If the above attempts have proved unsucc_Practical Hand Book of Gas, Oil and Steam Engines Stationary, Marine, Traction; Gas Burners, Oil Burners, Etc.; Farm, Traction, Automobile, Locomotive; A simple, practical and comprehensive book on the construction, operation and repair of all kinds of engines. Dealing with the various parts in detail and the various types of engines and also the use of different kinds of fuel.

from the cylinder, if the valve is in a cage, remove the entire cage;

this may easily be done on most types of engines. Always remove the

exhaust valve first as the inlet valve rarely requires attention. With

small engines, and engines having the valves mounted directly in the

cylinder head it will be necessary to remove the cylinder head to gain

access to the valves. In such a case use care when opening the packed

joint between the cylinder and head, to avoid damaging the gasket.

The exhaust valves should be lubricated with Gas Engine Cylinder Oil,

never with common machine oil on account of gumming and sticking, or

with gas engine cylinder oil thickened with =FLAKE GRAPHITE=. Powdered

graphite may be used with success without the addition of oil, but oil

makes the application of the graphite much easier.

A cracked valve seat, due to expansion strains or to the hammering of

the valve, is a common cause of compression leakage, and is rather

difficult to locate as the leakage only occurs under comparatively high

pressure. Leakage may also occur between the valve cage and the cylinder

casting unless pains are taken to thoroughly clean the cage and the bore

before fastening into place.

Warped valves are caused by overheating, the head of pallet of the valve

becoming out of square with the stem, or by twisting on the valve seat.

If warped valves are suspected the high point of the seat may be

determined by means of the following test and should be carefully filed

down until it is close to a bearing after which it may be ground down as

described under pitted valves.

If the stems are now in good condition examine the seating surfaces of

the valve pallets and cage or rings.

The seats should be bright and free from pits, depressions, or streaky

blue discolorations. If the seats are deeply grooved from long continued

leaks it is best to discard them and replace with new.

Pitted valves, and those slightly grooved or streaked should be reground

by the use of a little emery flour and tripoli which operation is

performed as follows:

Lift the valve from its seat and apply lubricating oil to the seating

surface, then sprinkle a little flour or emery on the oiled surface and

drop the valve back on the seat. Do not use coarse emery nor too much of

the abrasive, a pinch is enough and will grind as rapidly as a pound.

Take care to drop the emery only where required, do not sprinkle it over

the engine or working parts as it will cause cutting and the destruction

of the bearings.

Now turn the valve around in one direction for about a half dozen turns

and then in the other direction for the same length of time,

alternately, at the same time applying a moderate pressure on the valve.

Small valves may be rotated with a large screw driver entered in the

slot found on the valve plate, but the handiest method is with a

carpenter’s brace in which is inserted a screw-driver bit.

Never turn the valve around and around in one direction continuously as

this movement is liable to cause grooving, alternate the direction of

rotation frequently with occasional back and forth movements made in a

semi-circle.

Do not press heavily on the valve, use only enough pressure to insure

contact between the two seating surfaces.

The valve should be lifted occasionally from the seat to prevent

grooving, and to redistribute the abrasive, and then dropped back, after

which the grinding should proceed as before. Remove the valve after it

turns without friction, wipe it clean, apply fresh oil and emery and

grind once more. When the grinding has removed all pits and ridges, and

presents a smooth even surface, the grinding is complete. To test for

accuracy of grinding place a little Prussian Blue on the seat, if the

valve is ground to a perfect surface the blue will show uniformly spread

over the seat, if the grinding is incomplete bare places showing high

spots will be seen. It is a good plan to finish the grinding by using a

little Tripoli with oil after the emery has removed the pits and high

spots, as Tripoli is finer than emery and will smooth down scratches

made by the emery.

After the grinding has been performed to your satisfaction, wash the

valve, valve stem, and guides thoroughly with gasoline and kerosene to

remove the smaller traces of emery, to prevent wear and cutting.

When the valves are ground in place on the engine stuff up all openings

or parts of the cylinder to prevent the emery from gaining access to the

bore. After grinding is complete wipe off surfaces thoroughly and remove

waste used for stuffing.

CHAPTER XIII

TRACTORS AND FARM POWER

Because of our increased population, which results in a greater planted

acreage, and the scarcity and increased cost of farm labor, farming has

rapidly developed into an industrial science. Where formerly the farmer

was content to perform certain parts of his work by hand, he today

employs machinery for the same task, and is far more particular as to

the working of his soil and the cost of production per acre. By the use

of machinery his crop is marketed at less expense, in a shorter time,

and he has more time in which to enjoy life than ever before.

The modern gasoline and oil engine has been the greatest factor

contributing to the farmer’s ease and prosperity for it has eliminated

the terrors and drudgery of plowing, churning, watering stock, sawing

wood, threshing, and has besides given him many of the conveniences of

city life, such as running water and electric light. The benefits of

power are not only conferred on the farmer but his wife as well for the

small domestic engines have saved the back of the house wife during the

strenuous period of harvest time.

One of the difficulties of farming is the necessity of doing certain

work in a limited time or else suffering a heavy loss. The breaking, the

plowing, the harvesting, and the threshing each must be done at a

certain time, often within a few days of each other in order to obtain

the benefits of the best weather conditions. Threshing starts as soon as

the grain is ready, and if rain interferes with the threshing, the

farmer can start plowing immediately if provided with a tractor and

thereby gain the undoubted benefits of fall plowing. Plowing at harvest

time has much to do with eliminating weed seeds for the weeds are turned

under while green, the seeds sprout and commence their growth and are

winter killed before they reach maturity. In this way the field is

practically freed from weeds in the spring. When the weather again

becomes suitable, the threshing may be resumed and when completed he can

again turn to his plowing.

[Illustration:

Operator’s View of the “Big Four” Tractor, Showing the Four Cylinder

Engine in Place.

]

Gas power is not to be considered merely as a substitute for animal

power for the engine not only performs the work of the horses but also

performs work that no horse can do, and does it with far less expense.

In the hottest weather when horses are dropping in the broiling sun, the

tractor moves tirelessly through the fields. Every farmer knows the

expense attached to keeping a horse in the idle winter period for it

must be fed, watered, and cared for, work or no work. When the engine is

idle it costs nothing except for the interest on the investment, while

animals grow old and are subject to disease whether they work or not.

The time of plowing and harvest is short and requires quick work, and

continuous work. Horses cannot be driven at plow faster than one mile

per hour, and cannot be worked more than 10 hours per day, while the

tractor under suitable conditions can travel 2 to 3 miles per hour, and

keep at it twenty-four hours per day. An ordinary tractor can break from

20 to 40 acres of ordinary loam per day and will plow in cultivated land

from 40 to 50 acres per day.

The same factors govern the fuel consumption of a tractor that govern

the rate of plowing, that is, the character of the soil and the depth of

plowing. On an average, 1½ to 2½ gallons of gasoline will be used in

breaking an acre of sod, and 1 to 1½ gallons of gasoline in plowing

stubble. As kerosene contains about 18 per cent more heat per gallon

than gasoline, the quantity of fuel used by an oil tractor is

correspondingly less. When used for pulling wagons on the road at about

3 miles per hour the fuel consumption will approximate 4 gallons per

hour, this consumption varying of course with grades, etc.

Thirty horse-power, at the speed given above represents a draw bar pull

of about 9,000 pounds, which is equivalent to the tractive effort of

from 30 to 40 horses, were it possible to concentrate the pull of so

many horses at a single point, at one time. It would of course be

impossible for the horses to maintain this effort for as long a time as

the tractor. On a level road it will take about 100 pounds tractive

effort for each 2,000 pounds of weight in the form of road wagons

(including the weight of the wagon). The number of wagons that can be

drawn with a given draw bar pull can be easily figured. When pulling on

a grade, the effective draw bar pull will be reduced in proportion to

the extent of the grade. While no fixed rule can be given regarding the

number of plows that can be handled by a tractor, the average machine

can pull six to eight breaking plows and from eight to twelve stubble

plows, depending on the character of the soil and the depth of plowing.

