245 August Schleicher, _Volkstümliches ans Sonnenberg_ (Weimar, 1858),

p. 134; B. Souché, _Croyances, Présages et Traditions diverses_

(Niort, 1880), p. 11; A. Meyrac, _Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes et

Contes des Ardennes_ (Charleville, 1890), p. 171; V. Fossel,

_Volksmedicin und medicinischer Aberglaube in Steiermark_2 (Graz,

1886), p. 124. A correspondent, who withholds her name, writes to me

that in a Suffolk village, where she used to live some twenty or

thirty years ago, “every one pickled their own beef, and it was held

that if the pickling were performed by a woman during her menstrual

period the meat would not keep. If the cook were incapacitated at

the time when the pickling was due, another woman was sent for out

of the village rather than risk what was considered a certainty.”

Another correspondent informs me that in some of the dales in the

north of Yorkshire a similar belief prevailed down to recent years

with regard to the salting of pork. Another correspondent writes to

me: “The prohibition that a menstruating woman must not touch meat

that is intended for keeping appears to be common all over the

country; at least I have met with it as a confirmed and active

custom in widely separated parts of England.... It is in regard to

the salting of meat for bacon that the prohibition is most usual,

because that is the commonest process; but it exists in regard to

any meat food that is required to be kept.”

246 R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), p. 291.

247 W. R. Paton, in _Folk-lore_, i. (1890) p. 524.

M79 The intention of secluding menstruous women is to neutralize the

dangerous influences which are thought to emanate from them in that

condition. Suspension between heaven and earth.

M80 The same explanation applies to the similar rules of seclusion

observed by divine kings and priests. Suspension between heaven and

earth.

248 The Greeks and Romans thought that a field was completely protected

against insects if a menstruous woman walked round it with bare feet

and streaming hair (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvii. 266, xxviii. 78;

Columella, _De re rustica_, x. 358 sq., xi. 3. 64; Palladius, _De re

rustica_, i. 35. 3; _Geoponica_, xii. 8. 5 _sq._; Aelian, _Nat.

Anim._ vi. 36). A similar preventive is employed for the same

purpose by North American Indians and European peasants. See H. R.

Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia,

1853-1856), v. 70; F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und äussern

Leben der Ehsten_ (St. Petersburg, 1876), p. 484. Compare J.

Haltrich, _Zur Volkskunde der Siebenbürger Sachsen_ (Vienna, 1885),

p. 280; Adolph Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den

Sachsen Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 14; J. Grimm,

_Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 468; G. Lammert, _Volksmedizin und

medizinischer Aberglaube aus Bayern_ (Würzburg, 1869), p. 147. Among

the Western Dénés it is believed that one or two transverse lines

tattooed on the arms or legs of a young man by a pubescent girl are

a specific against premature weakness of these limbs. See A. G.

Morice, “Notes, Archaeological, Industrial, and Sociological, on the

Western Dénés,” _Transactions of the Canadian Institute_, iv.

(1892-93) p. 182. The Thompson Indians of British Columbia thought

that the Dawn of Day could and would cure hernia if only an

adolescent girl prayed to it to do so. Just before daybreak the girl

would put some charcoal in her mouth, chew it fine, and spit it out

four times on the diseased place. Then she prayed: “O Day-dawn! thy

child relies on me to obtain healing from thee, who art mystery.

Remove thou the swelling of thy child. Pity thou him, Day-Dawn!” See

James Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, pp. 345

_sq._ (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American

Museum of Natural History_, New York, April, 1900). To cure the

painful and dangerous wound inflicted by a ray-fish, the Indians of

the Gran Chaco smoke the wounded limb and then cause a woman in her

courses to sit astride of it. See G. Pelleschi, _Eight Months on the

Gran Chaco of the Argentine Republic_ (London, 1886), p. 106. An

ancient Hindoo method of securing prosperity was to swallow a

portion of the menstruous fluid. See W. Caland, _Altindisches

Zauberritual_ (Amsterdam, 1900), pp. 57 _sq._ To preserve a new cow

from the evil eye Scottish Highlanders used to sprinkle menstruous

blood on the animal; and at certain seasons of the year, especially

at Beltane (the first of May) and Lammas (the first of August) it

was their custom to sprinkle the same potent liquid on the doorposts

and houses all round to guard them from harm. The fluid was applied

by means of a wisp of straw, and the person who discharged this

salutary office went round the house in the direction of the sun.

See J. G. Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of

Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), p. 248. These are examples of the

beneficent application of the menstruous energy.

_ 249 Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 1 _sqq._

250 For a similar reason, perhaps, ancient Hindoo ritual prescribed that

when the hair of a child’s head was shorn in the third year, the

clippings should be buried in a cow-stable, or near an _udumbara_

tree, or in a clump of _darbha_ grass, with the words, “Where

Pushan, Brihaspati, Savitri, Soma, Agni dwell, they have in many

ways searched where they should deposit it, between heaven and

earth, the waters and heaven.” See _The Grihya-Sûtras_, translated

by H. Oldenberg, Part ii. (Oxford, 1892) p. 218 (_Sacred Books of

the East_, vol. xxx.).

M81 Stories of immortality attained by suspension between heaven and

earth.

251 Petronius, _Sat._ 48; Pausanias, x. 12. 8; Justin Martyr, _Cohort ad

Graecos_, 37, p. 34 c (ed. 1742). According to another account, the

remains of the Sibyl were enclosed in an iron cage which hung from a

pillar in an ancient temple of Hercules at Argyrus (Ampelius, _Liber

Memorialis_, viii. 16).

252 A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_

(Leipsic, 1848), p. 70, No. 72. 1. This and the following German

parallels to the story of the Sibyl’s wish were first indicated by

Dr. M. R. James (_Classical Review_, vi. (1892) p. 74). I have

already given the stories at length in a note on Pausanias, x. 12. 8

(vol. v. pp. 292 _sq._).

253 A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _op. cit._ pp. 70 _sq._, No. 72. 2.

254 A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _op. cit._ p. 71, No. 72. 3.

255 Karl Müllenhoff, _Sagen, Märchen und Lieder der Herzogthümer

Holstein und Lauenburg_ (Kiel, 1845), pp. 158 _sq._, No. 217.

M82 How Balder, the good and beautiful god, was done to death by a

stroke of the mistletoe.

_ 256 Die Edda_, übersetzt von K. Simrock8 (Stuttgart, 1882), pp.

286-288. Compare pp. 8, 34, 264. Balder’s story is told in a

professedly historical form by the old Danish historian Saxo

Grammaticus in his third book. See below, p. 103. In English the

story is told at length by Professor (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic

Heathendom_ (London and Edinburgh, 1888), pp. 529 _sqq._ It is

elaborately discussed by Professor F. Kauffmann in a learned

monograph, _Balder, Mythus und Sage_ (Strasburg, 1902).

M83 Tale of Balder in the older _Edda_.

257 Gudbrand Vigfusson and F. York Powell, _Corpus Poeticum Boreale_, i.

(Oxford, 1883) p. 197. Compare _Edda Rhythmica seu Antiquior, vulgo

Saemundina dicta_, Pars iii. (Copenhagen, 1828) pp. 39 _sq._; _Die

Edda_, übersetzt von K. Simrock8 (Stuttgart, 1882), p. 8; K.

Müllenhoff, _Deutsche Altertumskunde_, v. Zweite Abteilung (Berlin,

1891), pp. 78 _sq._; Fr. Kauffmann, _Balder, Mythus und Sage_, pp.

20 _sq._ In this passage the words translated “bloody victim”

(_blauþom tivor_) and “fate looming” (_ørlog fólgen_) are somewhat

uncertain and have been variously interpreted. The word _tivor_,

usually understood to mean “god,” seems to be found nowhere else.

Professor H. M. Chadwick has kindly furnished me with the following

literal translation of the passage: “I saw (or ‘have seen’) held in

safe keeping the life of Balder, the bloody god, Othin’s son. High

above the fields (_i.e._ the surface of the earth) grew a mistletoe,

slender and very beautiful. From a shaft (or ‘stem’) which appeared

slender, came a dangerous sorrow-bringing missile (_i.e._ the shaft

became a ... missile); Hodr proceeded to shoot. Soon was a brother

of Balder born. He, Othin’s son, proceeded to do battle when one day

old. He did not wash his hands or comb his head before he brought

Balder’s antagonist on to the pyre. But Frigg in Fen-salir (_i.e._

the Fen-abode) lamented the trouble of Valholl.” In translating the

words _ørlog fólgen_ “held in safe keeping the life” Professor

Chadwick follows Professor F. Kauffmann’s rendering (“_das Leben

verwahrt_”); but he writes to me that he is not quite confident

about it, as the word _ørlog_ usually means “fate” rather than

“life.” Several sentences translated by Professor Chadwick (“Soon

was a brother of Balder born ... he brought Balder’s antagonist on

the pyre”) are omitted by some editors and translators of the

_Edda_.

258 G. Vigfusson and F. York Powell, _Corpus Poeticum Boreale_, i. 200

_sq._; _Edda Rhythmica seu Antiquior, vulgo Saemundina dicta_, Pars

iii. pp. 51-54; _Die Edda_, übersetzt von K. Simrock8 pp. 10 _sq._;

K. Müllenhoff, _Deutsche Altertumskunde_, v. Zweite Abteilung, pp.

84 _sq._

M84 The story of Balder as related by Saxo Grammaticus.

259 Saxo Grammaticus, _Historia Danica_, ed. P. E. Müller (Copenhagen,

1839-1858), _lib._ iii. vol. i. pp. 110 _sqq._; _The First Nine

Books of the Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus_, translated by

Oliver Elton (London, 1894), pp. 83-93.

M85 Balder worshipped in Norway.

_ 260 Fridthjofs Saga, aus dem Altisländischen_, von J. C. Poestion

(Vienna, 1879), pp. 3 _sq._, 14-17, 45-52.

M86 The legendary death of Balder resembles the legendary death of the

Persian hero Isfendiyar in the epic of Firdusi.

_ 261 The Epic of Kings, Stories retold from Firdusi_, by Helen Zimmern

(London, 1883), pp. 325-331. The parallel between Balder and

Isfendiyar was pointed out in the “Lexicon Mythologicum” appended to

the _Edda Rhythmica seu Antiquior, vulgo Saemundina dicta_, Pars

iii. (Copenhagen, 1828) p. 513 note, with a reference to _Schah

Nameh, verdeutscht von Görres_, ii. 324, 327 _sq._ It is briefly

mentioned by Dr. P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_, ii.

Teil (Berlin, 1891), p. 40.

M87 The myth of Balder was perhaps acted as a magical ceremony. The two

chief incidents of the myth, namely the pulling of the mistletoe and

the death and burning of the god, have perhaps their counterparts in

popular ritual.

M88 European custom of kindling bonfires on certain days of the year,

dancing round them and leaping over them. Effigies are sometimes

burnt in the fires.

262 See Jacob Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_4 (Berlin, 1875-1878), i. 502,

510, 516.

