bear on games a wealth of knowledge of old customs and beliefs,
discerning thereby a significance that might otherwise pass unnoticed
and unappreciated. Thus we have the recognition of old well-worship
rites in the little singing game "Draw a Bucket of Water"; of ancient
house ritual in some of the dramatic games; in others the propitiation
of deities that preside over the fertility of the fields; survivals of
border warfare; of old courtship and marriage observances, and many
other rites and customs. Sometimes this recognition is merely one of
analogy or association, leading to a surmise of the origin of a game;
sometimes it is supported by old records and drawings or references
found in early literature. While often not so exact as the strictly
scientific method, this folklore study throws a flood of light on the
heritage of games that passes from child to child, giving to the
subject added dignity and worth. One comes to appreciate that the
childhood bereft of this heritage has lost a pleasure that is its
natural right, as it would if brought up in ignorance of Jack the
Giant Killer, Beauty and the Beast, or Robinson Crusoe.
The class of games studied by the folklorists mentioned includes
mainly those of active and dramatic character as distinguished from
the board and implement games. Mrs. Gomme sees in their form, method
of playing, the dialogue often included, and the fact of their
continuance from generation to generation, an expression of the
dramatic instinct, and considers them a valuable adjunct in the study
of the beginnings of the drama. The student of games must find of
great interest Mrs. Gomme's classification by formation, the line form
being considered to represent, or to have grown out of, a contest
between people from different countries or localities; the circle
formation a representation of customs prevailing in one village, town,
or tribe, and so on, with the arch form or tug of war, the winding-up
games (as in Snail), etc.
Viewed in this light of their origin, games are especially
fascinating. They take one back to the atmosphere that pervades
romance: to quaint chronicles of kings and courtiers setting forth in
brilliant train for some game that is the heritage of the child of
to-day; to ladies-in-waiting on the Queen playing Babylon; to
shepherds congregating on the moors, or early village communities
dividing, over some forerunner of our college Football; to village
lads and lasses dodging through the cornstalks with Barley Break, or
milkmaids playing Stool Ball with their stools. For while it is
rightly said that the serious occupations of adults at one period
become the games of children at another, the statement omits an
intermediate fact that strongly impresses the student of games:
namely, that these activities, which at first were serious rites have
been used for sport by adults themselves before being handed down to
children; as though the grown folk should masquerade for a time in
their outworn garments before passing them on to following
generations. Considering the varied interests that find expression in
these games, one is further impressed with the fact that humanity
passes thus in review its entire range of experience, transmuting into
material for sport the circumstances of love and hatred, sorrow and
rejoicing, fear and veneration. Nothing is too exalted or humble, too
solemn or fearsome, to be the subject of these frolic events. Nature
in all her panoply is here in dramatized form or reference--earth,
stone, fire, and water; verdure and the kingdom of living things from
beast to man; the seasons and the planets. Industry, love and war,
fiends and deities, death itself and the hereafter, all pass in
review, for one who sees the hidden significance, like a panorama of
existence, as they passed, a plaything and a jest, before the gods of
Olympus. It would seem as though humanity, viewing in long perspective
its own experiences, had found them all at last fit subjects to
"Beget the smiles that have no cruelty."
* * * * *
One dares to hope that this little craft, bearing as it does such a
freight of gladness, may leave behind a wake of cheer, and laughter,
and happiness.
JESSIE H. BANCROFT.
MARCH, 1909.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Detailed acknowledgment is made throughout the volume to various
authors and publishers. A general assurance of most grateful
appreciation is here tendered to many who have responded with material
and suggestions in the research, and to the numerous teachers whose
resourcefulness has led to the adaptation of many games to school
conditions. The author regrets the impracticability of mentioning all
of these by name.
Especial acknowledgment is due Mrs. Marie Talbot Constant for most
valuable and varied assistance, particularly in bibliographical
research and cataloguing of games; and to Miss Lilian M. McConville
for testing and adapting many foreign games collected for the present
volume.
TO THE TEACHER OF GAMES
The following suggestions are made with a view to the use of games
under any circumstances, though many of them apply especially to large
numbers of players under the guidance of a teacher or leader, as in
playgrounds and schools.
The leader or teacher of a playground should approach his or her work
largely in the spirit of the host or hostess whose duty it is to see
that each individual guest is happy and has opportunity to share all
of the pleasures of the occasion. But much more than this is involved
in the relation of teacher and pupil. The teacher of games, or leader
of children's play, needs, like all teachers, to have a sympathetic
personal understanding of the players; a quick insight into character
and motive; a knowledge of what to look for in the child's development
at different periods, as indicated in the Introduction; and to be, in
short, guide, philosopher, and friend.