When the conditions permit the use of a greater number of plows, than

specified above the amount of work done will of course be greater.

A tractor can haul four ten foot seeders and two twenty foot harrows and

cover 7 or 8 acres per hour at a cost of from 12 to 15 cents per acre.

At harvest time the tractor will also effect a great saving in time and

expense for the average machine will handle five or six eight foot

binders, making a cut of nearly 50 feet wide, and this can be kept up

for 24 hours at a stretch.

A tractor of the average output can handle any separator, and with a 44″

cylinder machine can turn out from 2,000 to 3,000 bushels of wheat and

5,000 bushels of oats in a ten hour run. It will also handle any of the

largest shredders. For irrigation work, silo filling, and wood cutting

it is equally efficient.

(142) The Gas Tractor.

The tractor of the internal combustion type using gasoline or oil as a

fuel is much more successful than the steam machine, both from the

standpoints of convenience and cost of operation. There is absolutely no

danger of fire whatever around a gas tractor for this reason the engine

can be placed in any position regardless of the direction of the wind,

which would be impracticable with a steam engine. This is a great

advantage for if the wind is allowed to blow directly from the engine to

the separator, it will be of great assistance to the pitchers who feed

the separator.

When threshing or plowing in a remote field considerable difficulty is

always experienced in supplying the steam tractor with the enormous

amount of water that it consumes. To supply the water requires a team,

tank wagon and drivers which is a considerable item in the running

expense. The small amount of water used for cooling the gas engine is

renewed once, or at the most, twice a day. Steam coal is bulky and

requires the continuous service of a man and team to keep things moving,

and this expense is greatly increased by the expense of the coal.

A gas tractor can be started in a very few moments while the engineer of

a steam rig has to start in an hour or more before the crew to get steam

up, etc. In addition to this there is the usual tedious routine of

“oiling up,” cleaning the flues, etc. There is absolutely no danger of

explosions with the gas engine which have proved so disastrous in the

past with steam threshing engines.

With the gasoline, the operator is left free to work on the separator as

he has no firing to do and does not have to concentrate his attention on

keeping the water level at the correct point in the gauge glass. The

engine is automatically lubricated in all cases so no attention is

demanded on this score for it will run smoothly hour after hour without

the least attention. This feature eliminates one high priced man from

the job. On heavy loads the problem of keeping up the steam pressure is

often a vexatious one, especially if a poor grade of coal is used. With

a lower priced man as operator tending both the separator and the gas

engine the crew need only consist of two pitchers to feed the machine,

with a man and team for each pitcher. This small crew is easily

accommodated at the farmers house, and does not require the services of

a separate cook and camp equipment.

With a gasoline rig the expenses will be approximately as follows:

Engineer, wages and expenses $ 5.00

Two pitchers, at $3.00 6.00

Four men and teams 20.00

60 gallons of gasoline at 15c 9.00

Lubricating oil 1.00

——————

Cost per day $41.00

Taking 1,500 bushels (wheat) as a day’s work, the cost of threshing

figures out at 2¾ cents per bushel.

According to data furnished by the M. Rumely Company, which is based on

an actual test, the total cost of plowing, seeding, cutting and

threshing, including ground rental and depreciation, amounted to $8.65

with horses and $6.55 with their oil tractor. These figures will of

course vary in individual cases, but are principally of interest in

showing the comparative cost of horse and tractor operation.

With a gasoline or oil tractor equipped with engine plows one man can

tend to both the plows and the engine, although some operators prefer to

have two men, one relieving the other consequently plowing more acres

per day and reducing the cost per acre. In some cases one man is placed

on the plows and the other on the engine. By running the tractor

twenty-four hours per day, with two shifts of men, a much better showing

is made by the tractor when compared with horse plowing, for with the

latter method it would be necessary to supply twice the number of

horses.

To show the relative merits of various grades of fuel we will print the

data kindly furnished by Fairbanks Morse for a ten hour day.

═════════════════════╤════════╤════════╤════════

ITEM │Fuel Oil│Kerosene│Gasoline

│ 3c │ 6½c │ 15c

─────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────

60 Gallons Fuel │ $1.80│ $3.90│ $ 9.00

Lubricants │ .40│ .40│ .40

Engineer │ 3.50│ 3.50│ 3.50

Plowman │ 2.00│ 2.00│ 2.00

Repairs │ .12│ .12│ .12

Cost to Plow 24 Acres│ 7.82│ 9.92│ 15.02

Cost per Acre │ .32│ .41│ .63

─────────────────────┴────────┴────────┴────────

Plowing at the rate of 20 acres per day, and kerosene at 6⅔ cents per

gallon, the Rumely Company obtain the cost of plowing one acre as $0.66.

In the latter figure the interest and depreciation are included which

will increase the figures over those given by Fairbanks Morse. It should

be understood that these costs are approximate and will vary

considerably in different localities and under various conditions.

Oil Injection Engines.

Engines using low grade fuels such as kerosene, usually experience much

trouble in obtaining a proper mixture when the fuel is vaporized in an

external carbureter even when the carbureter is specially designed for

the heavy oil. This leads to fuel waste, starting troubles and cylinder

carbonization, to say nothing of the objections of an odorous, dirty

exhaust. To overcome the objections of carbureting the heavy oils it has

been common practice to inject or aspirate a small amount of water, the

water vapor tending to prevent the fuel from cracking and to distribute

the temperature more uniformly through the stroke. The injection of

water is not a particularly desirable feature, since its use involves

one more adjustment and possible source of trouble when running on

variable loads.

In the semi-Diesel engine the fuel is sprayed directly into the

combustion chamber by mechanical means, thus making the fuel supply to a

certain extent independent of atmospheric and temperature conditions.

After the injection the spray is vaporized both by the hot walls of the

combustion chamber and the heat of compression, the latter being

principally instrumental in causing the ignition of the gas. In this

case no electrical ignition devices are required, thus at one stroke

overcoming one of the principal objections to a gas engine.

Until recently the semi-Diesel engines were confined to units of rather

large size, the smallest being much larger than the engines usually used

on the farm. It is now possible, however, to obtain oil engines of the

fuel injection type in very small sizes, built especially for portable

or semi-portable service. Not only is it possible to use a cheaper grade

of fuel with this type of engine, but the fuel consumption is also less

than with the carbureting type. To this may be added the advantages of

an engine free from the troubles incident to the ignition and

carbureting systems.

Good results may be obtained with small injection engines on oils

running from kerosene (48 gravity) down to 28 gravity, the combustion in

all cases being complete and without excessive carbon deposits. Little

trouble is caused by variable loads as long as the speed is kept

constant. Compared with gasoline, the heavier fuels are much safer to

store and handle, owing to their high flash points.

The compression of the injection engine is much higher than the old

carbureting kerosene engine as the compression heat is used in a great

part to ignite the oil vapor. Usually the pressure is in excess of 150

pounds per square inch, the exact value being determined by the form of

the combustion chamber, whether a hot bulb is used, etc. The high

compression assists in increasing the economy of the engine.

Usually the piston either draws in a complete volume of pure air or

draws in pure air through the greater part of the induction stroke, the

spray either starting near the end of the suction stroke or during the

early part of the compression. When a hot bulb is used the oil spray

strikes the bulb forming vapor, the increasing compression caused by the

advancing piston furnishing the air for combustion and forces the

mixture into contact with the hot walls. Another type has no hot bulb,

the lighter constituents of the fuel being vaporized and ignited by the

compression alone, their inflammation serving to kindle the main, heavy

body of the oil. In some engines, the combustion of the light

constituents serves to spray the heavy oil through the valve and into

the combustion chamber. Details of several of the most prominent makes

of oil engines are described in an early chapter of this book.

As a rule, this class of oil engine does not run well when the speed is

varied through any great range, nor when governed by a throttling type

governor, since both of these conditions affect the compression. They

may be either of the two or four stroke cycle type, and when of the

latter they are much more successful than a two stroke cycle engine

using a carbureter.