263 W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme_

(Berlin, 1875), pp. 518 _sq._

264 In the following survey of these fire-customs I follow chiefly W.

Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, kap. vi. pp. 497 _sqq._ Compare also J.

Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 500 _sqq._; Walter K. Kelly,

_Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore_ (London,

1863), pp. 46 _sqq._; F. Vogt, “Scheibentreiben und Frühlingsfeuer,”

_Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, iii. (1893) pp. 349-369;

_ibid._ iv. (1894) pp. 195-197.

M89 Seasons of the year at which the bonfires are lit.

_ 265 The Scapegoat_, pp. 316 _sqq._

266 The first Sunday in Lent is known as _Invocavit_ from the first word

of the mass for the day (O. Frh. von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,

_Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, p. 67).

M90 Custom of kindling bonfires on the first Sunday in Lent in the

Belgian Ardennes.

267 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels,

1861-1862), i. 141-143; E. Monseur, _Le Folklore Wallon_ (Brussels,

N.D.), pp. 124 _sq._

268 Emile Hublard, _Fêtes du Temps Jadis, les Feux du Carême_ (Mons,

1899), pp. 25. For the loan of this work I am indebted to Mrs.

Wherry of St. Peter’s Terrace, Cambridge.

269 É. Hublard, _op. cit._ pp. 27 _sq._

M91 Bonfires on the first Sunday of Lent in the French department of the

Ardennes.

270 A. Meyrac, _Traditions, coutumes, légendes et contes des Ardennes_

(Charleville, 1890), p. 68.

271 L. F. Sauvé, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 56.

The popular name for the bonfires in the Upper Vosges

(_Hautes-Vosges_) is _chavandes_.

272 E. Cortet, _Essai sur les fêtes religieuses_ (Paris, 1867), pp. 101

_sq._ The local name for these bonfires is _bures_.

M92 Bonfires on the First Sunday of Lent in Franche-Comté.

273 Charles Beauquier, _Les mois en Franche-Comté_ (Paris, 1900), pp. 33

sq. In Bresse the custom was similar. See _La Bresse Louhannaise,

Bulletin Mensuel, Organe de la Société d’Agriculture et

d’Horticulture de l’Arrondissement de Louhans_, Mars, 1906, pp. 111

_sq._; E. Cortet, _op. cit._ p. 100. The usual name for the bonfires

is _chevannes_ or _schvannes_; but in some places they are called

_foulères_, _foualères_, _failles_, or _bourdifailles_ (Ch.

Beauquier, _op. cit._ p. 34). But the Sunday is called the Sunday of

the _brandons_, _bures_, _bordes_, or _boidès_, according to the

place. The _brandons_ are the torches which are carried about the

streets and the fields; the bonfires, as we have seen, bear another

name. A curious custom, observed on the same Sunday in

Franche-Comté, requires that couples married within the year should

distribute boiled peas to all the young folks of both sexes who

demand them at the door. The lads and lasses go about from house to

house, making the customary request; in some places they wear masks

or are otherwise disguised. See Ch. Beauquier, _op. cit._ pp. 31-33.

M93 Bonfires on the first Sunday of Lent in Auvergne. The Granno invoked

at these bonfires may be the old Celtic god Grannus, who was

identified with Apollo.

274 Curiously enough, while the singular is _granno-mio_, the plural is

_grannas-mias_.

275 Dr. Pommerol, “La fête des Brandons et le dieu Gaulois Grannus,”

_Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris_, v.

Série, ii. (1901) pp. 427-429.

_ 276 Op. cit._ pp. 428 _sq._

277 H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, vol. ii. Pars i.

(Berlin, 1902) pp. 216 _sq._, Nos. 4646-4652.

278 (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London, 1888), pp. 22-25.

M94 French custom of carrying lighted torches (_brandons_) about the

orchards and fields to fertilize them on the first Sunday of Lent.

279 Émile Hublard, _Fêtes du Temps Jadis, les Feux du Carême_ (Mons,

1899), p. 38, quoting Dom Grenier, _Histoire de la Province de

Picardie_.

280 É. Hublard, _op. cit._ p. 39, quoting Dom Grenier.

281 M. Desgranges, “Usages du Canton de Bonneval,” _Mémoires de la

Société Royale des Antiquaires de France_, i. (Paris, 1817) pp.

236-238; Felix Chapiseau, _Le folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_

(Paris, 1902), i. 315 _sq._

282 John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London,

1882-1883), i. 100.

283 E. Cortet, _Essai sur les fêtes religieuses_ (Paris, 1867), pp. 99

_sq._; _La Bresse Louhannaise_, Mars, 1906, p. 111.

284 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, mythes et traditions des provinces de France_

(Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 283 sq. A similar, though not

identical, custom prevailed at Valenciennes (_ibid._ p. 338).

285 A. de Nore, _op. cit._ p. 302.

286 Désiré Monnier, _Traditions populaires comparées_ (Paris, 1854), pp.

191 _sq._

287 Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et légendes du centre de la France_

(Paris, 1875), i. 35 _sqq._

288 Jules Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau,

1887), ii. 131 _sq._ For more evidence of customs of this sort

observed in various parts of France on the first Sunday in Lent, see

Madame Clément, _Histoire des Fêtes civiles et religieuses, etc., du

Département du Nord_2 (Cambrai, 1836), pp. 351 _sqq._; Émile

Hublard, _Fêtes du Temps Jadis, les Feux du Carême_ (Mons, 1899),

pp. 33 _sqq._

M95 Bonfires on the first Sunday of Lent in Germany and Austria.

“Burning the witch.” Burning discs thrown into the air. Burning

wheels rolled down hill.

289 J. H. Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel

des Eifler Volkes_ (Trèves, 1856-1858), i. 21-25; N. Hocker, in

_Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (1853) p.

90; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer

Nachbarstämme_ (Berlin, 1875), p. 501.

290 N. Hocker, _op. cit._ pp. 89 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _l.c._

291 F. J. Vonbun, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Chur, 1862), p.

20; W. Mannhardt, _l.c._

292 Ernst Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_

(Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 380 _sqq._; Anton Birlinger, _Volksthümliches

aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. 56 _sqq._, 66

_sqq._; _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_

(Munich, 1860-1867), ii. 2, pp. 838 _sq._; F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur

deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), i. 211, § 232; W.

Mannhardt, _l.c._ One of the popular German names for the first

Sunday in Lent is White Sunday, which is not to be confused with the

first Sunday after Easter, which also goes by the name of White

Sunday (E. Meier, _op. cit._ p. 380; A. Birlinger, _op. cit._ ii.

56).

293 H. Gaidoz, “Le dieu gaulois du soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,”

_Revue Archéologique_, iii. série, iv. (1884) pp. 139 _sq._

294 August Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_

(Vienna, 1878), p. 189; F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen

Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 207; W. Mannhardt, _Der

Baumkultus_, pp. 500 _sq_.

295 W. Kolbe, _Hessiche Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche_2 (Marburg, 1888), p.

36.

296 Adalbert Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_2

(Gütersloh, 1886), p. 86, quoting Hocker, _Des Mosellandes

Geschichten, Sagen und Legenden_ (Trier, 1852), pp. 415 _sqq._

Compare W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 501; and below, pp. 163

_sq._ Thus it appears that the ceremony of rolling the fiery wheel

down hill was observed twice a year at Konz, once on the first

Sunday in Lent, and once at Midsummer.

M96 Bonfires on the first Sunday in Lent in Switzerland. Burning discs

thrown into the air.

297 H. Herzog, _Schweizerische Volksfeste, Sitten und Gebräuche_ (Aarau,

1884), pp. 214-216; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, “Fruchtbarkeitsriten im

schweizerischen Volksbrauch,” _Schweizerisches Archiv für

Volkskunde_, xi. (1907) pp. 247-249; _id._, _Feste und Bräuche des

Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich, 1913), pp. 135 _sq._

M97 Connexion of these bonfires with the custom of “carrying out Death.”

Effigies burnt on Shrove Tuesday.

298 Theodor Vernaleken, _Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich_

(Vienna, 1859), pp. 293 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p.

498. See _The Dying God_, p. 250.

299 J. H. Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel

des Eifler Volkes_ (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 20; W. Mannhardt, _Der

Baumkultus_, p. 499.

300 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_

(Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 39, § 306; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p.

498.

301 W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 499.

302 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 498 _sq._

303 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 499.

304 Christian Schneller, _Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol_ (Innsbruck,

1867), pp. 234 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 499 _sq._

M98 Fire-festivals on Easter Eve. Custom in Catholic countries of

kindling a holy new fire at the church on Easter Saturday;

marvellous properties ascribed to the embers of the fire. The

burning of Judas.

305 John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London,

1882-1883), i. 157 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, pp.

502-505; Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting, _Aus dem Lechrain_ (Munich,

1855), pp. 172 _sq._; Anton Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus

Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), i. 472 _sq._; Montanus,

_Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube_

(Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 26; F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen

Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 241 _sq._; Ernst Meier,

_Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart,

1852), pp. 139 _sq._; _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des

Königreichs Bayern_ (Munich, 1860-1867), i. 371; A. Wuttke, _Der

deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), pp. 68 _sq._, § 81; Ignaz

V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2

(Innsbruck, 1871), p. 149, §§ 1286-1289; W. Kolbe, _Hessische

Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche_2 (Marburg, 1888), pp. 44 _sqq._; _County

Folk-lore, Printed Extracts, Leicestershire and Rutland_, collected

by C. J. Billson (London, 1895), pp. 75 _sq._; A. Tiraboschi, “Usi

pasquali nel Bergamasco,” _Archivio per lo Studio delle Tradizione

Popolari_, i. (1892) pp. 442 _sq._ The ecclesiastical custom of

lighting the Paschal or Easter candle is very fully described by Mr.

H. J. Feasey, _Ancient English Holy Week Ceremonial_ (London, 1897),

pp. 179 _sqq._ These candles were sometimes of prodigious size; in

the cathedrals of Norwich and Durham, for example, they reached

almost to the roof, from which they had to be lighted. Often they

went by the name of the Judas Light or the Judas Candle; and

sometimes small waxen figures of Judas were hung on them. See H. J.

Feasey, _op. cit._ pp. 193, 213 _sqq._ As to the ritual of the new

fire at St. Peter’s in Rome, see R. Chambers, _The Book of Days_

(London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 421; and as to the early history of

the rite in the Catholic church, see Mgr. L. Duchesne, _Origines du

Culte Chrétien_3 (Paris, 1903), pp. 250-257.

M99 Easter fires in Bavaria and the Abruzzi.

_ 306 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_ (Munich,

1860-1867), i. 1002 _sq._

307 Gennaro Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Palermo,

1890), pp. 122 _sq._

M100 Water as well as fire consecrated in the Abruzzi on Easter Saturday.

Water consecrated in Calabria on Easter Saturday. Water and fire

consecrated on Easter Saturday among the Germans of Bohemia. Easter

rites of fire and water at Hildesheim.