The teacher should never hesitate, from questions of personal dignity,
to participate in the play of children. Nothing can more quickly gain
the respect and affection of a child than such participation. Every
adult can doubtless recall the extreme pleasure experienced in
childhood when some grown person entered into the childish play. In
schools, where there is necessarily so much of formal discipline and
dealing with large numbers _en masse_, one of the most valuable
effects of games is to produce a more natural and sympathetic
relationship between teacher and pupil, and a fuller appreciation on
the part of the teacher of child nature. This effect from the use of
games has been noted by scores of teachers, even those who were at
first opposed to such use.
Every teacher will have his or her individual methods for teaching,
discipline, and management of games. The following general
suggestions, however, are the result of experience, and may be of
assistance to the novice, at least.
[Sidenote: How to teach a game]
The best method of teaching a game is to make a full explanation of it
before the pupils take their places to play. If this be in a
schoolroom, illustrative diagrams may often be drawn on the
blackboard, and it is sometimes helpful, there or elsewhere, to have a
few pupils go slowly (not running) through the general form of the
game, to illustrate it to the others. In a playground the same method
may be used by having the players sit, if that be feasible, or by
halting them in a march or after gymnastic exercises, to listen to the
explanation. Never try to teach and play a game at the same time. The
only exception to this rule should be where there is a large and
disorderly crowd with which to deal. Then it may occasionally be best
to start a game to gain interest and attention, and then halt for
further explanation.
[Sidenote: Class and group games]
It often becomes necessary for the sake of discipline and unity to
unite all of the players in a playground in one game. Comparatively
few games, however, are successful when played by very large numbers.
A special index has been prepared of such games, however, and will be
found at the end of the present volume. Classes may often be brought
into order and attention in a playground by the simple device of
marching, the march to end in one game for all of the players, or
several games in groups.
An indication that too many players are taking part in a game is
almost invariably to be found in a lack of interest on the part of the
players, arising usually from the infrequency with which each player
gets an opportunity to participate. The ultimate test of any game,
however, from the recreative standpoint must be one of interest, and
this is often found among players who are not participating in the
action if competition be close. A teacher should watch closely for
waning interest, and may often save the situation by dividing the
players into two or more groups. Many games that are commonly listed
for as many as sixty players are given in the present index as useful
for "thirty or more." By this is meant that the best playing values of
the game are lost when played by more than thirty, although it is
possible to use the game with a larger number. Very frequently even
these games are far better played by smaller groups.
A resourceful teacher will find many ways of adapting games to large
numbers. Among such devices may be mentioned (1) increasing the number
of runners and chasers; for instance, in the game of Cat and Rat,
there may be several cats and several rats; (2) in the circle games of
simple character, especially the singing games, the circle may be
duplicated, thus having two concentric circles, one within the other;
(3) in many ball games it will be found possible to put more than one
ball in play, as in Bombardment or Circle Club Bowls. Such suggestions
as this are often made in the present volume in connection with the
description of the games.
Group play, by which is meant the division of a large number of
players into smaller squads or groups, is undoubtedly the best method
for getting the best sport and the greatest playing values out of most
games. Such a division of players is not always an easy matter to
inaugurate, untrained players being inclined to follow the teacher
from point to point in the playground. This may be obviated by
appointing group leaders, each of whom should understand the game to
be played and be appointed to take charge of it. Older children, and
almost invariably the children who are disorderly or inclined to
disturb the general harmony and discipline of the playground, are the
best ones to charge with such responsibility. This method serves the
double purpose of quelling their disorderly propensities by occupying
them in a position of responsibility, and takes care of a group of
players at the same time. When the group method is used in schools, it
is advisable to appoint the leaders of the groups, or allow the
children to elect them, before leaving the class room for the
playground.
[Sidenote: Choice of games]
The choice of games to be played should be left to a vote or
suggestion of the players. The teacher's function in this regard is to
suggest, not to dictate. In schools this choice may generally best be
made in the class room, before a class goes to the playground.
A teacher should be ready with suggestions for new games or occupation
of some sort when interest wanes in a game that is being played; but a
new game should not be suggested until there is evidence that players
are tired of the old one. Do not make the mistake of thinking that
children want to play games incessantly during a half-day session of a
playground. Children like quiet pursuits occasionally as well as do
adults, and it is well to alternate games with such quiet periods and
also with marching, gymnastics, folk dancing, or periods of free
activity. So-called quiet games will be found useful under such
circumstances.
[Sidenote: Discipline]
Each playground leader or teacher should be provided with a whistle.