On small engines the fuel consumption will run about 0.7 pint per brake

horsepower hour, this consumption decreasing on large engines to about

0.6 pint per brake horsepower hour or even less.

[Illustration:

Oil Injection Type. Injection pump P driven by eccentric E through

rods G-H draws oil from tank K through M-N and sprays it into

combustion chamber R through O-Q. Amount of oil sprayed is

controlled by fly-wheel governor W-W shifting E on shaft S, thus

varying stroke of P. Engine is started by heating R with torch U and

injecting first oil with hand lever I. A second pump supplies

constant level of oil to K, level being observed in glass L. C-C is

the cylinder, and F is the fly-wheel.

]

The accompanying diagram shows a diagram of a typical oil engine of the

injection type, a pump P supplying the oil from auxiliary tank to the

hot, extended combustion chamber R, this chamber being an extension of

the cylinder C-C. Oil is kept at a constant level in K by an overflow

pipe, the oil entering from the supply pump through pipe J, and entering

the pump through M at N. By gauge glass L, the operator can tell whether

he has a sufficient supply of oil.

The injection pump P is driven from the eccentric E (mounted on the main

shaft S) through the eccentric rod G and the rod H. The governor weights

W-W alter the amount of fuel supplied by changing the stroke of the

pump, thus keeping the speed constant under varying loads. The governor

acts by shifting E in relation to the shaft S, a spring T controlling

the throw of the governor. The entire governor mechanism is contained in

the fly-wheel F.

To start, the combustion chamber R is heated by the torch U, and after

thoroughly heated, the starting fuel is injected by means of the hand

lever I. This engine is of the two cycle type with scavenging air

furnished by crank-case compression.

(143) Construction of Gas Tractors.

A gas tractor may be considered as being simply a special application of

the gasoline or oil engine in which the engine drives the road wheels

through a train of gearing instead of driving its load by a belt from

the pulley. Four intermediate mechanisms must be provided between the

engine and the road wheels in order that the tractor may properly

perform its work. These devices are known as the “clutch,” the driving

gears, reverse gear and the “differential” gear. It should be understood

that these mechanisms do not change the construction or operation of the

engine in the slightest, and that the principles that apply to the

engines described in the previous chapters apply also to the engine of

the tractor. The following will briefly describe the functions of the

intermediate trains in their proper order, starting at the engine.

The Clutch.

A tractor is arranged to pull its load in two different ways, first by

the draw bar, as when pulling plows, and secondly by a belt from the

engine pulley as in driving a threshing machine or circular saw. In the

first case it is necessary to drive the road wheels through the gear

train, and in the second case it is necessary to disconnect the road

wheels while driving the thresher or saw. As the engine cannot be

started while under load it is also necessary to disconnect the road

wheels to free the engine while turning it over to get the first

explosion.

The device that connects and disconnects the engine from the road wheels

is known as the =CLUTCH=. This usually consists of two or more friction

surfaces that form a part of the driving gear, which may be brought into

frictional contact with the engine pulley, when it is necessary to drive

the road wheels. When the two members of the clutch are brought into

contact they revolve together, thus connecting the engine with the

driving gear.

Reverse Gears.

[Illustration:

The Reverse Gear of the “Big Four” Tractor.

]

As it is not practicable to reverse the direction of rotation of the gas

engine, the rotation of the road wheels is reversed by means of gears

contained in the driving train. In some tractors the reverse gears are

similar to those in an automobile, being located in the transmission. In

other tractors two bevel pinions are provided that fit loosely on the

engine shaft and engage with a large bevel wheel that forms part of the

driving gear. A sliding jaw clutch that revolves on the engine shaft is

arranged so that it can connect with either of the bevel pinions causing

them to rotate with the engine shaft and drive the main wheel. As the

two pinions are on opposite sides of the large bevel wheel, they run in

opposite directions in regard to it, so that it is possible to reverse

the large wheel by engaging the clutch with either one or the other of

the bevel pinions.

The Differential Gear.

The differential gear makes it possible to apply the same amount of

power to each of the road wheels, and also allows one wheel to rotate

faster than the other when turning around a corner. If both road wheels

were rigidly fastened to a single rotating axle it would be practically

impossible to turn a corner for it would be necessary for the engine to

slip one or the other of the wheels because of their difference in

speed, as the outer wheels turn faster than the inner.

[Illustration:

Differential Gear of the “Big Four” Tractor.

]

The Driving Gear.

The driving gear consists of a series of spur gears arranged for the

purpose of reducing the high speed and small “pull” of the motor into

the low speed and heavy pull of the road wheels. This reduction in speed

is generally brought about by a double system of shafts, the second

shaft from the motor carrying the differential gear and meshes directly

with the master gear on the bull wheel. The first shaft is an idler.

[Illustration:

Fig. 125. Fairbanks-Morse Oil Tractor, Showing General Layout.

]

[Illustration:

Fig. 126. Two Cylinder Engine of Fairbanks-Morse Oil Tractor.

]

(144) Fairbanks-Morse Oil Tractor.

The Fairbanks-Morse 30–60 Horse-power Oil Tractor gives an effective

draw bar pull of 9,000 pounds and develops over 60 horse-power at the

belt pulley which is more than sufficient to drive any farm machinery.

It will operate equally well on kerosene, distillate oils, and gasoline,

any of which will develop the rated horse-power. Two forward speeds and

one reverse are obtained by a gear transmission of the automobile type,

the forward speeds being 1¾ and 2½ miles per hour and the reverse 1¾

miles. Combined with the governor variation, it is possible to get the

proper speed for any kind of work.

The fuel is sprayed directly into the cylinder with a spray of water,

the proportion of water to oil being nearly equal at full load. As

explained in Chapter VII, the water spray aids in the combustion of the

heavier oils, eliminates soot and tarry deposits, and makes the engine

run more smoothly because of the reduction of the explosion pressure.

The spray also reduces the temperature of the cylinder and minimizes the

dangers of preignition. The engine is of the slow speed type running at

a normal speed of 375 revolutions per minute, and the two cylinders have

a bore and stroke of 10½ × 12 inches. The speed regulator supplied with

the engine gives an extreme variation of 300 to 375 R.P.M.

[Illustration:

Fig. 127. Fairbanks-Morse Tractor Transmission with Two Forward Speeds

and One Reverse.

]

The cylinders are cast two in a block which arrangement permits of the

bores being brought close together and gives an easy circulation of

cooling water. The value of this practice has been proved in automobile

work where a simple and rigid structure is absolutely necessary.

All of the valves are in the heads of the cylinder which eliminates heat

radiating pockets in the combustion chamber. Both the inlet and exhaust

valve are mechanically operated through substantial push rods and valve

rockers, and are completely surrounded by water. Large clean out holes

are provided in the separately cast cylinder head making it accessible

for the removal of scale and sediment. A single cylinder head serves for

both cylinders which contributes to easy cooling passages and a single

arrangement of exhaust and inlet piping. The valves are in cages bolted

to the cylinder head in such a way that they are easily removed for

inspection without disturbing the piping or connections.

The pistons are easily removed without taking the heads out of the

cylinder or taking down any shafting. The valve rocker arms are provided

with easily renewed bushings and grease cups. As the engine is of the

four stroke cycle type with both cylinders on the same side of the

crank-shaft, only a single throw crank shaft is used, which is without

intermediate bearings.

Dual ignition is used, the high tension magneto and the two unit spark

coils shown in Fig. 126 being independent of one another so that either

the magneto or battery can be used for starting or for continuous

operation. The magneto is mounted directly on the engine bed and is gear

driven from the crank shaft. The ignition advance and retard lever and

ignition switch are mounted on the engine in an accessible position. As

the coil is mounted on the engine the leads are short and the vibrators

are directly under the supervision of the operator.