308 G. Finamore, _op. cit._ pp. 123 _sq._

309 Vincenzo Dorsa, _La Tradizione Greco-Latina negli Usi e nelle

Credenze Popolari della Calabria Citeriore_ (Cosenza, 1884), pp. 48

_sq._

310 Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch, und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_

(Prague, 1905), pp. 62 _sq._

311 K. Seifart, _Sagen, Märchen, Schwänke und Gebräuche aus Stadt und

Stift Hildesheim_2 (Hildesheim, 1889), pp. 177 sq., 179 _sq._

M101 New fire at Easter in Carinthia. Consecration of fire and water by

the Catholic Church at Easter.

312 M. Lexer, “Volksüberlieferungen aus dem Lesachthal in Kärnten,”

_Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iii. (1855)

p. 31.

_ 313 The Popish Kingdome or reigne of Antichrist, written in Latin verse

by Thomas Naogeorgus and Englyshed by Barnabe Googe, 1570_, edited

by R. C. Hope (London, 1880), p. 52, _recto_. The title of the

original poem was _Regnum Papisticum_. The author, Thomas Kirchmeyer

(Naogeorgus, as he called himself), died in 1577. The book is a

satire on the abuses and superstitions of the Catholic Church. Only

one perfect copy of Googe’s translation is known to exist: it is in

the University Library at Cambridge. See Mr. R. C. Hope’s

introduction to his reprint of this rare work, pp. xv. _sq._ The

words, “Then Clappers ceasse, and belles are set againe at

libertée,” refer to the custom in Catholic countries of silencing

the church bells for two days from noon on Maundy Thursday to noon

on Easter Saturday and substituting for their music the harsh

clatter of wooden rattles. See R. Chambers, _The Book of Days_

(London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 412 _sq._ According to another

account the church bells are silent from midnight on the Wednesday

preceding Maundy Thursday till matins on Easter Day. See W. Smith

and S. Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_ (London,

1875-1880), ii. 1161, referring to _Ordo Roman_. i. _u.s._

314 R. Chambers, _The Book of Days_ (London and Edinburgh, 1886), i.

421.

M102 The new fire on Easter Saturday at Florence.

315 Miss Jessie L. Weston, “The _Scoppio del Carro_ at Florence,”

_Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) pp. 182-184; “Lo Scoppio del Carro,”

_Resurrezione, Numero Unico del Sabato Santo_ (Florence, April,

1906), p. 1 (giving a picture of the car with its pyramid of

fire-works). The latter paper was kindly sent to me from Florence by

my friend Professor W. J. Lewis. I have also received a letter on

the subject from Signor Carlo Placci, dated 4 (or 7) September,

1905, 1 Via Alfieri, Firenze.

M103 The new fire and the burning of Judas on Easter Saturday in Mexico.

316 Frederick Starr, “Holy Week in Mexico,” _The Journal of American

Folk-lore_, xii. (1899) pp. 164 _sq._; C. Boyson Taylor, “Easter in

Many Lands,” _Everybody’s Magazine_, New York, 1903, p. 293. I have

to thank Mr. S. S. Cohen, of 1525 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, for

sending me a cutting from the latter magazine.

M104 The burning of Judas at Easter in South America.

317 K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens_

(Berlin, 1894), pp. 458 _sq._; E. Montet, “Religion et Superstition

dans l’Amérique du Sud,” _Revue de l’Histoire des Religions_, xxxii.

(1895) p. 145.

318 J. J. von Tschudi, _Peru, Reiseskizzen aus den Jahren 1838-1842_

(St. Gallen, 1846), ii. 189 _sq._

319 H. Candelier, _Rio-Hacha et les Indiens Goajires_ (Paris, 1893), p.

85.

M105 The new fire on Easter Saturday in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre

at Jerusalem.

320 Henry Maundrell, “A Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem at Easter, A.D.

1697,” in Bohn’s _Early Travellers in Palestine_ (London, 1848), pp.

462-465; Mgr. Auvergne, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, x.

(1837) pp. 23 _sq._; A. P. Stanley, _Sinai and Palestine_, Second

Edition (London, 1856), pp. 460-465; E. Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes

Religieuses_ (Paris, 1867), pp. 137-139; A. W. Kinglake, _Eothen_,

chapter xvi. pp. 158-163 (Temple Classics edition); Father X.

Abougit, S.J., “Le feu du Saint-Sépulcre,” _Les Missions

Catholiques_, viii. (1876) pp. 518 _sq._; Rev. C. T. Wilson,

_Peasant Life in the Holy Land_ (London, 1906), pp. 45 _sq._; P.

Saint-yves, “Le Renouvellement du Feu Sacré,” _Revue des Traditions

Populaires_, xxvii. (1912) pp. 449 _sqq._ The distribution of the

new fire in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is the subject of a

picture by Holman Hunt. From some printed notes on the picture, with

which Mrs. Holman Hunt was so kind as to furnish me, it appears that

the new fire is carried by horsemen to Bethlehem and Jaffa, and that

a Russian ship conveys it from Jaffa to Odessa, whence it is

distributed all over the country.

321 Father X. Abougit, S.J., “Le feu du Saint-Sépulcre,” _Les Missions

Catholiques_, viii. (1876) pp. 165-168.

M106 The new fire and the burning of Judas on Easter Saturday in Greece.

322 I have described the ceremony as I witnessed it at Athens, on April

13th, 1890. Compare _Folk-lore_, i. (1890) p. 275. Having been

honoured, like other strangers, with a place on the platform, I did

not myself detect Lucifer at work among the multitude below; I

merely suspected his insidious presence.

323 W. H. D. Rouse, “Folk-lore from the Southern Sporades,” _Folk-lore_,

x. (1899) p. 178.

324 Mrs. A. E. Gardner was so kind as to send me a photograph of a

Theban Judas dangling from a gallows and partially enveloped in

smoke. The photograph was taken at Thebes during the Easter

celebration of 1891.

325 G. F. Abbott, _Macedonian Folk-lore_ (Cambridge, 1903) p. 37.

M107 The new fire at Candlemas in Armenia.

326 Cirbied, “Mémoire sur le gouvernment et sur la religion des anciens

Arméniens,” _Mémoires publiées par la Société Royaledes Antiquaires

de France_, ii. (1820) pp. 285-287; Manuk Abeghian, _Der armenische

Volksglaube_ (Leipsic, 1899), pp. 72-74. The ceremony is said to be

merely a continuation of an old heathen festival which was held at

the beginning of spring in honour of the fire-god Mihr. A bonfire

was made in a public place, and lamps kindled at it were kept

burning throughout the year in each of the fire-god’s temples.

M108 The new fire and the burning of Judas at Easter are probably relics

of paganism.

_ 327 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 32, ii. 243; _Spirits

of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 65, 74, 75, 78, 136.

M109 The new fire at the summer solstice among the Incas of Peru. The new

fire among the Indians of Mexico and New Mexico. The new fire among

the Esquimaux.

328 Garcilasso de la Vega, _Royal Commentaries of the Yncas_, translated

by (Sir) Clements R. Markham (Hakluyt Society, London, 1869-1871),

vol. ii. pp. 155-163. Compare Juan de Velasco, “Histoire du Royaume

de Quito,” in H. Ternaux-Compans’s _Voyages, Relations et Mémoires

originaux pour servir à l’Histoire de la Découverte de l’Amérique_,

xviii. (Paris, 1840) p. 140.

329 B. de Sahagun, _Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle

Espagne_, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), bk.

ii. chapters 18 and 37, pp. 76, 161; Brasseur de Bourbourg,

_Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de

l’Amérique-Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 136.

330 Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, “The Zuñi Indians,” _Twenty-third

Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington,

1904), pp. 108-141, 148-162, especially pp. 108, 109, 114 _sq._, 120

_sq._, 130 _sq._, 132, 148 _sq._, 157 _sq._ I have already described

these ceremonies in _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii. 237 _sq._ Among the

Hopi (Moqui) Indians of Walpi, another pueblo village of this

region, new fire is ceremonially kindled by friction in November.

See Jesse Walter Fewkes, “The Tusayan New Fire Ceremony,”

_Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History_, xxvi.

422-458; _id._, “The Group of Tusayan Ceremonials called

_Katcinas_,” _Fifteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_

(Washington, 1897), p. 263; _id._, “Hopi _Katcinas_,” _Twenty-first

Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington,

1903), p. 24.

331 Henry R. Schoolcraft, _Notes on the Iroquois_ (Albany, 1847), p.

137. Schoolcraft did not know the date of the ceremony, but he

conjectured that it fell at the end of the Iroquois year, which was

a lunar year of twelve or thirteen months. He says: “That the close

of the lunar series should have been the period of putting out the

fire, and the beginning of the next, the time of relumination, from

new fire, is so consonant to analogy in the tropical tribes, as to

be probable” (_op. cit._ p. 138).

332 C. F. Hall, _Life with the Esquimaux_ (London, 1864), ii. 323.

333 Franz Boas, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of

the American Museum of Natural History_, xv. Part i. (New York,

1901) p. 151.

M110 The new fire in Wadai, among the Swahili, and in other parts of

Africa.

334 G. Nachtigal, _Sahărâ und Sûdân_, iii. (Leipsic, 1889) p. 251.

335 Major C. Percival, “Tropical Africa, on the Border Line of Mohamedan

Civilization,” _The Geographical Journal_, xlii. (1913) pp. 253

_sq._

336 Adrien Germain, “Note sur Zanzibar et la côte orientale de

l’Afrique,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), v. Série

xvi. (1868) p. 557; _Les Missions Catholiques_, iii. (1870) p. 270;

Charles New, _Life, Wanderings, and Labours in Eastern Africa_

(London, 1873), p. 65; Jerome Becker, _La Vie en Afrique_ (Paris and

Brussels, 1887), ii. 36; O. Baumann, _Usambara und seine

Nachbargebiete_ (Berlin, 1891), pp. 55 _sq._; C. Velten, _Sitten und

Gebräuche der Suaheli_ (Göttingen, 1903), pp. 342-344.

337 Duarte Barbosa, _Description of the Coasts of East Africa and

Malabar_ (Hakluyt Society, London, 1866), p. 8; _id._, in _Records

of South-Eastern Africa_, collected by G. McCall Theal, vol. i.

(1898) p. 96; Damião de Goes, “Chronicle of the Most Fortunate King

Dom Emanuel,” in _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, collected by G.

McCall Theal, vol. iii. (1899) pp. 130 _sq._ The name Benametapa

(more correctly _monomotapa_) appears to have been the regular title

of the paramount chief, which the Portuguese took to be the name of

the country. The people over whom he ruled seem to have been the

Bantu tribe of the Makalanga in the neighbourhood of Sofala. See G.

McCall Theal, _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. (1901) pp.

481-484. It is to their custom of annually extinguishing and

relighting the fire that Montaigne refers in his essay (i. 22, vol.

i. p. 140 of Charpentier’s edition), though he mentions no names.

338 Sir H. H. Johnson, _British Central Africa_ (London, 1897), pp. 426,

439.

