving and the sweep-cut, than the usual method
of devoting much time in the beginning to chipping elaborate leaves and
other small work. Therefore it will be well for the pupil to perfect
himself in such simple groove and hollow work. This was the first step
in mediæval carving, and it was the proper one for general decoration.
It was in this manner that the old carvers of England and their masters,
the Flemings, taught their pupils.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
FOURTH LESSON.
CUTTING OUT A FLAT PANEL WITH A GROUND.
Let the pupil take a panel and draw on it a pattern, Fig. 37 _a_. He is
to cut this out in what is called flat carving, and sometimes "ribbon
work." He begins by _outlining_, which may be effected in different
ways. I. By taking a small _fluter_ or veiner, or a tooling-gouge
one-tenth of an inch in diameter, and cutting a groove all around the
pattern just outside of it, but accurately close to it. If perfect in
Lesson II. this will be very easy for him. II. He may do this also with
a V or parting tool, but the gouge is better for a _first_ attempt. III.
The outline cutting may be effected by taking a _firmer_ or carver's
chisel, one-third of an inch broad, and placing it "up and down" close
to the pattern, but sloping outwardly, give it a tap with the mallet so
as to sink it a very little way into the wood. Do not cut "straight up
and down," but so as to make a sloping bank. IV. There is yet another
way, which is more difficult and seldom practised, yet which if mastered
gives great skill in carving. Take the firmer or flat chisel, and
holding it with great care run it along the edge, sloping outwards, so
as to cut the line accurately. By means of this method the whole work
may be very well outlined. It is not urged as absolutely necessary at a
first lesson, but it is advisable to practise it sooner or later.
[Illustration: Fig. 37 _a_.]
When the outlining is done, let the pupil take a flat gouge (if he has
cut the line with a small gouge), and very carefully shave away the
wood from the ground. Let him cut at first very little at a time, for
his object is now not to make something to show, _but to learn how to
manage his tools_. Do not finish all the cutting in one part at once,
leaving the rest untouched, but go all over it gradually several times,
until it is nearly perfect. Let every touch tell. Remove the wood at
every cut, and leave no edges or splinters. To do this well you must
also always watch and consider the grain of the wood at the particular
spot you are operating upon; it is easy enough to see whether you are
cutting with, that is in the same direction, as the grain, or across
the grain; but it is something beyond this that has to be looked to.
It is invariable that all wood, whether cut with the grain or partly
across the grain, will be found to work better, smoother, and with less
tendency to splinter either in the one or the other direction, that
is to say, when cut from right to left, or the reverse, from left to
right. The required direction in which it will cut the smoothest is at
once shown by the behaviour of the wood itself and the quality of the
results; hence, should the work or surface show a tendency to splinter,
if possible cut it from the opposite direction, and turn the work round
on the bench should that be necessary to enable you to do it, that is,
if you cannot use the tool in either hand. Beware above all things of
letting the hands work mechanically. _Think_ of what you are about. By
learning to cut clean and flat you are taking the first step towards
the "_sweep-cut_," which will come afterwards, and which requires both
deliberation and dexterity.
[Illustration: Fig. 37 _b_.]
When all is cut out nicely and carefully, take an extra flat gouge and
clean "the floor," removing every trace of unevenness. Then take a
French round nail or bodkin, and with the mallet fill the ground with
little holes so as to make a rough surface; or you may use one of the
_stamps_ for this. This requires care, so that the shape of the stamp
may not be apparent. It is advisable to trim with a very sharp small
chisel, and with great care, the edge of the pattern. For this lesson it
will be best not to cut away more than one-fourth of an inch to form the
ground.
If the outlining is done with a chisel and mallet, before cutting away
the ground, go over the outline and cut at a little distance from
the line already cut towards it, so as to remove the wood and form a
V-shaped groove, as one digs with a spade.
Teachers or pupils are begged to remember that the sole object of this
lesson is to learn how to handle and manage the tools; that is, to
become familiar with them, and how to learn to _cut_ a ground with skill
and confidence. To do this _there should be much occasional practice on
bits of waste wood_. Therefore it is earnestly urged that no beginner
shall go further than the work described in this lesson until he or she
can execute it with accuracy and ease. When this is gained all that
remains to be done is easy.
The reason why the "parting" or V tool is not specially recommended to
_beginners_ for outlining is, that it is the most difficult of all tools
in ordinary use to sharpen. The small gouge answers every purpose for
the work in hand.
To recapitulate, first, we have the cutting away from between the
outlines of the pattern: If the panel be half an inch in thickness, it
should not be more than a quarter of an inch in depth. Cut over the
whole very lightly at first, and then go over it again and again. Do
not dig or cut out the whole quarter of an inch in one place at once,
leaving the rest as yet untouched. Should you do this you will be led
to cutting too deeply in some places. When the hard work is effectively
executed, and nearly all the wood is roughly cut away, the work is said
to be _bosted_ or sketched, a word supposed to be derived from the
French _ébauché_ or the Italian _abozzo_, meaning the same thing.
After cutting Fig. 37 _a_, the pupil may proceed to 37 _b_, which is
simply an amplification of the same.
[Illustration]
FIFTH LESSON.
CUTTING SIMPLE LEAVES--CARVING WITH THE LEFT HAND--MODELLING OR
ROUNDING--SHADED PATTERNS AND MODELLING--PROGRESS TOWARDS RELIEF.
It will be very much to the advantage of the pupil, so soon as he can
cut confidently and correctly with the gouge or chisel, to practise
with the _left_ hand as well as the right. The younger he is the easier
will it be to form this habit. A carving tool is sharpened from both
sides because the edge, so made, enables the artist to cut from many
positions without turning the wood, and when he can use both hands he
has the same advantage to a greater degree. Try, therefore, to acquire a
perfect command of the tools, so as to cut with both hands, and in many
directions and ways, the greatest care being always taken, however, that
you do not turn the point towards yourself, lest an unwary slip should
produce a wound. When you can _cut_ with confidence, and do not rely
under any circumstance on splitting, digging, prizing up, "wriggling,"
or rocking with the gouge to remove wood, then you can tell beforehand
what you are about to do. To attain this skill you must frequently
practise cutting on waste wood, and not spend all your time on perfectly
finished work.
[Illustration: Fig. 38.]