Close speed regulation is maintained by a throttling type governor. The

voluntary speed variation used to slow the engine down to meet certain

conditions encountered in plowing is accomplished by a small lever

located at the end of the cylinders. The cooling water is circulated

through the cylinders by a gear driven centrifugal pump. From the

cylinders the water enters a closed radiator of the automobile type

located at the front of the traction where it is cooled without loss. A

nine feed, forced type oiler is used which supplies oil to the cylinders

and bearings, and also to the transmission gears. External bearings

which are subjected to dust are equipped with grease cups. The fuel pump

which takes its supply from an 80 gallon tank is in an accessible

position near the operator and is provided with a handle by which it is

operated when starting the engine.

The clutch which is located in the flywheel at the right of the engine

is operated by a lever on the footboard. All of the friction faces and

levers are arranged inside of the pulley so that they are not only

protected from injury but are prevented from tearing the belt should it

slip from the pulley face.

A powerful foot with a drum on the differential gear will hold the

outfit on a grade independent of the engine.

The transmission is of the shifting gear type with hardened steel gears.

The transmission gears are enclosed in a practically dust proof case,

this being connected with enclosed crank case and better providing for

air displacement of the pistons. Power is transmitted to the truck

through the clutch on the left hand side of the engine, which is

operated by combined clutch and shifting lever on the footboard. This

lever has an interlocking device, arranged so that it is impossible for

the operator to shift the gears before the clutch is disengaged, or to

engage the clutch until the gears are completely in mesh. It is also

impossible to get two sets of gearing in mesh at one time and prevents

any possibility of stripping gears by applying the load on the corners

of the teeth.

The drive wheels are 78″ diameter, 30″ face. These give a very large

bearing on the ground which is particularly desirable when using the

engine for cultivating or seeding on plowed ground. The front wheels are

48″ in diameter, 14″ face. The wheel base is long and engine is easy to

guide. The drive wheels are covered by a metal housing which protects

the operator and the working parts of the engine from dust and mud.

This engine gives a drawbar pull on low gear of 9,000 lbs., which will

haul from 8 to 12–14″ plows, according to the character of the plowing.

The hitch is placed about 18″ above the ground and consists of a heavy

bar extending approximately to the middle of the bull wheels on each

side, thus providing for hitching the load most satisfactorily.

(145) The Rumely “Oil Pull” Tractor.

The Rumely oil-pull tractor is driven by a two cylinder, four stroke

cycle oil engine, having a bore and stroke of 10 × 12 inches giving 30

tractive horse-power and 60 horse-power at the pulley. The cylinders are

cast single and are provided with independent heads. The pistons are

easily removed by unbolting the cylinder heads and the crank end of the

connecting rod, after which operation they may be pulled out upon the

platform. The exhaust and inlet valves are in easily removable cages

placed on either side of the cylinder. The stems of the valves are at

right angles to the bore of the cylinder and open directly into the

combustion chamber without pockets or extensions to the chamber.

A bell crank rocker arm acts on the valve stems which in turn is

actuated through a push rod that extends from the cam-shaft in the crank

chamber. The cam-shaft, rocker arms, valves, and half time gears are

clearly shown by Fig. 128. The housings of the inlet valves connect

directly with the special kerosene carburetor made by the Rumely

Company. The Higgins carburetor used on these engines is very simple and

effective in vaporizing the heavier fuels and has no springs nor

internal mechanism to get out of order. The carburetor is controlled

directly from the governor which regulates the air, water and kerosene

required for the combustion, and has no manual adjustments that need

attention from the operator. A constant flow of kerosene and water is

maintained through the carburetor by means of force pumps, the level in

the device being kept constant by overflow pipes through which the

excess returns to the supply tanks.

[Illustration:

Fig. 128. Phantom View of the Rumely “Oil Pull” Engine.

]

As in nearly all types of low compression, or carbureting oil engines,

the Rumely engine receives an injection of water in the cylinder to aid

the combustion and cooling, and to reduce the initial pressure of the

explosion. While the initial pressure is reduced by the water vapor, and

with it the strain on the engine, the mean effective pressure is

increased because of the absorption of heat from the walls and the more

perfect combustion. The only moving part in the carburetor is a single

plate controlled by the governor which is produced with one or more air

passages. The governor that operates this valve is driven by gears and

regulates the speed by throttling the charge. The speed of the engine

can be varied from 300 to 400 revolutions per minute while the engine is

running.

[Illustration:

Fig. 129. Higgins Oil Carburetor.

]

In this engine it is a very simple matter to remove the crank-case cover

and the cylinder heads and expose the whole of the working mechanism of

the engine.

After removing the cylinder heads and without changing his position, the

operator can examine, clean, and, if necessary, regrind the valves. Also

without changing position the operator can control his reverse

transmission gears, friction clutch for starting the tractor. He is also

in reach of the ignition apparatus, governor carburetor and oiler.

The crank case is cast in one piece. The bearings are cast integral with

the crank case, and are fitted with interchangeable, adjustable,

babbitted shells. Binder caps hold the bearings together and keep the

babbitted shells securely in position. The design permits removal of

binder caps for examination of crank shaft bearings without distributing

the adjustment. The crank case is secured to tractor frame by well

fitted bolts, thereby avoiding annoyance from loose bolts and nuts.

The crank case is covered with a sheet steel lid that shuts out all dust

and dirt. This cover can easily be removed at any time by simply

unscrewing the bolts that hold it in place. It is constructed with this

cover on top instead of on the side or end, which permits of easy access

to any working parts in the crank case.

[Illustration:

Fig. 130. Rumely Oil Pull Tractor.

]

To further facilitate the accessibility to working parts in the crank

case, a secondary cover is provided which can be removed in a couple of

minutes. This opening is large enough to allow the operator to reach any

point within the crank case.

All cams are key-seated upon the cam shaft with double key-seats, which

absolutely prevent any possibility of slipping or alteration in the

timing of the engine. The exhaust and intake valves are mechanically

operated. The valves are constructed with steel stem, nickel-steel

heads, the whole being highly finished.

Valve cages are oil cooled, thereby eliminating all possibility of the

valves overheating or warping. The valves themselves can be removed by

simply unscrewing the connection. The engine is provided with a set of

relief cams by which the compression can be relieved—this greatly

facilitates the starting of the engine.

The piston is equipped with five self-expanding rings. Connecting rod is

of drop-forged steel construction. Crank-pin bearings are made in halves

and lined with shells of special metal.

A combination of mechanical force feed and splash lubrication is

employed. Six force feed tubes enter the crank case, on to each bearing,

and two tubes force oil into the cylinder. The crank case contains two

gallons of oil and is arranged so that any surplus may be drawn off

immediately. The lubricator has a gauge glass that shows the quantity of

oil supplied at all times, and which is always in view of the operator.

A make and break system (low tension) furnishes the ignition spark,

which is supplied with current by a Bosch low tension magneto under

normal running conditions, and a battery for starting and for use when

the magneto fails. The magneto is of course gear driven so that its

armature has a fixed relation with the piston position. The igniters of

either cylinder may be easily removed for examination by simply

unscrewing two nuts.

Oil is used as a medium for carrying heat from the cylinder walls to the

radiator. In the construction of the cooler the company have followed

new principles, thus accomplishing the desired result with a minimum

amount of metal and liquid. There is no surplus of liquid, just enough

oil being used to fill the cylinder jackets, radiator and circulation

pipes. The oil is kept in a constant flow from the cylinders to the

radiator and back to the cylinders by a large pump which is driven by a

chain direct from the crank shaft. The radiator is self-contained and

will hold the oil for an indefinite period.

The radiator is composed of a number of sections of pressed galvanized

steel. Oil circulates freely within the sections and the air is drawn

round the outside. There is a constant flow of oil inside and a constant

current of air outside.

The engine is provided with a smooth-working, efficient friction clutch,

which is easily handled by a platform lever and with little exertion on

the part of the operator. The toggle bolts are adjustable so that any

wear in the blocks can be taken up.

The clutch and brake are so connected that when the clutch is thrown out

the brake is immediately applied and when thrown in the brake is

released.