This saves a great deal of strain on the voice, and should be
understood from the outset to command instant quiet, all play to be
suspended when it is heard. The most joyous play goes always with the
best discipline. Both children and adult players like strength and
decision in a teacher or leader. Indeed, they instinctively place
themselves under the leadership of the decided and dominant characters
among themselves. It has been the experience of the author that
discipline in schools is greatly helped by the playing of games,
partly because the privilege of play or its loss is one of the
strongest incentives to order at other times, but also because of the
happy outlet afforded for normal tendencies and the disciplinary
training of the games themselves.
[Sidenote: Playing values]
Get the playing values out of games. By this is meant, see that every
child gets as much opportunity as possible for participation in the
actual physical exercise of the game and in all the phases of play
that make him a successful, alert, resourceful player. The result of
this and the test of it will be the amount of interest and sport in
the games. _Do not make the games too serious. Get laughter and frolic
out of them._
Encourage timid pupils to give dares and to take risks. No class of
players needs more sympathetic or tactful understanding and help from
a teacher than the timid. Such children often suffer greatly through
their shyness. They should first be brought into play in some form of
game that does not make them conspicuous; one, for instance, in which
they do what all the other players do, or merely take turns. Such
children should be encouraged by praise of their successful efforts,
and especial care should be taken not to call attention to their
failures.
See that the selfish or most capable children do not have the lion's
share of the play; the opportunities should be equally distributed. It
is often necessary for a teacher to distinguish between
self-assertiveness, which is a natural phase of the development of
the sense of individuality, or selfishness and "bullying," which are
exaggerated forms of the same tendency. Both may need repression and
guidance, but only the latter are reprehensible.
Encourage each pupil to be alert to see when it is his turn and to be
quick in play. Every game should be a sense-training game, developing
power for quick perception of external stimuli and quick and expert
reaction to such stimuli.
In chasing games, encourage interesting chases, the runner to take
unexpected turns and dodges, making capture difficult. The shortest
distance between two points for a chase often makes a dull game,
devoid of sport.
Young players will need to be helped to use reason and judgment in
games, as to when to run risks of capture, how to attack the
opponent's weakest point, etc.
Do not treat children as though they were made of glass and fear to
see them tumble down. Every child, boy or girl, ought to be able to
bear a few falls, knocks, and bruises. This is nature's way of
training a child to be more observant or agile. Besides, physical
hardihood is one of the best possible results from the playing of
games. Do not coddle a child who has received an injury. Cultivate a
stoic spirit. If it be a slight injury, have the child go on with his
play and he will soon forget it. If it require treatment of any sort,
take the player at once away from the playground or vicinity of the
other players and apply first-aid remedies until medical assistance
can be obtained.
[Sidenote: Team play]
Team play is one of the highest forms of play. The teacher should look
for the beginning of the tendency toward it as shown in a fondness for
the play of opposing groups, manifest from ten to twelve years of age.
This tendency should be encouraged and developed into more closely
organized types of team games. The greatest value of team play lies in
the coöperation of the players, all working together for a common end,
a player's thought and effort being to do what is best for his team
rather than to use his skill for individual glory.
[Sidenote: Enforcement of rules]
The number and difficulty of rules and regulations governing a game go
through a steady increase as children grow older. The games for very
little children have practically no rules except the following of
turns in rotation. Later come such games as those in which a player's
turn comes only on a given signal, and it is a foul to start before
this signal, as in relay races. Many other types of rules appear as
the games progress. These reach their culmination in ball games where,
amid the excitement of a game, a player must exercise heedfulness and
restraint in the method of playing upon a ball, the range of movement
allowed from a given base, and many other points.
A teacher should understand clearly that the inhibitive power of the
will necessary for the observation of rules is a slow and late
development, and that its training by means of rules is one of the
most important educational features in the use of games. (See
Introduction.) Players should therefore not be expected to take part
in a game that is much beyond their power in this regard. A teacher
should not announce a rule unless sure that it is reasonable to expect
the players to observe it. Having announced a rule, however, enforce
it to the full extent. To condone the infringement of a rule is
equivalent to a lie in its injury to the moral nature of a player. It
is a weak-willed teacher who does not enforce rules. Players will
respect far more a strict disciplinarian than a weak one. Every player
who infringes a rule should suffer the full penalty therefor. Only by
such means can there be trained the strength of will to avoid such
infringement in the future, for it should be repeated that such
infringements are not always the result of intentional cheating. They
indicate very often an undeveloped power of will, and the teacher
should be able to discriminate between the sneaking cowardice that
would win unfairly and mere lack of power. Both causes, however,
should lead to the same result of suffering the full penalty for any
infringement of rules.
