_Shibboleth_ of the Hebrews, was the cruel test by which the French
were distinguished in the massacre; and that, if there were found a
suspicious or unknown person, he was compelled, with a sword to his
throat, to pronounce the word _ciciri_, and the slightest foreign
accent was the signal for his death. Forgetful of their own character,
and as if stricken by fate, the gallant warriors of France neither
fled nor united nor defended themselves. They unsheathed their swords
and presented them to their assailants, imploring, as if in emulation
of each other, to be the first to die. Of one common soldier it is
recorded that, having concealed himself behind a wainscot, and being
dislodged at the sword's point, he resolved not to die unavenged, and,
springing forth with a wild cry upon the ranks of his enemies, slew
three of them before he himself perished. The insurgents broke into
the convents of the Minorites and Preaching Friars, and slaughtered
all the monks whom they recognized as French. Even the altars afforded
no protection; tears and prayers were alike unheeded; neither old men,
women, nor infants were spared. The ruthless avengers of the ruthless
massacre of Agosta swore to root out the seed of the French oppressors
throughout the whole of Sicily; and this vow they cruelly fulfilled,
slaughtering infants at their mothers' breasts and after them the
mothers themselves, not sparing even pregnant women, but, with a
horrible refinement of cruelty, ripping up the bodies of Sicilian
women who were with child by French husbands, and dashing against the
stones the fruit of the mingled blood of the oppressors and the
oppressed. This general massacre of all who spoke the same language,
and these heinous acts of cruelty, have caused the Sicilian Vespers to
be classed among the most infamous of national crimes.
The very atrocity of the Vespers proved the salvation of Sicily, by
cutting off all possibility of compromise. On that same bloodstained
night of the 31st of March, the people of Palermo assembled in
parliament, and, divided between the triumph of vengeance and terror
at their own daring act, advanced still more decidedly in the path
they had chosen. They abolished monarchy, and resolved to establish a
commonwealth under the protection of the Church of Rome. They were
moved to this determination by deadly hatred against Charles and his
government, and the recollection of the stern rule of the Swabian
dynasty on the one hand, and, on the other, by grateful remembrance of
the liberty enjoyed in 1254; by the example of the Tuscan and Lombard
republics, and by the natural pride of a powerful city, which having
freed itself from a detested yoke confided in its own strength. The
name of the Church was added in order to disarm the wrath of the Pope,
to tempt his ambition, or to justify the rebellion under the pretext
that in driving out their more immediate but criminal ruler they
contemplated no infraction of loyalty to the suzerain from whom he
held his power. Roger Mastrangelo, Henry Barresi, and Niccoloso of
Ortoleva (knights), and Niccolo of Ebdemonia were proclaimed captains
of the people with five counsellors. By the glare of torchlight on the
bloody ground, amid the noise and throng of the armed multitude, and
with all the sublime pomp of tumult, the republican magistrates were
inaugurated. Trumpets and Moorish kettle-drums sounded, and thousands
upon thousands of voices uttered the joyous cry of "The Republic and
Liberty!" The ancient banner of the city--a golden eagle in a red
field--was unfolded to wave amid new glories; and in homage to the
Church the keys of St. Peter were quartered upon it.
At midnight, John of St. Remigio stayed his rapid flight at Vicari, a
castle thirty miles distant from the capital; where, knocking loudly
and hurriedly, he was with difficulty recognized by the garrison,
half-drunk from the celebration of the same festival which had bred so
fearful a slaughter in Palermo. Having admitted him, they were
transfixed with amazement at seeing their Justiciary at so
unreasonable an hour, unescorted, breathless, and covered with blood.