The various movements of the valves and the ignition mechanism on the

face of the flywheel, are marked so that one can check up the timing of

the engine. By bringing any one of these marks to coincide with the

stationary pointer attached to the side of the crank case, one can

easily ascertain whether the adjustments and the timing are exact.

The crank shaft is supported by two end, and one intermediate bearing,

the latter bearing being placed between the two throws of the crank

shaft. As the two cylinders are placed on the same side of the crank

shaft, the two throws are also on the same side of the shaft and to

balance these throws cast iron counter weights are bolted on the bottom

of the crank arms. The bearings are exceptionally long, the total length

of the three bearings amounting to more than half the length between the

outer ends of the bearings.

The frame of the tractor consists of four twelve inch “I” beams securely

riveted together with intermediate channel stiffeners. The cast steel

bearings are riveted to the frame so that the whole construction is one

unyielding mass. The bearings are in halves which makes the removal of

the shafts an easy task.

With the exception of the differential and master gears all of the gears

are cut out of semi steel blanks. The fly wheel has a face of 11 inches,

and a diameter of 36 inches.

(146) The “Big Four” Tractor.

The Big Four tractor differs from the majority of tractors in having a

four cylinder vertical type motor of 30 tractive and 60 brake

horse-power capacity. The cylinders have a bore of 6½ inches and a

stroke of 8 inches. The engine runs at the comparatively high speed of

450 revolutions per minute. Gasoline is used for fuel, and is vaporized

in a conventional type of jet carburetor.

Both the inlet and the exhaust valves are placed in a pocket at one side

of the cylinder making what is known as an “L” engine. The cylinders and

the heads are cast in one piece, doing away with points between the

cylinders and heads. The pistons and connecting rods may be removed

without disturbing the cylinders or their connections by pulling them

out through hand holes in the base of the crank case.

The four throw crank shaft is provided with five bearings, these

intermediate bearings between the throws and two end bearings in the

case. The interior working parts of the motor are lubricated by the

splash system with a positive forced feed oiler. The splash pools can be

adjusted at a minute’s notice so that any desired oil level can be

obtained. Grease cups provide the lubrication for all bearings outside

of the motor.

Water is circulated by a direct driven centrifugal pump, and as the

cooling water is in a closed system the same water is used over and over

again without much loss, a bucketful or so a day being an ample supply.

The tubular radiator situated in the front of the tractor is provided

with a cooling fan that is driven from the engine in a manner similar to

automobile practice. A high tension magneto is gear driven from the cam

shaft, and is mounted on a rocking bracket so that the armature is

advanced and retarded as well as the circuit breaker.

[Illustration:

Fig. 131. Views of the Four Cylinder Motor of the “Big Four” Tractor.

Note the Massive Construction Compared with Automobile Practice.

]

An internal expanding clutch connects the motor with the driving gear by

operating on the inner run of the fly-wheel. The motion of the engine is

transmitted to an intermediate reversing device through bevel gears,

this being necessary for the reason that the crank-shaft runs “fore and

aft,” or parallel to the length of the tractor. A double acting jaw

clutch engages with either one or the other of a pair of bevel pinions

that run in opposite directions. Motion from the reverse gear is

transmitted directly to the different shaft, and from there it is

transmitted to the master gears on the bull wheels. The differential

shaft is in one piece.

[Illustration:

“Big Four,” Four Cylinder Tractor Motor.

]

[Illustration:

Showing the Position of Engine on “Big Four” Tractor.

]

The main driving wheels are very large when compared with the wheels of

an ordinary tractor, for they are eight feet in diameter and are

proportionately broad. This no doubt gives splendid tractive effect in

soft and uneven fields and must save the machine from “stalling” under

adverse conditions. Another unusual feature is the automatic steering

device used in plowing. This device consists of a long tubular boom that

is fastened to the swiveled front axle of the tractor and a small wheel

fastened to the outer end of the boom. The small wheel rolls in the next

furrow and compels the tractor to plow in a line parallel to it. This

steers the tractor more accurately than would be possible by hand and at

the same time enables one man to operate both the engine and the plows.

[Illustration:

The “Case” Gas Tractor.

]

Cost of Gas Engine Operation (American).

═══════════════════════════╤═════════════════════╤═════════════════════

│ GAS PRODUCER PLANT. │ NATURAL-GAS ENGINE.

│ │

│ Three- Half │ Three- Half

│Load. quarter Load. │Load. quarter Load.

│ Load. │ Load.

───────────────────────────┼─────────────────────┼─────────────────────

1 Fuel per hp-hour │ 1.25 1.5 1.8 │10 cu. 12 cu. 15 cu

│ lb. lb. │ ft. ft. ft.

2 Fuel per hp-year (4,500 │ 2.5 3.6 │45,000 54,000 67,500

hours) │ tons 3 tons tons │ cu. cu. ft. cu.

│ │ ft. ft.

3 Cost of fuel │ $4.00 per ton │ 30 cents per 1,000

│ │ cu. ft.

4 Cost of fuel per year │$10.00 $12.00 $14.40│$13.50 $16.26 $20.25

5 Cost of attendance per │ 0.40 cent │ 0.25 cent

hp-hour │ │

6 Cost of attendance per │ $18.00 │ $11.25

year │ │

7 Lubricating oil per │ 0.006 pint │ 0.006 pint

hp-hour │ │

8 Cost of oil per year at │ $0.84 │ $0.84

25 cents per gal. │ │

9 Scrubber and cooling │ 8 gals. │ 5 gals.

water per hp-hour │ │

10 Cost of water per year │ │

at 30 cents per 1,000 │ $1.44 │ 0.90

cubic feet │ │

11 Operating expenses; │$30.28 $32.28 $34.68│$26.49 $29.19 $34.24

items, 4, 6, 8 and 10 │ │

12 Saving by Diesel engine │ 5.43 6.47 7.90 │ 1.64 3.39 6.56

13 Interest, depreciation │ │

and maintenance │ 6 + 7 + 2 = 15% │ 6 + 7 + 2 = 15%

respectively in per │ │

cent of investment │ │

14 Assuming $80 initial │ │

cost per hp. the │ $12.00 │ $12.00

yearly fixed charges │ │

will be │ │

───────────────────────────┴─────────────────────┴─────────────────────

│ LOW-PRESSURE OIL │ DIESEL ENGINE.

│ ENGINE. │

│ Three- Half │ Three- Half

│Load. quarter Load. │Load. quarter Load.

│ Load. │ Load.

1 Fuel per hp-hour │1 lb. 1.25 1.60 │ 0.50 0.55 0.60

│ lb. lb. │ lb. lb. lb.

2 Fuel per hp-year (4,500 │ 643 803.5 1028.5│321.5 353.5 386

hours) │gals. gals. gals. │gals. gals. gals.

│ │

3 Cost of fuel │ 3 cents per gallon │ 3 cents per gallon

│ │

4 Cost of fuel per year │$19.30 $24.10 $30.85│$9.65 $10.60 $11.58

5 Cost of attendance per │ 0.25 cent │ 0.30 cent

hp-hour │ │

6 Cost of attendance per │ $11.25 │ $13.50

year │ │

7 Lubricating oil per │ 0.006 pint │ 0.007 pint

hp-hour │ │

8 Cost of oil per year at │ $0.84 │ $0.98

25 cents per gal. │ │

9 Scrubber and cooling │ 5 gals. │ 4 gals.

water per hp-hour │ │

10 Cost of water per year │ │

at 30 cents per 1,000 │ 0.90 │ 0.72

cubic feet │ │

11 Operating expenses; │$32.29 $37.09 $43.84│$24.85 $25.80 $26.78

items, 4, 6, 8 and 10 │ │

12 Saving by Diesel engine │ 7.44 11.29 17.06 │ ... ... ...

13 Interest, depreciation │ │

and maintenance │ 6 + 7 + 2 = 15% │ 6 + 10 + 3 = 19%

respectively in per │ │

cent of investment │ │

14 Assuming $80 initial │ │

cost per hp. the │ $12.00 │ $15.00

yearly fixed charges │ │

will be │ │

From a Paper Read Before the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

CHAPTER XIV

THE STEAM TRACTOR

(147) The Steam Tractor.