M111 The new fire among the Todas of Southern India and among the Nagas

of North-Eastern India.

339 W. H. R. Rivers, _The Todas_ (London, 1906), pp. 290-292.

340 Lieut. R. Stewart, “Notes on Northern Cachar,” _Journal of the

Asiatic Society of Bengal_, xxiv. (1855) p. 612.

341 A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, ii. (Leipsic, 1866)

pp. 49 _sq._; Shway Yoe, _The Burman_ (London, 1882), ii. 325 _sq._

M112 The new fire in China and Japan.

342 G. Schlegel, _Uranographie Chinoise_ (The Hague and Leyden, 1875),

pp. 139-143; C. Puini, “Il fuoco nella tradizione degli antichi

Cinesi,” _Giornale della Società Asiatica Italiana_, i. (1887) pp.

20-23; J. J. M. de Groot, _Les Fêtes annuellement célébrées à Émoui

(Amoy)_ (Paris, 1886), i. 208 _sqq._ The notion that fire can be

worn out with age meets us also in Brahman ritual. See the

_Satapatha Brahmana_, translated by Julius Eggeling, Part i.

(Oxford, 1882) p. 230 (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xii.).

343 W. G. Aston, _Shinto, The Way of the Gods_ (London, 1905), pp. 258

_sq._, compare p. 193. The wands in question are sticks whittled

near the top into a mass of adherent shavings; they go by the name

of _kedzurikake_ (“part-shaved”), and resemble the sacred _inao_ of

the Aino. See W. G. Aston, _op. cit._ p. 191; and as to the _inao_,

see _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 185, with note 2.

M113 The new fire in ancient Greece and Rome.

344 Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 82; Homer, _Iliad_, i. 590, _sqq._

345 Philostratus, _Heroica_, xx. 24.

346 Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 143 _sq._; Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 12. 6.

347 Festus, ed. C. O. Müller (Leipsic, 1839), p. 106, _s.v._ “Ignis.”

Plutarch describes a method of rekindling the sacred fire by means

of the sun’s rays reflected from a hollow mirror (_Numa_, 9); but he

seems to be referring to a Greek rather than to the Roman custom.

The rule of celibacy imposed on the Vestals, whose duty it was to

relight the sacred fire as well as to preserve it when it was once

made, is perhaps explained by a superstition current among French

peasants that if a girl can blow up a smouldering candle into a

flame she is a virgin, but that if she fails to do so, she is not.

See Jules Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau,

1883-1887), ii. 27; B. Souché, _Croyances, Présages et Traditions

diverses_ (Niort, 1880), p. 12. At least it seems more likely that

the rule sprang from a superstition of this sort than from a simple

calculation of expediency, as I formerly suggested (_Journal of

Philology_, xiv. (1885) p. 158). Compare _The Magic Art and the

Evolution of Kings_, ii. 234 _sqq._

M114 The new fire at Hallow E’en among the old Celts of Ireland. The new

fire on September 1st among the Russian peasants.

348 Geoffrey Keating, D.D., _The History of Ireland, translated from the

original Gaelic, and copiously annotated_, by John O’Mahony (New

York, 1857), p. 300, with the translator’s note. Compare (Sir) John

Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London, 1888), pp. 514 _sq._

349 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, Second Edition

(London, 1872), pp. 254 _sq._

M115 Thus the ceremony of the new fire in the Eastern and Western Church

is probably a relic of an old heathen rite.

M116 The pagan character of the Easter fire appears from the

superstitions associated with it, such as the belief that the fire

fertilizes the fields and protects houses from conflagration and

sickness.

350 A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_

(Leipsic, 1848), p. 373; A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus

Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 134 _sqq._; _id._, _Märkische Sagen

und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), pp. 312 _sq._; J. D. H. Temme, _Die

Volkssagen der Altmark_ (Berlin, 1839), pp. 75 _sq._; K. Lynker,

_Deutsche Sagen und Sitten in hessischen Gauen_2 (Cassel and

Göttingen, 1860), p. 240; H. Pröhle, _Harzbilder_ (Leipsic, 1855),

p. 63; R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), pp.

240-242; W. Kolbe, _Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche_ (Marburg,

1888), pp. 44-47; F. A. Reimann, _Deutsche Volksfeste_ (Weimar,

1839), p. 37; “Sitten und Gebräuche in Duderstadt,” _Zeitschrift für

deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, ii. (1855) p. 107; K. Seifart,

_Sagen, Märchen, Schwänke und Gebräuche aus Stadt und Stift

Hildesheim_2 (Hildesheim, 1889), pp. 177, 180; O. Hartung, “Zur

Volkskunde aus Anhalt,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_,

vii. (1897) p. 76.

M117 The Easter fires in Münsterland, Oldenburg, the Harz Mountains, and

the Altmark.

351 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_

(Oldenburg, 1867), ii. pp. 43 _sq._, § 313; W. Mannhardt, _Der

Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme_ (Berlin, 1875), pp.

505 _sq._

352 L. Strackerjan, _op. cit._ ii. p. 43, § 313.

353 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 (Berlin, 1875-1878), i. 512; W.

Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme_,

pp. 506 _sq._

354 H. Pröhle, _Harzbilder_ (Leipsic, 1855), p. 63; _id._, in

_Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (1853) p.

79; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und

Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 373; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_,

p. 507.

355 A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), pp. 312

_sq._; W. Mannhardt, _l.c._

356 W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 508. Compare J. W. Wolf,

_Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Göttingen, 1852-1857), i. 74;

J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 512. The two latter writers

only state that before the fires were kindled it was customary to

hunt squirrels in the woods.

357 A. Kuhn, _l.c._; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 508.

M118 The Easter fires in Bavaria. The burning of Judas. Burning the

Easter Man.

_ 358 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_ (Munich,

1860-1867), iii. 956.

359 See above, pp. 116 _sq._, 119.

360 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),

i. pp. 211 _sq._, § 233; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, pp. 507

_sq._

_ 361 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, iii. 357.

362 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),

i. pp. 212 _sq._, § 236.

363 F. Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. pp. 78 _sq._, §§ 114, 115. The customs

observed at these places and at Althenneberg are described together

by W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 505.

364 A. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau,

1861-1862), ii. p. 82, § 106; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p.

508.

M119 The Easter fires in Baden. “Thunder poles.”

365 Elard Hugo Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), pp. 97

_sq._

_ 366 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 349 _sqq._ See

further below, vol. ii. pp. 298 _sqq._

M120 Easter fires in Holland and Sweden. The burning of Judas in Bohemia.

367 J. W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. 75 _sq._; W.

Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 506.

368 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), p. 228.

369 W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna

and Olmütz, 1893), pp. 321, 397 _sq._ In Wagstadt, a town of

Austrian Silesia, a boy in a red waistcoat used to play the part of

Judas on the Wednesday before Good Friday. He was chased from before

the church door by the other school children, who pursued him

through the streets with shouts and the noise of rattles and

clappers till they reached a certain suburb, where they always

caught and beat him because he had betrayed the Redeemer. See Anton

Peter, _Volksthümliches aus österreichisch-Schlesien_ (Troppau,

1865-1867), ii. 282 _sq._; Paul Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und

Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 77 _sq._

M121 The Beltane fires on the first of May in the Highlands of Scotland.

Description of the Beltane fires by John Ramsay of Ochtertyre in the

eighteenth century.

M122 Need-fire.

M123 Need-fire kindled by the friction of oak wood.

M124 The Beltane cake and the Beltane carline (_cailleach_).

M125 Local differences in the Beltane cakes.

M126 Evidence of two fires at Beltane.

_ 370 Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, from the MSS. of

John Ramsay, Esq., of Ochtertyre, edited by Alexander Allardyce

(Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 439-445. As to the _tein-eigin_ or

need-fire, see below, pp. 269 _sqq._ The etymology of the word

Beltane is uncertain; the popular derivation of the first part from

the Phoenician Baal is absurd. See, for example, John Graham

Dalyell, _The Darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1834),

pp. 176 _sq._: “The recognition of the pagan divinity Baal, or Bel,

the Sun, is discovered through innumerable etymological sources. In

the records of Scottish history, down to the sixteenth or

seventeenth centuries, multiplied prohibitions were issued from the

fountains of ecclesiastical ordinances, against kindling

_Bailfires_, of which the origin cannot be mistaken. The festival of

this divinity was commemorated in Scotland until the latest date.”

Modern scholars are not agreed as to the derivation of the name

Beltane. See Rev. John Gregorson Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second

Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), pp.

268 _sq._; J. A. MacCulloch, _The Religion of the Ancient Celts_

(Edinburgh, 1911), p. 264.

M127 Beltane fires and cakes in the parish of Callander.

371 “_Bal-tein_ signifies the _fire of Baal_. _Baal_ or _Ball_ is the

only word in Gaelic for _a globe_. This festival was probably in

honour of the sun, whose return, in his apparent annual course, they

celebrated, on account of his having such a visible influence, by

his genial warmth, on the productions of the earth. That the

Caledonians paid a superstitious respect to the sun, as was the

practice among many other nations, is evident, not only by the

sacrifice at Baltein, but upon many other occasions. When a

Highlander goes to bathe, or to drink waters out of a consecrated

fountain, he must always approach by going round the place, _from

east to west on the south side_, in imitation of the apparent

diurnal motion of the sun. When the dead are laid in the earth, the

grave is approached by going round in the same manner. The bride is

conducted to her future spouse, in the presence of the minister, and

the glass goes round a company, in the course of the sun. This is

called, in Gaelic, going round the right, or the _lucky way_. The

opposite course is the wrong, or the _unlucky_ way. And if a

person’s meat or drink were to affect the wind-pipe, or come against

his breath, they instantly cry out _deisheal!_ which is an

ejaculation praying that it may go by the right way” (Rev. J.