John refused all explanation at the time, but the next morning at
daybreak he called to arms all the French of the neighborhood--a
feudal militia well inured to warfare--and breaking silence urged them
to resist, and perhaps to avenge, the fate of their comrades. It was
not long before the forces of Palermo, which had set out at dawn in
pursuit of the fugitive--whose traces they had discovered--arrived at
full speed beneath the walls of Vicari, and surrounded the city in
disorder, impatient for the assault; but not perceiving how it was to
be made, they had recourse to threats, and demanded immediate
surrender, promising to the inhabitants the safety of their persons,
and to John and his followers permission, on laying down their arms,
to embark for Aigues-Mortes, in Provence. They, however, disdaining
such conditions, and regarding the mob of assailants with contempt,
made a vigorous sortie. At first military discipline obtained the
advantage, and the Sicilians gave way, but the tide of battle was
turned by a power beyond that of human skill, by the spirit which had
given birth to the Vespers, and which suddenly blazed up again in the
scattered squadrons. They paused--they looked at one another,
"Death--death to the French!" they cried, and rushing upon them with
irresistible fury, they drove back the veteran warriors into the
fortress, defeated and in confusion. After this it was in vain that
the French proposed terms of surrender. Heedless of the rules of war
the young archers of Cacamo shot the Justiciary as he presented
himself upon the walls, and, seeing him fall, the whole multitude
rushed to the assault, occupied the fortress, put the garrison to the
sword, and flung their corpses, piecemeal, to the dogs and to the
vultures. This done, the host returned to Palermo.
Meanwhile, the fame of what had occurred spread rapidly from town to
town, and the first in that neighborhood to rise was Corleone, as
chief in population and importance, and also because of its numerous
Lombard inhabitants, who held the names of Angevins and Guelfs in
abhorrence, and of the intolerable burdens imposed upon it by the near
neighborhood of the royal farms. This city, afterward surnamed the
Valiant, boldly following the example of the capital, sent William
Basso, William Corto, and Giugliono de Miraldo as orators to Palermo,
to propose terms of alliance and fraternity between the two cities;
mutual assistance in arms, forces, and money; reciprocal privileges of
citizenship, and enfranchisement from all burdens laid upon such as
were not citizens. It is not known whether the idea of the league
originated with the republican rulers of Palermo or with the patriots
of Corleone; but whichever may have been the case, it clearly exhibits
the preponderance in those early days of the municipal tendency, and
the exchange of feudal relations for the federal union of communities,
the banner under which the revolution spread itself throughout the
entire island. The assembled people of Palermo, with one voice,
accepted the terms, and by their desire, on the 3d of April, they were
sworn to on the Gospels by the captains and counsellors of the city,
with the deputies of Corleone, and officially registered among the
public acts; Palermo binding herself, moreover, to assist her ally in
the destruction of the strong fortress of Calata Mauro.
Meanwhile, one Boniface, elected captain of the people of Corleone,
went forth with three thousand men to scour the surrounding country.
The royal farms were plundered and devastated; the herds, which had
been carefully fattened for the army of the East, were confiscated to
the service of the Sicilian revolution; the castles of the French were
stormed, their houses sacked, and the massacre so ruthless that,
according to Saba Malaspina, it seemed as if every man either had the
death of a father, son, or brother to revenge, or firmly believed that
the slaughter of a Frenchman was an act well pleasing to God. Thus, in
a very few days, the movement propagated itself many miles around
owing to the similarity of sentiments, the force of example, and the
energy of the insurgents. In many places it assumed a character which
must be inexplicable to those who, in spite of all that has been
already stated, would persist in regarding these tumultuous outbreaks
as the result of conspiracy; while the people showed the utmost
readiness to put the foreigners to the sword, yet they feared to
disown the name of King Charles. Their hesitation lasted but a few
days, for they were carried away by the impulse of universal feeling
and by the strength of the rebels; so that all, by degrees, declared
themselves elected chiefs to lead their forces against the French, and
captains of the people whom they sent to the capital, the fame of
whose example had roused their courage, and which was now the centre
of all their confidence, of all their hopes.