The steam tractor consists of the following elements, which will take up

in detail under separate headings.

(1) Engine proper, consisting of the cylinder, piston, valve motion,

guides, crank, fly wheel, etc.

(2) Boiler—with the grates, burners, etc.

(3) Feed pump or injector.

(4) Feed water heater.

(5) Driving gear, differential, clutch, etc.

As in the case of the gas tractor, the machine consists simply of a

steam engine and its boiler that drive the road wheels of the tractor

through a gear train. With the steam tractor the gearing is simplified

as the reverse is performed by the engine’s valve motion, and not

through gearing. There is no need of speed changing transmission gears

in the steam tractor as the engine is sufficiently flexible to provide

an innumerable number of speeds by simple throttle control.

While the fuel most commonly used is coal, straw and wood, crude oil is

often used, the fuel being determined principally by the location of the

engine, and by its cost on the job. The matter of fuel should be taken

into consideration when the engine is purchased as the different grades

demand different fire box and boiler construction. When it is possible

to obtain crude oil at a reasonable figure, it certainly should be used

in preference to all others as liquid fuel is the most compact, most

easily controlled, and efficient of any. The subject of oil burners is

taken up later in this chapter, a number of types of which are clearly

illustrated.

(148) The Cylinder and Slide Valve.

The steam engine cylinder consists essentially of a smoothly bored iron

casting in which a plunger called the “piston” slides to and fro, the

cylinder acting not only as a container for the steam acting on the

piston but as a guide and support as well. Needless to say, the contact

or fit between the piston and cylinder walls must be as perfect as

possible, tight enough to prevent steam passing the piston, and free

enough to allow the piston to slide without unnecessary friction. The

reciprocating piston is connected to the crank through a connecting rod

by which the pressure on the piston is communicated to the crank arm.

The pressure exerted on the crank pin by the piston depends on the area

of the piston (in square inches) and the pressure of the steam on each

square inch of the area. With a given steam pressure, the greater the

area, the greater the force tending to turn the crank. As power is the

rate or distance through which the force acts in a unit of time it is

obvious that the power developed by the engine is equal (in foot pounds)

to the force in pounds multiplied by the velocity of the piston in feet

per minute. Since there are 33,000 foot pound minutes in a horse-power,

the power developed by such a cylinder is equal to the force multiplied

by the piston velocity, divided by 33,000.

[Illustration]

As the cylinder is necessarily limited in length it is evident that the

piston cannot travel in one direction continuously but must be reversed

in direction when it travels the length of the cylinder bore thereby

traveling the next distance in the opposite direction. This reversal of

the piston is accomplished by admitting the steam in one end of the

cylinder and then into the other, this causing the steam to act on the

opposite sides of the piston alternately. To establish a difference of

pressure on the two piston forces, the steam pressure is relieved on one

side while the steam acts on the other.

A typical cylinder furnished with the ordinary steam tractor is shown by

Fig. 133, in which T is the cylinder, P the piston and R is the piston

rod. When the steam in the cylinder end E acts in the direction shown by

arrow E, the piston pulls the rod R in the direction shown by arrow S,

the pressure in the cylinder end D being relieved to atmospheric at this

time. The steam is admitted and relieved by the valve L which slides

back and forth on its seat actuated by the valve rod VR.

In the position shown, the valve L is moving to the left as shown by

arrow O. The edge of the valve N is just opening the steam port G

through which the cylinder end F is placed in communication with the

steam filled valve chest A. Steam at boiler pressure fills the space A,

which flows into E past N and through G when the valve opens and

establishes pressure against P, which, through the piston and connecting

rods turns the crank.

The steam is exhausted from the cylinder end D, through the port F,

through the exhaust port U, and out of the exhaust pipe X. As will be

seen from the figure, the inside valve edge Y has moved to the left so

that the port F is fully opened. When the piston reaches the left hand

end of the cylinder, the valve L moves to the right so that the end of

the cylinder E is connected to the exhaust port V through the cylinder

port G, thus allowing the steam in the space E to pass out of the

exhaust pipe X. A further movement of the valve to the right causes the

left edge Z of the valve to uncover the cylinder port F which allows the

steam to flow into the cylinder space D and push the piston to the

right. This motion is carried on continuously, the valve moving in a

fixed relation to the piston, and admits the steam and releases it first

on one side of the piston and then on the other. The valve shown is

known as a “D” valve and is one of a variety of valves furnished with

steam engines, which, however perform exactly the same functions as the

valve shown.

An “eccentric” which is really a form of crank, drives the valve to and

fro, the eccentric being fastened to the crankshaft. The full pressure

of the steam forces the D valve down on its seat, and as the valve is of

considerable size, this pressure causes much friction and power loss. In

some engines a “balanced” valve is used in which the pressure on the

valve is balanced by an equal pressure that acts on the under side of

the valve face. Balanced or unbalanced, the function of the slide is to

alternate the flow of steam in the two ends of the cylinder.

Steam is prevented from passing the piston into the opposite end of the

cylinder by elastic rings placed in grooves on the piston which are

known as “piston rings.” Being thin and elastic these rings instantly

conform with any irregularity of the piston bore and effectually stop

the flow of steam past them. At the point where the reciprocating piston

rod R passes through the cylinder, a steam tight joint is made by the

“stuffing box” or gland H. The space between the inner walls of the

stuffing box and the piston rod are either filled with some description

of fibrous packing or a metallic packing that fits around the rod in the

same manner that the piston rings fit in the bore of the cylinder. The

packing is arranged around the valve rod VR in the same manner.

As the piston, piston rod, and valve slide on their respective surfaces

with considerable pressure it is absolutely necessary that these parts

receive ample lubrication. In practically all engines the oil is taken

into the cylinder with the steam in the form of drops, the oil being

measured out by a sight feed lubricator that is tapped into the steam

supply pipe. In this device, the oil from the lubricator reservoir is

fed through a regulating needle valve, drop by drop, up through a gauge

glass so that the engineer can tell the amount of oil that he is

feeding. The body of the lubricator is filled with condensed water up to

the level of the outlet through which the oil passes into the cylinder,

and the entire lubricator, reservoir and all is under boiler pressure at

all points. The oil regulating valve is placed at the bottom of the

lubricator, and as oil is lighter than water, it floats up from the

valve to the level of the outlet, through the gauge glass, and from the

outlet level floats out into the steam pipe and mixes with the steam. By

floating the oil in this manner, the engineer can see every drop that is

fed.

(149) Expansion of Steam.

In order to reduce the amount of steam used, the valve does not allow

the steam to follow the piston at full boiler pressure through the

entire stroke, but cuts it off at a certain point after the piston has

started on its travel. As the volume of the steam is increased by the

further travel of the piston after the point of cut-off, the steam

expands in volume until the end of the stroke is reached, at which point

the pressure is naturally much below the initial or boiler pressure.

This reduction in temperature and pressure results in a wider working

temperature range than would be the case with the steam following the

piston throughout the stroke, and as the steam is exhausted to

atmosphere at a temperature much lower than that of the boiler steam,

much less heat is carried out through the exhaust. As a general rule,

the most economical point of cut-off is at ¼ of the stroke. Engines

requiring more steam than is supplied at ¼ cut-off in order to carry the

load, are too highly taxed for efficient results. Since the most

efficient point of cut-off is only ¼ of the possible steam travel it is

evident that an engine can carry a load much greater than that for which

it is rated, but it is also evident that this increased capacity is

gained at the expense operating economy. Wear and tear on the engine

parts are also duly increased.

[Illustration:

Fig. 134. Case Steam Tractor.

]

(150) Speed Regulation.