Robertson, in Sir John Sinclair’s _Statistical Account of Scotland_,

xi. 621 note). Compare J. G. Campbell, _Superstitions of the

Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), pp. 229 _sq._:

“_The Right-hand Turn_ (_Deiseal_).—This was the most important of

all the observances. The rule is ‘_Deiseal_ (_i.e._ the right-hand

turn) for everything,’ and consists in doing all things with a

motion corresponding to the course of the sun, or from left to

right. This is the manner in which screw-nails are driven, and is

common with many for no reason but its convenience. Old men in the

Highlands were very particular about it. The coffin was taken

_deiseal_ about the grave, when about to be lowered; boats were

turned to sea according to it, and drams are given to the present

day to a company. When putting a straw rope on a house or

corn-stack, if the assistant went _tuaitheal_ (_i.e._ against the

course of the sun), the old man was ready to come down and thrash

him. On coming to a house the visitor should go round it _deiseal_

to secure luck in the object of his visit. After milking a cow the

dairy-maid should strike it _deiseal_ with the shackle, saying ‘out

and home’ (_mach ’us dachaigh_). This secures its safe return. The

word is from _deas_, right-hand, and _iul_, direction, and of itself

contains no allusion to the sun.” Compare M. Martin, “Description of

the Western Islands of Scotland,” in J. Pinkerton’s _Voyages and

Travels_, iii. 612 _sq._: “There was an ancient custom in the island

of Lewis, to make a fiery circle about the houses, corn, cattle,

etc., belonging to each particular family: a man carried fire in his

right hand, and went round, and it was called _dessil_, from the

right hand, which in the ancient language is called _dess_.... There

is another way of the _dessil_, or carrying fire round about women

before they are churched, after child-bearing; and it is used

likewise about children until they are christened; both which are

performed in the morning and at night. This is only practised now by

some of the ancient midwives: I enquired their reason for this

custom, which I told them was altogether unlawful; this disobliged

them mightily, insomuch that they would give me no satisfaction. But

others, that were of a more agreeable temper, told me that

fire-round was an effectual means to preserve both the mother and

the infant from the power of evil spirits, who are ready at such

times to do mischief, and sometimes carry away the infant; and when

they get them once in their possession, return them poor meagre

skeletons; and these infants are said to have voracious appetites,

constantly craving for meat. In this case it was usual with those

who believed that their children were thus taken away, to dig a

grave in the fields upon quarter-day, and there to lay the fairy

skeleton till next morning; at which time the parents went to the

place, where they doubted not to find their own child instead of

this skeleton. Some of the poorer sort of people in these islands

retain the custom of performing these rounds sun-ways about the

persons of their benefactors three times, when they bless them, and

wish good success to all their enterprizes. Some are very careful

when they set out to sea that the boat be first rowed about

sun-ways; and if this be neglected, they are afraid their voyage may

prove unfortunate.” Probably the superstition was based entirely on

the supposed luckiness of the right hand, which accordingly, in

making a circuit round an object, is kept towards the centre. As to

a supposed worship of the sun among the Scottish Highlanders,

compare J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the

Highlands and Islands of Scotland_, p. 304: “Both the sun (_a

Ghrian_) and moon (_a Ghealach_) are feminine in Gaelic, and the

names are simply descriptive of their appearance. There is no trace

of a Sun-God or Moon-Goddess.” As to the etymology of Beltane, see

above, p. 149 note.

372 Rev. James Robertson (Parish Minister of Callander), in Sir John

Sinclair’s _Statistical Account of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1791-1799),

xi. 620 _sq._

M128 Pennant’s description of the Beltane fires and cakes in Perthshire.

373 Pennant’s “Tour in Scotland,” in John Pinkerton’s _Voyages and

Travels_ (London, 1808-1814), iii. 49.

M129 Beltane cakes and fires in the parishes of Logierait and

Kirkmichael. Omens drawn from the cakes.

374 Rev. Dr. Thomas Bisset, in Sir John Sinclair’s _Statistical Account

of Scotland_, v. 84.

375 Rev. Allan Stewart, in Sir John Sinclair’s _Statistical Account of

Scotland_, xv. 517 note.

376 Rev. Walter Gregor, “Notes on Beltane Cakes,” _Folk-lore_, vi.

(1895) pp. 2 _sq._ The Beltane cakes with the nine knobs on them

remind us of the cakes with twelve knobs which the Athenians offered

to Cronus and other deities (see _The Scapegoat_, p. 351). The King

of the Bean on Twelfth Night was chosen by means of a cake, which

was broken in as many pieces as there were persons present, and the

person who received the piece containing a bean or a coin became

king. See J. Boemus, _Mores, leges et ritus omnium gentium_ (Lyons,

1541), p. 222; John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_

(London, 1882-1883), i. 22 _sq._; _The Scapegoat_, pp. 313 _sqq._

M130 Beltane fires in the north-east of Scotland to burn the witches.

Burning the witches. The Beltane cake.

377 Shaw, in Pennant’s “Tour in Scotland,” printed in J. Pinkerton’s

_Voyages and Travels_, iii. 136. The part of Scotland to which

Shaw’s description applies is what he calls the province or country

of Murray, extending from the river Spey on the east to the river

Beauly on the west, and south-west to Loch Lochy.

378 Rev. Walter Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of

Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 167.

M131 Beltane cakes and fires in the Hebrides.

379 A. Goodrich-Freer, “More Folk-lore from the Hebrides,” _Folk-lore_,

xiii. (1902) p. 41. The St. Michael’s cake (_Strùthan na h’eill

Micheil_), referred to in the text, is described as “the size of a

quern” in circumference. “It is kneaded simply with water, and

marked across like a scone, dividing it into four equal parts, and

then placed in front of the fire resting on a quern. It is not

polished with dry meal as is usual in making a cake, but when it is

cooked a thin coating of eggs (four in number), mixed with

buttermilk, is spread first on one side, then on the other, and it

is put before the fire again. An earlier shape, still in use, which

tradition associates with the female sex, is that of a triangle with

the corners cut off. A _strùthan_ or _strùdhan_ (the word seems to

be used for no other kind of cake) is made for each member of the

household, including servants and herds. When harvest is late, an

early patch of corn is mown on purpose for the _strùthan_” (A.

Goodrich-Freer, _op. cit._ pp. 44 _sq._).

M132 Beltane fires and cakes in Wales.

380 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,

1909), pp. 22-24.

M133 Welsh belief that passage over or between the fires ensured good

crops.

381 Jonathan Ceredig Davies, _Folk-lore of West and Mid-Wales_

(Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 76.

M134 Beltane fires in the Isle of Man to burn the witches. Beltane fires

in Nottinghamshire.

382 Joseph Train, _An Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of

Man_ (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), i. 314 _sq._

383 (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford, 1901),

i. 309; _id._, “The Coligny Calendar,” _Proceedings of the British

Academy, 1909-1910_, pp. 261 _sq._ See further _The Magic Art and

the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 53 _sq._

384 Professor Frank Granger, “Early Man,” in _The Victoria History of

the County of Nottingham_, edited by William Page, i. (London, 1906)

pp. 186 _sq._

M135 Beltane fires in Ireland.

385 (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford, 1901),

i. 310; _id._, “Manx Folk-lore and Superstitions,” _Folk-lore_, ii.

(1891) pp. 303 _sq._

386 P. W. Joyce, _A Social History of Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903),

i. 290 _sq._, referring to Kuno Meyer, _Hibernia Minora_, p. 49 and

_Glossary_, 23.

387 J. B. Bury, _The Life of St. Patrick_ (London, 1905), pp. 104 _sqq._

388 Above, p. 147.

389 Geoffrey Keating, D.D., _The History of Ireland_, translated by John

O’Mahony (New York, 1857), pp. 300 _sq._

390 (Sir) John Rhys, “Manx Folk-lore and Superstition,” _Folk-lore_, ii.

(1891) p. 303; _id._, _Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford,

1901), i. 309. Compare P. W. Joyce, _A Social History of Ancient

Ireland_ (London, 1903), i. 291: “The custom of driving cattle

through fires against disease on the eve of the 1st of May, and on

the eve of the 24th June (St. John’s Day), continued in Ireland, as

well as in the Scottish Highlands, to a period within living

memory.” In a footnote Mr. Joyce refers to Carmichael, _Carmina

Gadelica_, ii. 340, for Scotland, and adds, “I saw it done in

Ireland.”

M136 Fires on the Eve of May Day in Sweden. Fires on the Eve of May Day

in Austria and Saxony for the purpose of burning the witches.

391 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 233 _sq._

392 Reinsberg - Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_ (Prague, N.D.),

pp. 211 _sq._; Br. Jelínek, “Materialien zur Vorgeschichte und

Volkskunde Böhmens,” _Mittheilungen der anthropologischen

Gesellschaft in Wien_, xxi. (1891) p. 13; Alois John, _Sitte,

Brauch, und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), p.

71.

393 J. A. E. Köhler, _Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte

Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 373. The

superstitions relating to witches at this season are legion. For

instance, in Saxony and Thuringia any one who labours under a

physical blemish can easily rid himself of it by transferring it to

the witches on Walpurgis Night. He has only to go out to a

cross-road, make three crosses on the blemish, and say, “In the name

of God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost.” Thus the blemish,

whatever it may be, is left behind him at the cross-road, and when

the witches sweep by on their way to the Brocken, they must take it

with them, and it sticks to them henceforth. Moreover, three crosses

chalked up on the doors of houses and cattle-stalls on Walpurgis

Night will effectually prevent any of the infernal crew from

entering and doing harm to man or beast. See E. Sommer, _Sagen,

Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen_ (Halle, 1846), pp.

148 _sq._; _Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie_ (Chemnitz, 1759), p.

116.

394 See _The Scapegoat_, pp. 158 _sqq._

M137 The great season for fire-festivals in Europe is the summer

solstice, Midsummer Eve or Midsummer Day, which the church has

dedicated to St. John the Baptist. The bonfires, the torches, and

the burning wheels of the festival.

395 As to the Midsummer Festival of Europe in general see the evidence

collected in the “Specimen Calendarii Gentilis,” appended to the

_Edda Rhythmica seu Antiquior, vulgo Saemundina dicta_, Pars iii.

(Copenhagen, 1828) pp. 1086-1097.

396 John Mitchell Kemble, _The Saxons in England_, New Edition (London,

1876), i. 361 _sq._, quoting “an ancient MS. written in England, and

now in the Harleian Collection, No. 2345, fol. 50.” The passage is

quoted in part by J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_

(London, 1882-1883), i. 298 _sq._, by R. T. Hampson, _Medii Aevi

Kalendarium_ (London, 1841), i. 300, and by W. Mannhardt, _Der

Baumkultus_, p. 509. The same explanations of the Midsummer fires

and of the custom of trundling a burning wheel on Midsummer Eve are

given also by John Beleth, a writer of the twelfth century. See his

_Rationale Divinorum Officiorum_ (appended to the _Rationale

Divinorum Officiorum_ of G. [W.] Durandus, Lyons, 1584), p. 556

_recto_: “_Solent porro hoc tempore_ [the Eve of St. John the

Baptist] _ex veteri consuetudine mortuorum animalium ossa comburi,

quod hujusmodi habet originem. Sunt enim animalia, quae dracones

appellamus.... Haec inquam animalia in aere volant, in aquis natant,

in terra ambulant. Sed quando in aere ad libidinem concitantur (quod

fere fit) saepe ipsum sperma vel in puteos, vel in aquas fluviales

ejiciunt ex quo lethalis sequitur annus. Adversus haec ergo

hujusmodi inventum est remedium, ut videlicet rogus ex ossibus

construeretur, et ita fumus hujusmodi animalia fugaret. Et quia

istud maxime hoc tempore fiebat, idemetiam modo ab omnibus

observatur.... Consuetum item est hac vigilia ardentes deferri

faculas quod Johannes fuerit ardens lucerna, et qui vias Domini

praeparaverit. Sed quod etiam rota vertatur hinc esse putant quia in

eum circulum tunc Sol descenderit ultra quem progredi nequit, a quo

cogitur paulatim descendere._” The substance of the passage is

repeated in other words by G. Durandus (Wilh. Durantis), a writer of

the thirteenth century, in his _Rationale Divinorum Officiorum_,

lib. vii. cap. 14 (p. 442 _verso_, ed. Lyons, 1584). Compare J.

Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 516.

With the notion that the air is poisoned at midsummer we may compare

the popular belief that it is similarly infected at an eclipse. Thus

among the Esquimaux on the Lower Yukon river in Alaska “it is

believed that a subtle essence or unclean influence descends to the

earth during an eclipse, and if any of it is caught in utensils of

any kind it will produce sickness. As a result, immediately on the

commencement of an eclipse, every woman turns bottom side up all her

pots, wooden buckets, and dishes” (E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about

Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American

Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 431). Similar notions and

practices prevail among the peasantry of southern Germany. Thus the

Swabian peasants think that during an eclipse of the sun poison

falls on the earth; hence at such a time they will not sow, mow,

gather fruit or eat it, they bring the cattle into the stalls, and

refrain from business of every kind. If the eclipse lasts long, the

people get very anxious, set a burning candle on the mantel-shelf of

the stove, and pray to be delivered from the danger. See Anton

Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau,

1861-1862), i. 189. Similarly Bavarian peasants imagine that water

is poisoned during a solar eclipse (F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur

deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 297); and Thuringian bumpkins cover up

the wells and bring the cattle home from pasture during an eclipse

either of the sun or of the moon; an eclipse is particularly

poisonous when it happens to fall on a Wednesday. See August

Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna,

1878), p. 287. As eclipses are commonly supposed by the ignorant to

be caused by a monster attacking the sun or moon (E. B. Tylor,

_Primitive Culture_,2 London, 1873, i. 328 _sqq._), we may surmise,

on the analogy of the explanation given of the Midsummer fires, that

the unclean influence which is thought to descend on the earth at

such times is popularly attributed to seed discharged by the monster

or possibly by the sun or moon then in conjunction with each other.

M138 Th. Kirchmeyer’s description of the Midsummer festival.

_ 397 The Popish Kingdome or reigne of Antichrist, written in Latin verse

by Thomas Naogeorgus and Englyshed by Barnabe Googe, 1570_, edited

by R. C. Hope (London, 1880), p. 54 _verso_. As to this work see

above, p. 125 note 1.

M139 The Midsummer fires in Germany. The celebration at Konz on the

Moselle: the rolling of a burning wheel down hill.

398 J. Boemus, _Mores, leges et ritus omnium gentium_ (Lyons, 1541), pp.

225 _sq._

399 Tessier, “Sur la fête annuelle de la roue flamboyante de la

Saint-Jean, à Basse-Kontz, arrondissement de Thionville,” _Mémoires

et dissertations publiés par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de

France_, v. (1823) pp. 379-393. Tessier witnessed the ceremony, 23rd

June 1822 (not 1823, as is sometimes stated). His account has been

reproduced more or less fully by J. Grimm (_Deutsche Mythologie_,4

i. 515 _sq._), W. Mannhardt (_Der Baumkultus_, pp. 510 _sq._), and

H. Gaidoz (“Le dieu gaulois du Soleil et le symbolisme de la Roue,”

_Revue Archéologique_, iii. Série, iv. (1884) pp. 24 _sq._).

M140 The Midsummer fires in Bavaria. Cattle driven through the fire. The

new fire. Omens of the harvest drawn from the fires. Burning discs

thrown into the air.

_ 400 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_ (Munich,

1860-1867), i. 373 _sq._; compare _id._, iii. 327 _sq._ As to the

burning discs at the spring festivals, see above, pp. 116 _sq._,

119, 143.

_ 401 Op. cit._ ii. 260 _sq._, iii. 936, 956, iv. 2. p. 360.

_ 402 Op. cit._ ii. 260.

_ 403 Op. cit._ iv. 1. p. 242. We have seen (p. 163) that in the

sixteenth century these customs and beliefs were common in Germany.

It is also a German superstition that a house which contains a brand

from the midsummer bonfire will not be struck by lightning (J. W.

Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. p. 217, § 185).

404 J. Boemus, _Mores, leges et ritus omnium gentium_ (Lyons, 1541), p.

226.

M141 The Midsummer fires in Swabia. Omens drawn from the leaps over the

fires. Burning wheels rolled down hill. Burning the Angel-Man at

Rottenburg.

405 Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting, _Aus dem Lechrain_ (Munich, 1855),

pp. 181 _sqq._; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 510.

406 A. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau,

1861-1862), ii. pp. 96 _sqq._, § 128, pp. 103 _sq._, § 129; _id._,

_Aus Schwaben_ (Wiesbaden, 1874), ii. 116-120; E. Meier, _Deutsche

Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 423

_sqq._; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 510.

407 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),

i. pp. 215 _sq._, § 242; _id._, ii. 549.

408 A. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau,

1861-1862), ii. 99-101.

M142 The Midsummer fires in Baden. Omens drawn from leaps over the fires.

Burning discs thrown into the air. Midsummer fires in Alsace,

Lorraine, the Eifel, the Harz districts and Thuringia. Burning

barrel swung round a pole.

409 Elard Hugo Mayer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), pp. 103

_sq._, 225 _sq._

410 W. von Schulenberg, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für

Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, Jahrgang 1897_, pp. 494

_sq._ (bound up with _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xxix. 1897).

411 H. Gaidoz, “Le dieu Gaulois du Soleil et le symbolisme de la Roue,”

_Revue Archéologique_, iii. Série, iv. (1884) pp. 29 _sq._

412 Bruno Stehle, “Volksglauben, Sitten und Gebräuche in Lothringen,”

_Globus_, lix. (1891) pp. 378 _sq._; “Die Sommerwendfeier im St.

Amarinthale,” _Der Urquell_, N.F., i. (1897) pp. 181 _sqq._

413 J. H. Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel

des Eifler Volkes_ (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 40 _sq._ According to one

writer, the garlands are composed of St. John’s wort (Montanus, _Die

deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube_,

Iserlohn, N.D., p. 33). As to the use of St. John’s wort at

Midsummer, see below, vol. ii. pp. 54 _sqq._

414 A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_

(Leipsic, 1848), p. 390.

M143 Midsummer fires kindled by the friction of wood in Germany and

Switzerland. Driving away demons and witches.

415 Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher

Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), pp. 33 _sq._

416 C. L. Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_ (Berlin, 1867), ii.

144 _sqq._

M144 Midsummer fires in Silesia. Scaring away the witches.

417 Philo vom Walde, _Schlesien in Sage und Brauch_ (Berlin, N.D.), p.

124; Paul Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch, und Volksglaube in Schlesien_

(Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 136 _sq._

M145 The Midsummer fires in Denmark and Norway. Keeping off the witches.

The Midsummer fires in Sweden.

418 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 517 _sq._

419 From information supplied by Mr. Sigurd K. Heiberg, engineer, of

Bergen, Norway, who in his boyhood regularly collected fuel for the

fires. I have to thank Miss Anderson, of Barskimming, Mauchline,

Ayrshire, for kindly procuring the information for me from Mr.

Heiberg.

The Blocksberg, where German as well as Norwegian witches gather for

their great Sabbaths on the Eve of May Day (Walpurgis Night) and

Midsummer Eve, is commonly identified with the Brocken, the highest

peak of the Harz mountains. But in Mecklenburg, Pomerania, and

probably elsewhere, villages have their own local Blocksberg, which

is generally a hill or open place in the neighbourhood; a number of

places in Pomerania go by the name of the Blocksberg. See J. Grimm,

_Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 878 _sq._; Ulrich Jahn, _Hexenwesen und

Zauberei in Pommern_ (Breslau, 1886), pp. 4 _sq._; _id._,

_Volkssagen aus Pommern und Rügen_ (Stettin, 1886), p. 329.

420 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 259, 265.

421 L. Lloyd, _op. cit._ pp. 261 _sq._ These springs are called

“sacrificial fonts” (_Offer källor_) and are “so named because in

heathen times the limbs of the slaughtered victim, whether man or

beast, were here washed prior to immolation” (L. Lloyd, _op. cit._

p. 261).

M146 The Midsummer fires in Switzerland and Austria. Effigies burnt in

the fires. Burning wheels rolled down hill.

422 E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich,

1913), p. 164.

423 Ignaz V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler

Volkes_2 (Innsbruck, 1871), ii. p. 159, § 1354.

424 I. V. Zingerle, _op. cit._ p. 159, §§ 1353, 1355, 1356; W.

Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 513.

425 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._

426 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),

i. p. 210, § 231.

427 Theodor Vernaleken, _Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich_

(Vienna, 1859), pp. 307 _sq._

M147 Midsummer fires in Bohemia. Wreaths thrown across the fire. Uses

made of the singed wreaths. Burning wheels rolled down hill. Embers

of the fire stuck in fields, gardens, and houses as a talisman

against lightning and conflagration. Use of mugwort. Cattle

protected against witchcraft.

428 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 519; Theodor Vernaleken,

_Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1859), p.

308; Joseph Virgil Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen

und Mähren_ (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 80, § 636;

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_ (Prague, N.D.),

pp. 306-311; Br. Jelínek, “Materialien zur Vorgeschichte und

Volkskunde Böhmens,” _Mittheilungen der anthropologischen

Gesellschaft in Wien_, xxi. (1891) p. 13; Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch

und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), pp. 84-86.

M148 The Midsummer fires in Moravia, Austrian Silesia, and the district

of Cracow. Fire kindled by the friction of wood.

429 Willibald Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_

(Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), pp. 263-265.

430 Anton Peter, _Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien_

(Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 287.

431 Th. Vernaleken, _Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich_

(Vienna, 1859), pp. 308 _sq._

M149 The Midsummer fires among the Slavs of Russia. Cattle protected

against witchcraft. The fires lighted by the friction of wood.

_ 432 The Dying God_, p. 262. Compare M. Kowalewsky, in _Folk-lore_, i.

(1890) p. 467.

433 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, Second Edition

(London, 1872), p. 240.

434 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 519; W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs

of the Russian People_ (London, 1872), pp. 240, 391.

435 W. R. S. Ralston, _op. cit._ p. 240.

436 W. R. S. Ralston, _l.c._

M150 The Midsummer fires in Prussia and Lithuania thought to protect

against witchcraft, thunder, hail, and cattle disease. The fire

kindled by the friction of wood.

437 W. J. A. von Tettau und J. D. H. Temme, _Die Volkssagen

Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens_ (Berlin, 1837), p. 277.

438 M. Töppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_2 (Danzig, 1867), p. 71.

439 F. S. Krauss, “Altslavische Feuergewinnung,” _Globus_, lix. (1891)

p. 318.

M151 The Midsummer fires among the Letts of Russia. Midsummer Day in

ancient Rome.

440 J. G. Kohl, Die _deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_ (Dresden and

Leipsic, 1841), i. 178-180, ii. 24 _sq._ Ligho was an old heathen

deity, whose joyous festival used to fall in spring.

441 Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 775 _sqq._

M152 The Midsummer fires among the South Slavs.