This first nucleus of the representatives of the nation being thus
assembled in Palermo, they became imbued with the same valor which in
one short night had raised a popular tumult to the dignity of a
revolution. They were further encouraged by the manly energy of the
people, who, mingled with insurgents from the surrounding towns,
traversed the city to and fro, eagerly relating to one another the
outrages they had suffered, and crying aloud, "Death rather than the
yoke of the French!" So that no sooner were the syndics of the greater
part of Val di Mazzara assembled in parliament, than they agreed to
the establishment of the republican form of government conducted in
the name of the Church. The people without responded with loud
acclamations and shouts of "The Republic and Liberty!" All encouraged
each other to venture everything, when Roger Mastrangelo, bent on
urging them on so far that all retreat should be cut off and that they
might be able to control the course of events, rose and boldly thus
addressed the assembly:
"Citizens! I hear daring words and solemn oaths, but I see no symptoms
of action, as if the blood that has been shed were the seal of victory
rather than the provocation to a long and deadly struggle. Do you know
Charles and his thousands of executioners, and can you yet amuse
yourselves with the decoration of banners? Not far distant on the
mainland are armies and navies ready for the Grecian war: there are
the French panting for vengeance, and in a few days they will burst
upon us. If they find our ports open for their disembarkation; if our
inertness or our faults favor their progress they will soon spread
throughout the whole of Sicily; they will subdue the irresolute people
by force of arms, deceive them with reports of our unhappy divisions,
seduce them with promises, and drag them back to the shameful yoke of
bondage or drive them to raise their parricidal weapons against
ourselves. You have sworn to die or to be free, and you will become
slaves and will not all die--for the butchers will at length be
weary--and will reserve the herd of survivors to exercise upon them
their despotic will. Sicilians! remember the days of Conradin. To halt
now will be destruction; to pursue our course, glory, and deliverance.
Our forces are sufficient to raise the whole country as far as
Messina, and Messina must not belong to the foe; we share the same
origin, the same language, the same past glory and present shame, the
same experience that slavery and misery are the result of division.
"All Sicily is stained with the blood of the strangers. She is strong
in the courage of her sons, in the ruggedness of her mountains, in the
protection of the seas, which are her bulwarks. Who then shall set
foot upon her soil, except to find in it a yawning grave? Christ, who
preached liberty to mankind, who inspired you to effect this blessed
deliverance, now extends to you his almighty hand--if you will but act
like men in your own defence. Citizens, captains of the people, it is
my counsel that messengers be sent to all the other towns inviting
them to unite with us for the maintenance of the commonwealth, that by
force of arms, by daring, and by rapidity of action we should aid the
weak, determine the doubtful, and combat the froward. For this
purpose, let us divide into three bands which may simultaneously
traverse the whole island, then let a general parliament mature our
counsels, unite our views, and regulate the form of government; for I
call God to witness that Palermo aspires, not to dominion, but seeks
only liberty for all, and for herself the glory of being foremost in
peril."
"And the people of Corleone," replied Boniface, "will follow the
fortunes of this noble city--the fortress and ornament of Sicily.
Corleone sends hither three thousand of her warriors to conquer or to
die with you. But if our fate be to perish, let all those perish with
us who would take part with the stranger in the day of the deliverance
of Sicily. Thou, Roger, valiant in fight and sage in counsel, thou
hast spoken words of safety. Henceforward he who lingers is a traitor
to his country; let us arm ourselves and go forth."
"Forward, forward!" thundered the voice of the people in answer to his
words, and with marvellous celerity the messengers were despatched;
the forces assembled and sent forth in three divisions--one to the
left toward Cefalu, one to the right upon Calatafimi, and the third
toward the centre of the island, through Castro Giovanni. They
displayed the banner of the commonwealth with the keys of St. Peter
depicted around them, and their fame went before them, awakening hope
and desire in all hearts. Hence every city and town unhesitatingly
renounced its allegiance to Charles with a degree of unity which was
admirable--except in regard to the slaughter of the French.
They were hunted down in the mountains and forests, assaulted and
vanquished in the castles, and pursued with such fury that even to
those who had escaped from the hands of the Sicilians life became a
burden; and from the most impregnable fortresses, from the remotest
hiding-places, they gave themselves up into the hands of the people
who summoned them to die. Some even precipitated themselves from the
towers of their strongholds. A very few, aided either by fortune or by
their own valor, escaped with their lives, but were despoiled of
everything, and these sought refuge in Messina. But the fate of
William Porcelet merits especial remembrance. He was Lord or Governor
of Calatafimi, and, amid the unbridled iniquity of his countrymen, was
distinguished for justice and humanity. On the day of vengeance, in
the full flush of its triumph and fury, the Palermitan host appeared
at Calatafimi, and not only spared the life of William and of his
family, but treated him with distinguished honor and sent him back to
Provence--a fact which goes to prove, that for the excesses committed
by the people, ample provocation had not been wanting.