On steam tractors a constant speed is maintained by “throttling” the

steam, to meet the demands of the load by partially restricting the flow

of steam at light loads and opening the inlet at full load. The valve

that controls the steam for the different loads is controlled by a

“governor” which depends on the centrifugal force exerted by two

fly-balls. The balls, or weights are hinged to a revolving spindle,

driven by the engine, in such manner that an increase of speed tends to

straighten out and revolve in a more nearly horizontal plane. The amount

of travel of the balls for a given speed increase, is governed by a

spring, which returns them to a vertical position when the speed

decreases. By means of a simple system of levers, the valve is closed

when the balls fly out, due to an increase of speed, and is opened when

the speed decreases, so that the engine will receive the steam at a

higher pressure and again build up its speed to normal. As the load

fluctuates, the balls are constantly moving up and down, seeking a valve

position that will keep the engine at a constant speed.

Speed variation is generally accomplished by increasing or decreasing

the tension of the spring that controls the travel of the governor fly

balls, and in the majority of engines this may be done without stopping

the engine.

Another form of governor used extensively on stationary engines controls

the speed by increasing or decreasing the cut-off. Thus with a heavy

load the cut-off may occur at ½ the stroke while with a very light load

it may be at 1/10 stroke. This is by far the most sensitive and

economical form of governor, but on account of the reverse gear it is

difficult to apply it on a tractor.

(151) Reverse Gear.

As explained under “Cylinders” the travel of the valve bears a definite

relation to the piston position so that the ports may be opened and

closed at the proper times. It may be shown by a rather complicated

diagram that this relation of the valve together with that of the

eccentric that drives it is only correct for one direction of rotation.

For any other direction of rotation the relation of the valve and piston

position must be changed. This may be done in several ways but the most

common types are the Stevenson Link and the Wolff slotted yoke.

The Stevenson link motion used on the majority of engines, consists of

two independent eccentrics, one being fixed in the relation for forward

motion and the other for the reverse direction. The ends of the

eccentric rods leading from these eccentrics are connected by a slotted

bar or link, in which a block is placed that is connected with the valve

rod. The block is free to slide in the slot of the links, that is, it

may be moved from one end of the slot to the other. When it is desired

to have the engine rotate in a right handed direction, for example, the

link is lowered so that the rod from the forward eccentric is brought

directly in line with the block so that this eccentric alone acts

directly on the valve through the valve stem. When the reverse is

desired the link is raised until the rod from the reverse eccentric is

brought in line with the block and valve stem, drive being by the

reverse eccentric.

When the block is on the link in a position between the two points

mentioned, the valve has less travel and it cuts off earlier in the

stroke than when driven directly by one eccentric, for the motion at an

intermediate point on the link is much different than at the ends of the

slots. This fact is taken advantage of in operating engines with the

idea of economy in view, and is known commonly as “hooking up” the

engine. The best point at which to “hook up” the engine is best

determined by experiment, and is equivalent in many respects to the

problem of advancing and retarding the spark of a gas engine. We

earnestly advise an engineer of a traction engine to take up this

subject and determine the best point of cut-off for different loads as

he will find that different positions make a considerable difference in

his coal bill. Of course the proper way is to determine this point with

a steam engine indicator, but as few engineers have such an appliance,

the work is generally of the cut and try order. Wear and varying

adjustment soon change the points marked on the reverse sector, and for

economy’s sake these points should be checked occasionally.

In the Wolff motion, a single eccentric is used for both directions of

rotation, in connection with a slotted link. A single eccentric is

securely keyed to the crank shaft. The eccentric strap has an extended

arm which is pivoted to a block that slides back and forth in a curved

guide. The angle at which the guide stands with the horizontal

determines the direction of rotation, the angle being changed by the

reverse lever. The degree of the angle made by the block also determines

the point of cut-off. This is a very efficient and simple valve gear.

Guides and Cross-Head.

The outer end of the piston rod is supported by a sliding block known as

the “cross-head” which in turn is supported by the guides. An

oscillating rod called the “connecting rod” connects the reciprocating

cross-head with the crank pin, this rod is used in the same way as the

connecting rod of the gas engine except that it is connected to the

cross-head instead of the piston.

Clutch.

The clutch affords a means of connecting and disconnecting the driving

wheels and engine shaft. It is usually of the friction type described

under “Gas Tractors.” By releasing the clutch the engine is disconnected

from the driving gear so that the tractor remains stationary while the

engine is driving a load through the belt.

Use of the Exhaust Steam.

The exhaust from the cylinders is used in two ways, first to create a

draft for the fire, and second to heat the feed water pumped into the

boiler. The draft is increased by exhausting a portion of the steam into

a nozzle placed directly under the stack. The friction of the steam on

the surrounding air, draws the air with it, forming a partial vacuum

over the grate at each puff, and in this way it causes additional air to

rush through the fuel and increases the temperature of the combustion.

As the load increases the “puffs” increase in intensity due to the

greater terminal pressure and the fire is accelerated in proportion.

This is a simple but rather expensive way of increasing the draft.

A considerable proportion of the heat in the exhaust steam is saved by

using it to heat the feed water supplied to the boiler. Besides the

saving in fuel, affected by heating the water from steam that would

otherwise be thrown away, the strains on the boiler due to the injection

of cold water are greatly decreased as the difference between the

temperatures of the boiling water in the boiler and the hot feed water

are much less than in the former case.

The feed water heater consists essentially of a series of tubes in a

cylindrical shell. The tubes are surrounded on the outside by the feed

water, and are filled with the exhaust steam which passes from end to

end through the tubes. The hot water is pumped from the heater into the

boiler. An efficient feed water heater adds greatly to the steaming

capacity of the boiler.

(152) Feed Pump.

A small steam pump is furnished for pumping the water into the boiler.

This device consists of a small steam cylinder connected directly with

the pump plunger and is absolutely independent of the main engine so

that it can be used whether the engine is running or not. The exhaust of

the pump should be turned into the feed water heater when the engine is

not running so as to heat the water, but should be directed to

atmosphere when the main exhaust is passing through the heater. An

injector is usually supplied with the engine for feeding the boiler in

emergencies.

The injector forces water into the boiler by means of a steam jet which

is arranged so that a high velocity is imparted to the water in the

injector nozzle by the condensation of the steam furnished by the jet.

In this way water is pumped into the boiler against a pressure that is

equal to the pressure of the steam acting on the water. Except for a

check valve there are no moving parts. No feed water heater connection

is made with the injector for this device raises the temperature of the

feed to a considerable temperature. The temperature is not as high,

however, as the temperature of the water from the feed water heater and

pump, and because of the comparatively low temperature coupled with the

fact that live steam is used in heating the injector water, it is not an

economical method of pumping.

(153) The Boiler.

As the boilers of traction engines sustain the pull and vibration of the

engine as well as the stresses due to traveling over rough roads in

addition to the steam pressure strains, they must be made very

substantially and of the best materials. The service of the boiler on a

traction engine is very different from that met with in stationary or

locomotive practice for the tractor seldom receives the attention that

is given to the other types and as it goes bumping over the fields with

the water whacking at every joint and the engine rushing and surging at

every little grade, it receives an “endurance” test every moment of its

existence.

A boiler should show an inspection pressure considerably in excess of

that which it is intended to carry. It should be well stayed and braced,

and should be suspended from the road wheels in such a way as to be

relieved from as much strain as possible. No transverse seams should be

permitted, and the barrel should be well reinforced at the point where

the front bolster is attached as well as at points where pipe

connections are tapped into the shell. No large bolts should be tapped

into the steam or water space. The tubes should be placed so that they

may be easily withdrawn or cleaned. The location of the hand holes and

washout holes is also an important item, for inaccessible hand-holes are

an abomination.

Boiler lagging or covering is intended to reduce the heat loss by

radiation, and for this reason it should be of a good insulating

material and should be thick enough to be effective. The cost of

jacketing is more than covered by the saving in coal, especially in cold

weather.

