EARLY ATTEMPTS AT SUB-SURFACE NAVIGATION
Fulton’s first efforts for mechanical navigation. Some early
submarines: Bourne, Van Drebbel, Mercenne, de Son, Wilkins,
Bushnell.
While Fulton was taking out patents for his little canals—patents that
never had either practical or profitable application—and endeavoring to
earn a livelihood through the introduction of some of his methods of
canal construction, there was germinating in his mind the great
principle of mechanical propulsion on water that was eventually to win
for him both fame and a competence.
The seeds had found lodgment some years previously. Dickenson shows that
in 1793, or about the time when he retired from his art career, Fulton
wrote a letter to the Earl of Stanhope stating that he had a project for
moving boats by steam. This was a subject in which Stanhope took
particular interest, being an inventor and a great student of applied
science, and especially as he at that same time was working on a design
of his own for a steamboat. Lord Stanhope requested Fulton to present
his plan in detail. The original letter and accompanying sketches, dated
November 4th, 1793, are still in the possession of the Stanhope family.
The idea of propelling boats by steam was not new. Jonathan Hulls had
published a pamphlet in 1737 entitled, “A Description and Draught of a
New Invented Machine for Carrying Vessels Out of or Into Any Harbour,
Port or River, Against Wind or Tide or in a Calm.” This pamphlet is of
great rarity, and the plate it contains, being the first pictorial
representation of a boat propelled by the force of steam, merits
reproduction. But in Fulton’s own country practical results had already
been achieved. James Rumsey had actually moved a vessel by steam on the
Potomac in 1785–88, and in 1788 and 1790 took out British patents. In
February, 1793, Rumsey ran a steamboat on the Thames. Equally important
was the work of John Fitch, who also constructed a boat operated by a
steam engine and actually conveyed passengers on a regular schedule on
the Delaware River in 1790. Fitch, like his rival inventor Rumsey, went
to Europe further to develop his ideas and, in 1791, took out a French
patent. All these experiments were, of course, known to Fulton and it is
not impossible that they gave him his first suggestion.
For the moment we are not interested in the development of steam
navigation. However fascinating the story of how Fulton gradually
developed a better engine than his predecessors and contemporary
experimenters had succeeded in doing, and one that was completely
practical, it is not to be repeated here. Our story is concerned with
his work on submarines, but before leaving the subject of steamboats, it
is convenient to recall that the fortuitous appointment of Robert R.
Livingston (1746–1813), the famous Chancellor of the State of New York,
as American Minister to France in 1801 brought to Fulton his ultimate
means of success through the partnership that the two men established.
Chancellor Livingston, like Fulton’s other friend, Lord Stanhope, was
interested in philosophical subjects and had turned his attention to the
possibility of steam navigation as early as 1798. Therefore, his arrival
in France in 1801, when Fulton was struggling with the mechanical
problems, was most opportune for Fulton and the art of mechanical
propulsion. Though Fulton even then had almost reached the solution of
the engineering difficulties, he was without the necessary funds to put
his ideas in concrete form. These funds Livingston supplied, and, what
to a man of Fulton’s temperament was almost as valuable, personal
encouragement and guidance. It is not too much to assert that the early
realization of the application of steam to navigation was due to
Livingston’s acceptance of the post of Minister to France, thus bringing
the two men together.
[Illustration:
JONATHAN HULLS’ STEAMBOAT, 1737
]
While Fulton was studying and experimenting with mechanical propulsion
of boats on the surface of the water, it was but natural that he should
take under consideration the possibility of constructing a boat that
could be sunk and raised at will and move under water. This basal
principle was far from being novel. From the earliest times man has not
been content to remain only a land animal. As far back as records go, he
has had the ambition to emulate the birds, and certainly during the
Roman period he began to think of sharing with fishes the power to
explore the depths of the sea.
Perhaps William Bourne was the first writer on submarine vessel design.
In his little quarto volume published in 1573, and entitled, “Inuentions
or Deuises very necessary for all Generalles and Captaines, or Leaders
of Men, as well by Sea as by Land,” he describes as the “18 Deuise,” “a
Ship or a Boate that may goe vnder the water vnto the bottome, and so to
come vp againe at your pleasure.” Recognizing that the variation in
displacement of a vessel whose weight remains constant adds to or
detracts from its buoyancy, he suggested a vessel with sides that could
be distended or contracted at will by screws, thus permitting her to
sink and rise. These distendable sides, he thought, might be made of
leather. For ventilation when submerged, he would have a hollow mast,
taking care that the depth of water in which the boat should plunge
would never exceed the height of the mast. He did not propose any means
of propulsion.