Meanwhile the great object toward which every effort was directed was
to gain over Messina to the cause of the revolution, for all
comprehended the importance of her situation, of her seaport, and of
the powerful and wealthy city herself--obviously marked out as the
key-stone of the war--as well as the pressing necessity of obtaining
her alliance or of making a desperate effort to subdue her by force of
arms. Negotiations were therefore commenced. Of those which were
private and the most efficacious no record has been handed down to us;
but of those publicly conducted, a letter is still extant, dated from
Palermo, the 13th of April, and despatched by messengers to Messina,
which begins thus: "The Palermitans to the noble citizens of the
illustrious city of Messina, bondsmen under Pharaoh in dust and
mire--greeting, and deliverance from the servile yoke by the arm of
liberty.
"Rise!" continues the epistle. "Rise, O daughter of Zion, and reassert
thy former strength; ... cease thy lamentations, which only awaken
contempt; take thy weapons, thy quiver and thy bow, and unbind the
fetters from thy neck." It proceeds to speak of Charles as a Nero, a
wolf, a lion, and a ferocious dragon; then reverting to Messina, it
exclaims: "The voice of God says to thee, 'Take up thy bed and walk!'
for thou art whole." And again it exhorts her citizens "to struggle
with the old serpent, and, being regenerate, like new-born babes to
suck the milk of liberty, to seek justice, and to fly from calamity
and ignominy."
While the Palermitans sought to gain over the citizens by these
Biblical metaphors, Herbert of Orleans strengthened himself with
foreign arms and with the support of the Messinese nobles--who by
abuses and oppression had exalted themselves above their
fellow-citizens, and therefore now resolutely sided with the Vicar.
But first he sent seven Messinese galleys to attack Palermo under the
command of Richard de Riso, who in 1268 had dared with a few vessels
to confront the whole Pisan fleet, and who was now to lose in civil
war his honor as a citizen and his reputation as a leader; for uniting
with four galleys from Amalfi, under the command of Matthew del
Giudice and Roger of Salerno, he proceeded to blockade the port of
Palermo, and, as he was unable to effect anything else, approached the
walls and caused the name of Charles to be shouted aloud, together
with insults and menaces to the citizens. They, however, with the
long-suffering of conscious strength, replied that "they would neither
return the insults nor his blows; the Messinese and Palermitans were
brothers; the French oppressors their only enemies, and they would do
better to turn their arms against the tyrants." With these words they
hoisted the standard of the cross of Messina upon the walls beside the
eagle of Palermo.
The city of Messina--or rather those who wielded the municipal
authority--in order to prove their loyalty, on the 15th of April sent
five hundred cross-bowmen, under the command of Chiriolo, a knight of
Messina, to garrison Taormina and prevent its occupation by the
insurgents. The people, on the other hand, felt their Sicilian blood
boil as they received the news of the rising in Palermo and in the
other cities, of the progress of the insurgents through the island,
and of the slaughter and flight of the French, heightened by many
false or exaggerated reports; and when they beheld the fugitives enter
Messina, destitute and terror-stricken, they began to murmur and show
animosity against the soldiers of Herbert. These, feeling themselves
no longer safe in the city, withdrew--some to the castle of
Matagrifone, some to the royal palace where Herbert resided. The
latter, in an evil hour, decided on a display of energy. He sent
ninety horsemen under Micheletto Gatta to occupy the defences of
Taormina, as if unable to repose confidence in the Messinese garrison,
and the latter, seeing them approach in such arrogant and almost
hostile guise, and incited by a citizen named Bartholomew, received
them with a cry of insulting defiance and a shower of arrows. The
contest being thus engaged, forty of the French remained on the field.
The rest fled precipitately for refuge to the castle of Scaletta; and
the Sicilians, tearing down the banners of Charles, marched upon
Messina to compel her to join the rebellion. In the city thousands
were willing, but none had courage, for the work, till a man of the
people--Bartholomew Maniscalco by name--conspired with several others
to give the signal of action. Meanwhile, forces were preparing to
repulse the insurgents from Taormina, and the more prudent of the
citizens deplored the impending effusion of the blood of their
brethren. The people were on the alert, nor did the conspirators hold
back.
Perhaps the entrance into the port of a Palermitan galley, and the
slaughter by her crew of a few French who had fallen into their hands,
hastened the event. It was the 28th of April when, from the midst of
the tumultuous crowd, broke forth the cries of "Death to the French!