[Sidenote: Honor]
Teach players to play to win--with all their might. But with this
cultivate a sense of honor. Have them realize that any victory not
earned strictly by their own merits or those of their team is a
disgrace rather than a cause for congratulation. No better opportunity
can ever be found for inculcating the knowledge that to be trusted is
far greater than to be praised. A player should scorn rewards not
based on merit, and should be led to feel that a defeat resulting from
an honest trial of strength is an honorable defeat; that the real
issue is as much concerned with the amount of effort put forth as with
the comparative results of it measured with some other player. A
defeated player should be led to recognize and do honor to the prowess
of his adversary, and so to congratulate him honestly. A sense of
superior power should never degenerate into gloating over a defeated
adversary or into contempt for his weaker ability. Many thrilling
examples of honest mutual admiration between victor and vanquished may
be gleaned from the history of warfare, as when Grant handed back the
sword of surrender to Lee.
In athletic games players should learn that to question or dispute the
decision of judges or other officials presiding over games is
thoroughly unsportsmanlike and a species of dishonor. Having once
placed themselves under officials, decisions must be accepted without
cavil at the time. The natural desire to learn how a decision was
reached in an athletic event must be held in check until the judges
have opportunity to announce fouls or other features of scoring that
determine the result. It should always be borne in mind, by both
players and coaches, that the officials, who are each concentrating on
some one feature of the play, know what happens far more accurately
than the general observer. It is also thoroughly unsportsmanlike, and
counts as a foul, disqualifying a player, if he receive directions or
coaching of any sort from an instructor during a game.
FLOOR FORMATION.--The terms "formation" and "floor formation" are
commonly used to designate the placing of players in the playground
and gymnasium in the lines, circles, groups, or opposing sides,
necessary for the starting of a game. To accomplish this disposition
of the players quickly and without confusion requires a clear
knowledge of methods on the part of the teacher. Some methods are here
offered, but before giving them in detail a word should be said of the
differing psychological effects of the various formations.
The circle or ring formation has a pronounced tendency toward a spirit
of unity among players. Each player may see and become somewhat
acquainted with all other players in a group, in a way not practicable
in any other formation. Any one who has met strangers at a dinner
party or committee meeting gathered at a round table will comprehend
the significance of this. In the kindergarten, this principle is used
largely, each day's exercises opening with the pupils in a circle. A
game in circle formation is therefore often one of the best means of
making acquainted players who are strangers to each other, and of
giving a sense of united interest to a heterogeneous group.
The sense of being united in a common interest, or _esprit de corps_,
may be gained to some extent in some general forms of playground
activities such as marching. As children grow into the tendency to
enjoy group or team play, the competitive spirit becomes very strong,
and games in which the players work in competitive teams, as in relay
races, or in opposing sides, as in Bombardment, may serve the purpose
of continuous mutual interest. As a rule the competitive spirit is
strong in games in the line and group formations, and, indeed, is
usually the basis of such formations.
For all formations pupils should be trained to move quickly.
Formations made from marching order may often be done on the
double-quick.
RING FORMATION.--For small numbers of players no formal procedure is
needed to get the players into a ring formation. For very little
children the teacher should simply stretch his or her own hands
sideways, taking a child by either hand to show what is wanted, and
telling the others to form a circle. All will naturally clasp hands in
the same way. Children should be urged to move quickly for such
formations. For some games the hands remain clasped. For others the
hands are dropped (unclasped) after the ring is formed. The distance
between players may be gauged by the stretch of the arms when the
hands are clasped, making the ring larger or smaller. With older
players the teacher's participation in the formation of the circle is
not necessary, the mere command to "Form circle!" being adequate.
For large numbers the ring formation is best achieved from a line
standing in single file. The players should march or run, the leader
of the file describing a circle and joining hands with the rear player
of the file, all of the others joining hands similarly with their
neighbors.
CONCENTRIC CIRCLES.--Where players are to be placed in two circles,
one within the other, as in Three Deep, Zigzag Ball, or some of the
singing games for large numbers, players should march in a column of
twos (two by two), and the leaders should describe a circle until the
ends meet. All then face inward.
Another method of forming concentric circles is to form a single
circle, and have every alternate player step inwards. Or the players
may number off by twos, and those bearing the odd (or even) numbers
take one or two steps toward the center of the circle. All
numbering-off methods, however, are comparatively slow.
OPPOSING TEAMS OR LINES.--For assigning large numbers of players
quickly in opposing teams or lines, the following methods are among
the most orderly:--
I. The players "fall in" for a march in single file. They march up the
center of the room or ground; the first player turns to the right and
the next to the left, and so on alternately, taking stations at the
sides of the ground; they are thus separated into two opposing groups,
those which turn to the right forming one group or team, and those to
the left another.
This method is even quicker if players march in columns of twos or
fours, alternate ranks turning to alternate sides.
II. Players may be required to march in columns of twos (two abreast),
halt, and those in one file of the column step to one side of the
playground instead of marching to the front and separating, as in I,
and those in the other file to the opposite side.