Van Drebbel, a Dutch engineer, born in Holland in 1572, made actual
application of Bourne’s ideas, and constructed a submersible boat in
1624. He tested it in 15 feet of water in the Thames at London, during
one of which tests it is reported that he had King James I. as a
passenger. Apparently he attempted propulsion by means of oars that
passed through the boat’s sides, the apertures being covered by leather
pockets attached to oars and boat. What plan he had for keeping the
boat’s air respirable when submerged is not clear, though there are some
fantastic but not authenticated claims that he used a chemical compound
for refreshing it. If he really plunged, which is by no means certain,
it was probably for only a few minutes at a time.
In 1634, the same year in which Van Drebbel died in London, there was
published a book entitled, “Hydraulica Pneumatica,” containing a chapter
“De nauibus sub aqua natantibus.” This interesting work was written by a
noted French theologian and philosopher, Marin Mercenne (1588–1648), a
member of the order of Minimes Fathers. As was frequently done at that
period in the case of technical treatises, Father Mersenne wrote his
book in Latin, and gave his name the latinized form of Mercennus. He
describes Drebbel’s boat, but credits Bourne with having first proposed
the principles that Drebbel used, and recalled that Bourne had suggested
the possibility of getting fresh air through tubes reaching to the
surface. Mercenne’s contribution to the art was his stated belief that
the compass would be equally efficient beneath as well as on the
surface.
[Illustration:
DE SON’S UNDERWATER BOAT, 1653
]
In 1653, a French engineer, de Son, constructed in Holland a curious
boat, 72 feet long, propelled by a hand-driven wheel. This boat was
hardly a submarine as it was not expected to submerge completely. It is
interesting as the first application of a mechanical motive force other
than oars and the first suggestion of a paddle wheel. It, therefore,
marked a great step forward in matters of design. A translation of de
Son’s modest description of this boat as shown on the bottom of the
design is as follows:
ACCURATE REPRESENTATION OF THE NEW WONDERFUL SHIP MADE AT ROTTERDAM.
As Mons. Duson has been greatly disappointed at the presentment of his
ship, which was in all ways greatly misrepresented, both as regards
the rudder, the paddle wheel, and the whole disposition of the vessel
when published at Amsterdam, we think it useful to give an exact
representation of the ship (as above depicted) and the reader will at
once see the difference. The Inventor will undertake to destroy with
the ship in one day a fleet of a hundred vessels. No fire, no cannon
ball or rocket, no storm or waves can hinder him unless God the Lord
should intend to do so. Even if the ships which lie in the harbors
consider themselves safe, he will run them to the bottom and turn
around just as easily as a bird in the sky so that no one can hurt
him, and should his ship be taken by treason, for otherwise it is
quite impossible, it could not be governed by any one else but him. He
will be able to make in one hour at least ten miles, and should he run
on a bank his vessel will swim as light on the water as a light sloop
would do. He believes he will be able to go with this vessel in ten
weeks to and from the East Indies, and in one day to and from France,
so that it may be called the greatest wonder of the world.
The next contributor was an Englishman, John Wilkins, Bishop of Chester.
Wilkins was an exceedingly interesting character and deserves to be
remembered not only for what he did to advance the art of submarine
design, but for what he was and what he accomplished in many ways. His
life is set forth in considerable detail in the preface of the fifth
edition of his principal scientific production, “Mathematical Magick: or
the Wonders that may be perform’d by Mechanical Geometry,” this
particular edition being published posthumously in 1707.
From this sketch it appears that he was born in 1614. It is stated that
at school his proficiency was such that he entered New Inn, Oxford, when
13 years old. After graduation, not at New Inn but at Magdalen Hall, he
took orders and served as Chaplain, first to Lord Say and then to
Charles, Count Palatine of the Rhine. On the outbreak of the English
civil war, he joined the parliamentary party. In 1648, he received the
degree of Doctor of Divinity, and in 1656, married the sister of Oliver
Cromwell, then Lord Protector. Soon after he was appointed head of
Trinity College, Cambridge. Charles II, on his restoration to power,
removed Dr. Wilkins from his position at Cambridge, though subsequently
gave him preferment, first, by making him Dean of Ripon, and soon after,
Bishop of Chester. Apparently Wilkins had made it clear to the royalist
party that he could serve quite as well under their standard as under
that of his late brother-in-law.
In the short interim while out of royal favor he resided in London,
where he was elected to the Royal Society and a member of its Council.
It will thus be seen that Wilkins was no narrow-minded person. He could
adapt himself to whatever political party was in power, and apparently
he could do equally well as an educator, theologian and man of science.
At any rate, of his varied abilities, his excellence in these three was
recognized by his contemporaries who conferred on him the highest honors
in each of the three fields. He did not however restrict himself to
those labors, but was also an author of no small productivity. Among his
writings are :
1. “The Discovery of a New World; or, a Discourse tending to prove
that (’tis probable) there may be another Habitable World in the
Moon.” 1638.