Death to those who side with them!" and the massacre commenced. The
victims, however, were but few, as the previous threatening aspect of
the people had cleared the city of the greater number of the French.
Maniscalco meanwhile, with his confederates, hoisted the cross of
Messina in the place of the detested banner of Anjou; for a brief
space he was captain of the people, but owing either to his own
modesty or to the influence of the more powerful citizens, which
always prevailed in the industrial city of Messina, that same night,
by their advice, he resigned the government to Baldwin Mussone, a
noble returned but a few hours before, with Matthew and Baldwin de
Riso, from the court of King Charles. On the following day, the
municipal council having been assembled in form, Mussone was hailed
captain by the entire people; and calling on the sacred name of
Christ, the republic was proclaimed, under the protection of the
Church. The gonfalon, or great banner of the city, was displayed with
the utmost pomp. The judges Raynald de Limogi and Nicoloso Saporito,
the historian Bartholomew of Neocastro, and Peter Ansalone were
elected as counsellors of the new government; and all the public
officers, even to the executioners, were likewise elected--as if to
show that henceforward the sword of justice was to rule in place of
disorder and violence. But it was yet too soon for so complete a
revolution.
On the 30th of April the galleys were recalled from Palermo, whither
messengers of friendship and alliance were despatched in their stead.
Herbert, feeling himself no longer secure in the castle, had recourse
to the old manoeuvre of fomenting divisions, but with no better
success. He despatched Matthew, a member of the family of Riso--which
from consciousness of guilt had allied itself with him--to endeavor to
gain over Baldwin Mussone. Matthew accordingly sought him and in
presence of all the other counsellors admonished him, using the
arguments of a crooked policy, to reflect on the great power of the
King, and that this insane tumult would deprive Messina of the
advantages that would naturally accrue to her from the rebellion of
Palermo. What were the Palermitans to him that he should share their
madness? In what had Charles injured him or his city? "How is it
possible," continued he, "that thou who wast but yesterday loyal to
the King, a friend to us, and the companion of our journey, shouldst
have secretly nourished such hatred in thy heart? and now, far from
restraining the people from rushing to their ruin, shouldst spur them
wildly on? For thy own sake, for that of thy country, return to thy
senses--it is yet time."
But Baldwin, with a clearer comprehension of the honor and interests
of the city, which were identical with those of Sicily, answered him
indignantly, and neither counsellors nor citizens hesitated for a
moment whether to prostitute Messina to the stranger or bid her share
the freedom of the sister-cities of the island. Rejecting, therefore,
these deceptive arguments, Baldwin, in the presence of Matthew de
Riso, solemnly renewed his oath to maintain the liberty of Sicily or
perish, and exhorted him to join in support of the same sacred cause.
In conclusion, he desired him to return to Herbert, and offer him
security for his own life and that of his soldiers, if leaving their
arms, horses, and accoutrements, they would sail direct for
Aigues-Mortes in Provence, binding themselves not to touch anywhere on
the Sicilian or other neighboring coasts. The Viceroy agreed to these
terms, but had no sooner traversed half the strait with two vessels
than he broke them, and full of hostile designs landed in Calabria in
order to join Peter of Catanzaro, who being advised of what was going
forward had embarked before them with his Calabrians, abandoning his
horses and baggage to the fury of the people. Theobald de Messi,
castellan of the fortress of Matagrifone, and Micheletto--with those
who had taken refuge at Scaletta--subsequently surrendered, with all
their followers, on the terms granted to the Viceroy. The former,
having embarked on board a small vessel, set sail several times, but
was driven into port by contrary winds or adverse fate. The latter was
shut up in the castle, and his soldiers in the palace, to protect them
from the fury of the multitude. But these precautions availed not to
save them. On the 7th of May the galleys returned from Palermo,
bringing captive with them two of those of Amalfi which had
accompanied them in the expedition, and the crew, inflamed either by
example or indignation at the unnatural and useless attempt in which
they had been employed against their fellow-countrymen, loudly
demanded French blood to slake their thirst for vengeance. The
citizens, meanwhile, were no less exasperated by Herbert's breach of
faith; so that, as the galley of Natale Pancia, entering the port,
grazed the vessel of Theobald de Messi, the crew, on a signal from the
shore, sprang upon her deck, seized and bound the prisoners and flung
them overboard to perish.