442 Friederich S. Krauss, _Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven_ (Vienna,

1885), pp. 176 _sq._

443 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 519.

M153 The Midsummer fires among the Magyars of Hungary.

444 H. von Wlislocki, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Magyar_

(Münster i. W., 1893), pp. 40-44.

445 A. von Ipolyi, “Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie aus Ungarn,”

_Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (1853) pp.

270 _sq._

M154 The Midsummer fires among the Esthonians. The Midsummer fires in

Oesel.

446 J.G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_, ii. 268 sq.; F.

J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten_ (St.

Petersburg, 1876), p. 362. The word which I have translated “weeds”

is in Esthonian _kaste-heinad_, in German _Thaugras_. Apparently it

is the name of a special kind of weed.

447 Fr. Kreutzwald und H. Neus, _Mythische und Magische Lieder der

Ehsten_ (St. Petersburg, 1854), p. 62.

448 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen

Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. (1872) pp. 62 _sq._ Wiedemann also

observes that the sports in which young couples engage in the woods

on this evening are not always decorous (_Aus dem inneren und

äusseren Leben der Ehsten_, p. 362).

M155 The Midsummer fires among the Finns and Cheremiss of Russia.

449 J. G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_, ii. 447 _sq._

450 J. G. Georgi, _Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs_

(St. Petersburg, 1776), p. 36; August Freiherr von Haxthausen,

_Studien über die innere Zustände das Volksleben und insbesondere

die ländlichen Einrichtungen Russlands_ (Hanover, 1847), i. 446

_sqq._

M156 The Midsummer fires in France. Bossuet on the Midsummer festival.

451 Alfred de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de

France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 19.

452 It is notable that St. John is the only saint whose birthday the

Church celebrates with honours like those which she accords to the

nativity of Christ. Compare Edmond Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans

l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers, 1908), p. 571 note 1.

453 Bossuet, _Œuvres_ (Versailles, 1815-1819), vi. 276 (“Catéchisme du

diocèse de Meaux”). His description of the superstitions is, in his

own words, as follows: “_Danser à l’entour du feu, jouer, faire des

festins, chanter des chansons deshonnêtes, jeter des herbes

par-dessus le feu, en cueillir avant midi ou à jeun, en porter sur

soi, les conserver le long de l’année, garder des tisons ou des

charbons du feu, et autres semblables._” This and other evidence of

the custom of kindling Midsummer bonfires in France is cited by Ch.

Cuissard in his tract _Les Feux de la Saint-Jean_ (Orleans, 1884).

454 Ch. Cuissard, _Les Feux de la Saint-Jean_ (Orleans, 1884), pp. 40

_sq._

M157 The Midsummer fires in Brittany. Uses made of the charred sticks and

flowers.

455 A. Le Braz, _La Légende de la Mort en Basse-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1893),

p. 279. For an explanation of the custom of throwing a pebble into

the fire, see below, p. 240.

456 M. Quellien, quoted by Alexandre Bertrand, _La Religion des Gaulois_

(Paris, 1897), pp. 116 _sq._

457 Collin de Plancy, _Dictionnaire Infernal_ (Paris, 1825-1826), iii.

40; J. W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Göttingen,

1852-1857), i. p. 217, § 185; A. Breuil, “Du Culte de St. Jean

Baptiste,” _Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Picardie_,

viii. (Amiens, 1845) pp. 189 _sq._

458 Eugène Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_ (Paris, 1867), p.

216; Ch. Cuissard, _Les Feux de la Saint-Jean_ (Orleans, 1884), p.

24.

459 Paul Sébillot, _Coutumes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris,

1886), pp. 192-195. In Upper Brittany these bonfires are called

_rieux_ or _raviers_.

460 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_

(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 219; E. Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes

Religieuses_, p. 216.

461 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de

France_, pp. 219, 228, 231; E. Cortet, _op. cit._ pp. 215 _sq._

M158 The Midsummer fires in Normandy. The fires as a protection against

witchcraft. The Brotherhood of the Green Wolf at Jumièges. Pretence

of throwing the Green Wolf into the fire.

462 J. Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau,

1883-1887), ii. 219-224.

463 This description is quoted by Madame Clément (_Histoire des fêtes

civiles et religieuses_, etc., _de la Belgique Méridionale_,

Avesnes, 1846, pp. 394-396); F. Liebrecht (_Des Gervasius von

Tilbury Otia Imperialia_, Hanover, 1856, pp. 209 _sq._); and W.

Mannhardt (_Antike Wald und Feldkulte_, Berlin, 1877, pp. 323

_sqq._) from the _Magazin pittoresque_, Paris, viii. (1840) pp. 287

_sqq._ A slightly condensed account is given, from the same source,

by E. Cortet (_Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_, pp. 221 _sq._).

M159 The Midsummer fires in Picardy.

464 Bazin, quoted by Breuil, in _Mémoires de la Société d’Antiquaires de

Picardie_, viii. (1845) p. 191 note.

465 Correspondents quoted by A. Bertrand, _La Religion des Gaulois_

(Paris, 1897), pp. 118, 406.

466 Correspondent quoted by A. Bertrand, _op. cit._ p. 407.

M160 The Midsummer fires in Beauce and Perche. The fires as a protection

against witchcraft.

467 Felix Chapiseau, _Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_ (Paris,

1902), i. 318-320. In Perche the midsummer bonfires were called

_marolles_. As to the custom formerly observed at Bullou, near

Chateaudun, see a correspondent quoted by A. Bertrand, _La Religion

des Gaulois_ (Paris, 1897), p. 117.

M161 The Midsummer fires in the Ardennes, the Vosges, and the Jura. The

Midsummer fires in Franche-Comté. The Midsummer fires in Berry and

other parts of Central France.

468 Albert Meyrac, _Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes, et Contes des

Ardennes_ (Charleville, 1890), pp. 88 _sq._

469 L. F. Sauvé, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 186.

470 Désiré Monnier, _Traditions populaires comparées_ (Paris, 1854), pp.

207 sqq.; E. Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_, pp. 217

_sq._

471 Bérenger-Féraud, _Réminiscences populaires de la Provence_ (Paris,

1885), p. 142.

472 Charles Beauquier, _Les Mois en Franche-Comté_ (Paris, 1900), p. 89.

The names of the bonfires vary with the place; among them are

_failles_, _bourdifailles_, _bâs_ or _baux_, _feulères_ or

_folières_, and _chavannes_.

_ 473 La Bresse Louhannaise_, Juin, 1906, p. 207.

474 Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_

(Paris, 1875), i. 78 _sqq._ The writer adopts the absurd derivation

of _jônée_ from Janus. Needless to say that our old friend Baal,

Bel, or Belus figures prominently in this and many other accounts of

the European fire-festivals.

475 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_

(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 150.

476 Correspondent, quoted by A. Bertrand, _La Religion des Gaulois_

(Paris, 1897), p. 408.

M162 The Midsummer fires in Poitou.

477 Guerry, “Sur les usages et traditions du Poitou,” _Mémoires et

dissertations publiés par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de

France_, viii. (1829) pp. 451 _sq._

478 Breuil, in _Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Picardie_,

viii. (1845) p. 206; E. Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_,

p. 216; Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la

France_, i. 83; J. Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_, ii. 225.

479 H. Gaidoz, “Le dieu gaulois du soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,”

_Revue Archéologique_, iii. Série, iv. (1884) p. 26, note 3.

480 L. Pineau, _Le Folk-lore du Poitou_ (Paris, 1892), pp. 499 _sq._ In

Périgord the ashes of the midsummer bonfire are searched for the

hair of the Virgin (E. Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_, p.

219).

M163 The Midsummer fires in the departments of Vienne and Deux-Sèvres and

in the provinces of Saintonge and Aunis.

481 A. de Nore, _Coutumes Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_,

pp. 149 _sq._; E. Cortet, _op. cit._ pp. 218 _sq._

482 Dupin, “Notice sur quelques fêtes et divertissemens populaires du

département des Deux-Sèvres,” _Mémoires et Dissertations publiés par

la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France_, iv. (1823) p. 110.

483 J. L. M. Noguès, _Les mœurs d’autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_

(Saintes, 1891), pp. 72, 178 _sq._

M164 The Midsummer fires in Southern France. Midsummer festival of fire

and water in Provence. Bathing in the sea at Midsummer. Temporary

Midsummer kings at Aix and Marseilles.

484 H. Gaidoz, “Le dieu soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,” _Revue

Archéologique_, iii. Série, iv. (1884) p. 30.

485 Ch. Cuissard, _Les Feux de la Saint-Jean_ (Orleans, 1884), pp. 22

_sq._

486 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de

France_, p. 127.

487 Aubin-Louis Millin, _Voyage dans les Départemens du Midi de la

France_ (Paris, 1807-1811), iii. 341 _sq._

488 Aubin-Louis Millin, _op. cit._ iii. 28.

489 A. de Nore, _op. cit._ pp. 19 _sq._; Bérenger-Féraud, _Reminiscences

populaires de la Provence_ (Paris, 1885), pp. 135-141. As to the

custom at Toulon, see Poncy, quoted by Breuil, _Mémoires de la

Société des Antiquaires de Picardie_, viii. (1845) p. 190 note. The

custom of drenching people on this occasion with water used to

prevail in Toulon, as well as in Marseilles and other towns in the

south of France. The water was squirted from syringes, poured on the

heads of passers-by from windows, and so on. See Breuil, _op. cit._

pp. 237 _sq._

490 A. de Nore, _op. cit._ pp. 20 _sq._; E. Cortet, _op. cit._ pp. 218,

219 _sq._

M165 The Midsummer fires in Belgium. Bonfires on St. Peter’s Day in

Brabant. The King and Queen of the Roses. Effigies burnt in the

Midsummer fires.

491 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels,

1861-1862), i. 416 _sq._, 439.

492 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _op. cit._ i. 439-442.

493 Madame Clément, _Histoire des fêtes civiles et religieuses_, etc.,

_du Département du Nord_ (Cambrai, 1836), p. 364; J. W. Wolf,

_Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Göttingen, 1852-1857), ii. 392;

W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 513.

494 E. Monseur, _Folklore Wallon_ (Brussels, N.D.), p. 130, §§ 1783,

1786, 1787.

M166 The Midsummer fires in England. Stow’s description of the Midsummer

fires in London. The Midsummer fires at Eton.

495 Joseph Strutt, _The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England_,

New Edition, by W. Hone (London, 1834), p. 359.

496 John Stow, _A Survay of London_, edited by Henry Morley (London,

N.D.), pp. 126 _sq._ Stow’s _Survay_ was written in 1598.

497 John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London,

1882-1883), i. 338; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_

(London, 1876), p. 331. Both writers refer to _Status Scholae

Etonensis_ (A.D. 1560).

498 John Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (London, 1881),

p. 26.

M167 The Midsummer fires in the north of England. The Midsummer fires in

Northumberland. The Midsummer fires at Whalton in Northumberland.

499 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London,

1882-1883), i. 300 _sq._, 318, compare pp. 305, 306, 308 _sq._; W.

Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 512. Compare W. Hutchinson, _View of

Northumberland_, vol. ii. (Newcastle, 1778), Appendix, p. (15),

under the head “Midsummer”:—“It is usual to raise fires on the tops

of high hills and in the villages, and sport and danse around them;

this is of very remote antiquity, and the first cause lost in the

distance of time.”

500 Dr. Lyttelton, Bishop of Carlisle, quoted by William Borlase,

_Antiquities, Historical and Monumental, of the County of Cornwall_

(London, 1769), p. 135 note.

_ 501 County Folk-lore_, vol. iv. _Northumberland_, collected by M. C.

Balfour (London, 1904), p. 76, quoting E. Mackenzie, _An Historical,

Topographical, and Descriptive View of the County of

Northumberland_, Second Edition (Newcastle, 1825), i. 217.

_ 502 County Folk-lore_, vol. iv. _Northumberland_, collected by M. C.

Balfour, p. 75.

_ 503 County Folk-lore_, vol. iv. _Northumberland_, collected by M. C.

Balfour, p. 75.

_ 504 The Denham Tracts_, edited by J. Hardy (London, 1892-1895), ii. 342

_sq._, quoting _Archæologia Aeliana_, N.S., viii. 73, and the

_Proceedings_ of the Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club, vi. 242 _sq._;

_County Folk-lore_, vol. iv. _Northumberland_, collected by M. C.

Balfour (London, 1904), pp. 75 _sq._ Whalton is a village of

Northumberland, not far from Morpeth.

_ 505 County Folk-lore_, vol. vi. _East Riding of Yorkshire_, collected

and edited by Mrs. Gutch (London, 1912), p. 102.

M168 The Midsummer fires in Herefordshire, Somersetshire, Devonshire, and

Cornwall. The Cornish fires on Midsummer Eve and St. Peter’s Eve.

506 John Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (London, 1881),

p. 96, compare _id._, p. 26.

507 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London,

1882-1883), i. 311.

508 William Borlase, LL.D., _Antiquities, Historical and Monumental, of

the County of Cornwall_ (London, 1769), pp. 135 _sq._ The Eve of St.

Peter is June 28th. Bonfires have been lit elsewhere on the Eve or

the day of St. Peter. See above, pp. 194 _sq._, 196 _sq._, and

below, pp. 199 _sq._, 202, 207.

509 J. Brand, _op. cit._ i. 318, 319; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British

Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 315.

510 William Bottrell, _Traditions and Hearthside Stories of West

Cornwall_ (Penzance, 1870), pp. 8 _sq._, 55 _sq._; James Napier,

_Folk-lore, or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland_

(Paisley, 1879), p. 173.

511 Richard Edmonds, _The Land’s End District_ (London, 1862), pp. 66

_sq._; Robert Hunt, _Popular Romances of the West of England_, Third

Edition (London, 1881), pp. 207 _sq._

M169 The Midsummer fires in Wales and the Isle of Man. Burning wheel

rolled down hill.

512 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,

1909), pp. 27 _sq._ Compare Jonathan Ceredig Davies, _Folk-lore of

West and Mid-Wales_ (Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 76.

513 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London,

1882-1883), i. 318.

514 Joseph Train, _Account of the Isle of Man_ (Douglas, Isle of Man,

1845), ii. 120.

M170 The Midsummer fires in Ireland. Passage of people and cattle through

the fires. Cattle driven through the fire; ashes used to fertilize

the fields. The White Horse at the Midsummer fire.

515 Sir Henry Piers, _Description of the County of Westmeath_, written

in 1682, published by (General) Charles Vallancey, _Collectanea de

Rebus Hibernicis_, i. (Dublin, 1786) pp. 123 _sq._

516 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London,

1882-1883), i. 303, quoting the author of the _Survey of the South

of Ireland_, p. 232.

517 J. Brand, _op. cit._ i. 305, quoting the author of the _Comical

Pilgrim’s Pilgrimage into Ireland_ (1723), p. 92.

_ 518 The Gentleman’s Magazine_, vol. lxv. (London, 1795) pp. 124 _sq._

The writer dates the festival on June 21st, which is probably a

mistake.

519 T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), pp.

321 _sq._, quoting the _Liverpool Mercury_ of June 29th, 1867.

520 L. L. Duncan, “Further Notes from County Leitrim,” _Folk-lore_, v.

(1894) p. 193.

521 A. C. Haddon, “A Batch of Irish Folk-lore,” _Folk-lore_, iv. (1893)

pp. 351, 359.

522 G. H. Kinahan, “Notes on Irish Folk-lore,” _Folk-lore Record_, iv.

(1881) p. 97.

523 Charlotte Elizabeth, _Personal Recollections_, quoted by Rev.

Alexander Hislop, _The Two Babylons_ (Edinburgh, 1853), p. 53.

M171 Lady Wilde’s account of the Midsummer fires in Ireland.

524 Lady Wilde, _Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of

Ireland_, (London, 1887), i. 214 _sq._

M172 Holy wells resorted to on Midsummer Eve in Ireland.

525 T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), pp.

322 _sq._, quoting the _Hibernian Magazine_, July 1817. As to the

worship of wells in ancient Ireland, see P. W. Joyce, _A Social

History of Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903), i. 288 _sq._, 366 _sqq._

M173 The Midsummer fires in Scotland. Fires on St. Peter’s Day (the

twenty-ninth of June).

526 Rev. A. Johnstone, describing the parish of Monquhitter in

Perthshire, in Sir John Sinclair’s _Statistical Account of Scotland_

(Edinburgh, 1791-1799), xxi. 145. Mr. W. Warde Fowler writes that in

Scotland “before the bonfires were kindled on midsummer eve, the

houses were decorated with foliage brought from the woods” (_Roman

Festivals of the Period of the Republic_, London, 1899, pp. 80

_sq._). For his authority he refers to _Chambers’ Journal_, July,

1842.

527 John Ramsay, of Ochtertyre, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth

Century_, edited by A. Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 436.

528 Rev. Mr. Shaw, Minister of Elgin, in Pennant’s “Tour in Scotland,”

printed in John Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_ (London,

1808-1814), iii. 136.

529 A. Macdonald, “Midsummer Bonfires,” _Folk-lore_, xv. (1904) pp. 105

_sq._

530 From notes kindly furnished to me by the Rev. J. C. Higgins, parish

minister of Tarbolton. Mr. Higgins adds that he knows of no

superstition connected with the fire, and no tradition of its

origin. I visited the scene of the bonfire in 1898, but, as

Pausanias says (viii. 41. 6) in similar circumstances, “I did not

happen to arrive at the season of the festival.” Indeed the snow was

falling thick as I trudged to the village through the beautiful

woods of “the Castle o’ Montgomery” immortalized by Burns. From a

notice in _The Scotsman_ of 26th June, 1906 (p. 8) it appears that

the old custom was observed as usual that year.

531 Thomas Moresinus, _Papatus seu Depravatae Religionis Origo et

Incrementum_ (Edinburgh, 1594), p. 56.

532 Rev. Dr. George Lawrie, in Sir John Sinclair’s _Statistical Account

of Scotland_, iii. (Edinburgh, 1792) p. 105.

M174 The Midsummer fires in Spain and the Azores. Divination on Midsummer

Eve in the Azores. The Midsummer fires in Corsica and Sardinia.

533 Letter from Dr. Otero Acevado of Madrid, published in _Le Temps_,

September 1898. An extract from the newspaper was sent me, but

without mention of the day of the month when it appeared. The fires

on St. John’s Eve in Spain are mentioned also by J. Brand, _Popular

Antiquities of Great Britain_, i. 317. Jacob Grimm inferred the

custom from a passage in a romance (_Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 518).

The custom of washing or bathing on the morning of St. John’s Day is

mentioned by the Spanish historian Diego Duran, _Historia de las

Indias de Nueva España_, edited by J. F. Ramirez (Mexico,

1867-1880), vol. ii. p. 293. To roll in the dew on the morning of

St. John’s Day is a cure for diseases of the skin in Normandy,

Périgord, and the Abruzzi, as well as in Spain. See J. Lecœur,

_Esquisses du Bocage Normand_, ii. 8; A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes

et Traditions des Provinces de France_, p. 150; Gennaro Finamore,

_Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), p. 157.

534 M. Longworth Dames and Mrs. E. Seemann, “Folklore of the Azores,”

_Folk-lore_, xiv. (1903) pp. 142 _sq._; Theophilo Braga, _O Povo

Portuguez nos seus Costumes, Crenças e Tradiçoes_ (Lisbon, 1885),

ii. 304 _sq._, 307 _sq._

535 See below, pp. 234 _sqq._

536 Angelo de Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_ (Paris, 1878-1882),

i. 185 note 1.

_ 537 Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 202 _sq._

M175 The Midsummer fires in the Abruzzi. Bathing on Midsummer Eve in the

Abruzzi. The Midsummer fires in Sicily. The witches at Midsummer.

538 G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890),

pp. 154 _sq._

539 G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_, pp. 158-160. We

may compare the Provençal and Spanish customs of bathing and

splashing water at midsummer. See above, pp. 193 _sq._, 208.

540 Giuseppe Pitrè, _Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane_ (Palermo,

1881), pp. 246, 308 _sq._; _id._, _Usi e Costumi, Credenze e

Pregiudizi del Popolo Siciliano_ (Palermo, 1889), pp. 146 _sq._

541 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 518.

M176 The Midsummer fires in Malta.

542 V. Busuttil, _Holiday Customs in Malta, and Sports, Usages,

Ceremonies, Omens, and Superstitions of the Maltese People_ (Malta,

1894), pp. 56 _sqq._ The extract was kindly sent to me by Mr. H. W.

Underwood (letter dated 14th November, 1902, Birbeck Bank Chambers,

Southampton Buildings, Chancery Lane, W.C.). See _Folk-lore_, xiv.

(1903) pp. 77 _sq._

M177 The Midsummer fires in Greece. The Midsummer fires in Macedonia and

Albania.

543 W. R. Paton, in _Folk-lore_, ii. (1891) p. 128. The custom was

reported to me when I was in Greece in 1890 (_Folk-lore_, i. (1890)

p. 520).

544 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 519.

545 G. Georgeakis et L. Pineau, _Le Folk-lore de Lesbos_ (Paris, 1894),

pp. 308 _sq._

546 W. R. Paton, in _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) p. 94. From the stones cast

into the fire omens may perhaps be drawn, as in Scotland, Wales, and

probably Brittany. See above, p. 183, and below, pp. 230 _sq._, 239,

240.

547 W. H. D. Rouse, “Folklore from the Southern Sporades,” _Folk-lore_,

x. (1899) p. 179.

548 Lucy M. J. Garnett, _The Women of Turkey and their Folk-lore, the

Christian Women_ (London, 1890), p. 122; G. F. Abbott, _Macedonian

Folk-lore_ (Cambridge, 1903), p. 57.

549 J. G. von Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_ (Jena, 1854), i. 156.