2. “Discourse concerning the Possibility of a Passage to the World in
the Moon.” 1638.
3. “Discourse concerning a New Planet; tending to prove, that (’tis
probable) our Earth is one of the Planets.” 1640.
4. “Mercury; the Secret Messenger: Shewing how a Man may with Privacy
and Speed communicate his thouhts to his friend at any Distance.”
1641.
5. “Mathematical Magick; or, The Wonders that may be perform’d by
Mechanical Geometry.” 1648.
6. “An Essay towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language”
including, “An Alphabetical Dictionary.” 1668.
7. Several works on theological subjects.
The above books seem to have won popular approval because they appear in
several editions. Bishop Wilkins died in 1672 after a life full of
strenuosity, variety and action.
It is with his scientific publication standing fifth in the above list
that we are specially interested. This little book, which treats of a
great number of mechanical devices and principles such as wheels,
pulleys, screws, engines of war, clocks and other similar machines,
contains two chapters, one entitled, “Concerning the Art of Flying. The
several ways whereby this hath been, or may be attempted”; and the
other, “Concerning the Possibility of framing an Ark for Submarine
Navigation. The Difficulties and Conveniences of such a Contrivance.”
The latter chapter is the one that bears on our present discussion.
Although Wilkins gives credit to Mercennus, who as he puts it, “doth so
largely and pleasantly descant upon the making of a ship wherein men may
safely swim under the Water,” nevertheless he follows the line of
thought of Bourne without giving him credit. He closely imitated
Bourne’s scheme of leather attachments. He suggested leather bags open
at both ends, one end being without and the other within the ship, the
ends capable of being closed like those of a purse. These bags he would
use as means of ingress and egress for men and materials. Motion he
proposed to obtain by means of oars whose blades would be collapsible on
the back stroke, the oars projecting through the ship’s sides, the holes
being closed with leather attached to the oars and vessel. Wilkins had
in mind the use of such a vessel in attack against a “Navy of Enemies,
who by this means may be undermined in the water and blown up.”
The submersible power Wilkins would obtain by having his boat or “Ark”
ballasted so as to be of “equal weight with the like magnitude of
water,” that is, to be at the critical point between floating and
sinking, obviously one of greatest danger. He fancied that he could then
obtain vertical motion or plunging by attaching a great weight to the
bottom of the ship, to be computed, of course, as part of the ballast.
If the weight were lowered by means of a cord, so would the boat ascend,
and if the weight were raised, it would descend. The method of supplying
air to the submerged crew was equally amusing. He depended upon the
ability of men to live in a polluted atmosphere by continued practice,
or if that were found impossible, the air might be purified by what he
calls “refrigeration,” that is, by heating it by lamps and allowing it
to cool on coming in contact with the sides of the vessel, the process
being assisted by bellows. It is hoped that the theology of the
undoubtedly worthy bishop was sounder than his science, and that it
emulated rather the particularly high scale of wisdom of his political
adaptability. But no matter how ridiculous his details, he,
nevertheless, left the main idea more firmly implanted in men’s minds.
The above references are not a complete résumé of the early development
of the underlying principles of the art of submarine navigation. They
are nothing more than a brief recital of the salient and outstanding
features that mark the path of progress like milestones along a road.
With these and other similar impracticable conceptions, the art of
submarine construction was found by an American, David Bushnell, born at
Saybrook, Connecticut, in 1742, and graduated from Yale in 1775. In the
war with Great Britain, which broke out shortly after his graduation,
Bushnell conceived the idea of attacking the enemy’s ships under water
and there is no doubt that he constructed a boat embodying among other
novel devices a screw propeller. His boat, a small affair carrying but a
single operator, was scarcely a submarine as it was not intended to
plunge, but to float just “awash” or almost submerged. Like Rumsey and
Fitch, Bushnell went abroad and, as Fulton did later, opened
negotiations with the French Government. Delpeuch says, “Then (1797)
there appeared an engineer who offered to the Directory a means quite as
terrible as it was invisible to force the British to lift their
blockade, and not only did this man undertake to drive the enemy from
our shores, but he even proposed to carry the war to the shores and
ports of Great Britain, heretofore inviolable.”
Fulton undoubtedly became acquainted with Bushnell during the time they
were both in France engaged in similar pursuits. But the failure to
accomplish results or to get his ideas adopted by others disappointed
Bushnell so keenly that he returned to his native country, went to
Georgia, adopted the name of Bush, and began the practice of medicine.
He died in 1826, at the age of 84, when his will disclosed his identity.