A straw-burning fire box differs from a coal burner in having a fire

brick arch and a shorter grate, and in having a special chute on the

fire door for feeding the straw into the furnace. After a short time,

the fire brick arch becomes incandescent, keeping the firebox

temperature constant and producing perfect combustion of the tarry

vapors distilled from the straw. A trap door is provided on the straw

chute which automatically keeps the outside air from chilling the fire.

(154) Oil-Burning Steam Tractors.

As with the straw-burning furnace, a brick arch is used in burning oil

for the purpose of preventing fractional distillation of the oil during

the combustion. In some forms of oil furnaces a brick checker-work is

used that provides a much greater surface to the gases than the ordinary

firebrick arch and therefore keeps a steadier temperature and pressure.

Broken firebrick in the furnace placed in heaps with a rather porous

formation is also an aid to combustion. With very heavy oils a jet of

steam in the firebox is of great assistance in consuming the free carbon

of the fuel (soot).

The oil in practically all cases is atomized or is broken up into a very

finely subdivided state by the action of a jet of steam. The finer this

subdivision the better will be the combustion for the oil particles will

be brought into more intimate contact with the air. Provision is also

made in the burner for either whirling or stirring the oil vapor with

the air so that a rapidly burning mixture is formed. In other respects

the oil burning engine is the same as the coal or wood burner.

(155) Care of the Steam Tractor.

During the idle season, the engine should be well housed, all bright

parts slushed with grease and the whole engine carefully covered with

tarpaulins. A tractor is an expensive machine and should be given care,

or it will rapidly depreciate and start giving trouble. When one

considers the abuse and neglect given farm machinery it is remarkable

that it will work at all, let alone give efficient service.

[Illustration:

Small Fairbanks-Morse Motor Driving Binder.

]

Before starting a new engine or one that has been idle for a

considerable time, all of the bearings and lubricating should be

thoroughly cleaned with kerosene oil, removing all grit or gum. After

cleaning, they should be thoroughly oiled with the proper grade of

lubricant and then adjusted for the correct running fit, taking care

that the bearings and wedges are not taken up too tight, nor too many

shims are taken out. Be sure that the openings in the lubricating cups

and oil pipes are not clogged and that oil holes in the bearing bushings

feed gauge glasses, the glasses should be cleaned with gasoline and all

of the joints repacked with new packing.

Careful attention should be paid to the piston rod and valve rod packing

taking care that it is only tight enough to prevent the leakage of steam

and no greater. Excessively tight packing burns out rapidly, scores and

shoulders the piston rod, making it impossible to keep the joint tight.

When rods are badly scored they should be trued up in the lathe taking

care not to take off too much metal on the finishing cut. When renewing

fibrous packing be sure that all of the old packing is removed before

placing the new packing in the box. Keep the packing well lubricated at

all times to prevent wear, and in some cases it will be advisable to add

an oil cup to the stuffing box to insure sufficient lubrication.

Go over the valve gear and make sure that there is no looseness or play

in the eccentrics or pins, and that all of the bolts and keys are tight

and in place. Loose connections in the valve gear are not only

productive of knocks and wear but also tend to increase the fuel

consumption of the engine. When possible, indicator cards should be

taken at intervals to make sure that the valves are correctly set. In a

test recently made by the author, the indicator cards showed a defective

setting due to wear, that when corrected saved the owner of the engine

about 600 pounds of coal per day, and as the coal cost $9.50 per ton

delivered in the field, the saving soon paid for the expense of the

test. Points of adjustment are provided on all valve gears, and as they

differ in detail for each engine we cannot give explicit directions for

settling the valves, but will leave this point for the direction book of

the maker.

The governor and governor belt should now receive attention making sure

that there are no loose points or nuts in the mechanism and that the

governor belt is in good condition. Defective governor belts are

dangerous through the possibility of over speeding. Slipping or oily

belts not only increase the chances of fly-wheel explosions, but also

cause a fluctuation in the speed which is not desirable especially in

threshing, where good results are obtained only by a constant speed.

Make sure that the safety lever works properly and shuts off the steam

with a loose or broken belt. Test the governor valve stem for sticking

or for rough shots that are likely to cause uneven running. Keep the

governor well lubricated with light oil, and keep the oil off the belt

as much as possible. Governor valve should be carefully tested for

tightness and freedom.

The throttle valve must be absolutely steam tight for a leaking valve is

a dangerous proposition especially in stopping the engine. It is

generally arranged so that it can be reground with pumice stone or

crocus powder and oil. If the valve is of bronze or brass do not use

emery or carborundum for the particles will become imbedded in the soft

metal and put it in a worse condition than ever. Pack the valve stem.

A leaking slide valve is the cause of much loss of power, and waste of

coal, and as the leakage mingles directly with the exhaust, it often

remains unknown until it has thrown away a considerable quantity of

fuel. It is best detected by blocking the engine with the piston at

mid-stroke and opening the throttle valve slightly. If the cylinder

drain cocks are now opened, the leaking steam that escapes into the

cylinder will be seen issuing from the drains. The leakage that passes

into the exhaust will be seen escaping from the stack while it is

practically impossible to have the valves absolutely tight at all times,

the steam should not escape so rapidly that it roars through the

openings. Leakage past the piston is another source of loss that can be

detected by blocking the engine so that the piston is very near, one end

of the stroke, with the valve opening one of the cylinder ports. Any

steam that passes the piston will pass out of the exhaust. With an old

engine it is likely that the cylinder is worn oval, or that the valve

seat is grooved or uneven, in which case it will be necessary to rebore

the cylinder and fit new piston rings or reface the valve seat. Broken

piston rings are often the source of leakage, and if not replaced with

new at an early date, are likely to destroy the cylinder bore as well.

Broken rings generally make themselves known by a wheezing click when

the engine is running.

The steam feed pump should be well lubricated with a good grade of

cylinder oil and should be well packed around the piston rod especially

at the water end. To guard against pump troubles a good strainer should

be provided on the water suction line to prevent the entrance of sticks

and dirt into the cylinder. Great care should be exercised in keeping

the suction line air tight, for if any air escapes into this line no

water will be lifted. Dirt under the valves is the cause of much pump

trouble, as a very small particle of dirt will allow the water to pass

in both directions through the valves. Leaking packing will also destroy

the vacuum in one end of the cylinder. For the best results the pump

should be run slowly but continuously, feeding a small amount of water

at one time. This method of feeding allows the feed water heater to

bring the water up to the highest possible temperature which reduces the

fuel consumption and reduces the strains on the boiler. It is a bad

policy to let the water get low in the boiler and then “ram” full of

cold water in a couple of minutes. Attention should be paid to the check

valve that is located between the pump and boiler. It should be kept

clean and the valve kept tight and in good condition.

When the feed water is hard a boiler compound should be used to reduce

the amount of scale in the boiler or soften it and make its removal

easier. Scale of 1/16 inch thickness will decrease the efficiency of the

boiler by 12%, and this loss increases rapidly with a further increase

in the thickness of the scale because of its insulating effect on the

tubes. Soft sludges such as mud and clay may be removed by-blowing off

or by the filtration of the water before it is pumped into the boiled.

Lime and magnesia which form flint-hard deposits, require chemical

treatment such as the addition of sodium phosphate, etc. In any case,

the deposits waste heat and increase the liability of burning out tubes

or bagging the sheets.

[Illustration:

Buffalo Marine Motor.

]

A solution that has given good results with waters containing lime,

consists of 50 pounds of Sal Soda and 35 pounds of japonica, dissolved

in 50 gallons of boiling water. About 1/40 quart is fed into the boiler

for every horse-power in 10 hours, the solution being mixed with the

feed water. Kerosene has been used a great deal to soften scale, and

gives good results if not fed in quantities to exceed 0.01 quart per

horse-power day of 10 hours. An excess of kerosene is to be guarded

against for it is likely to accumulate in spots and cause bagged sheets

or burn outs.

CHAPTER XV.

OIL BURNERS.

(156) Combustion.

To obtain the full heat value of a liquid fuel it must be provided with

sufficient air to complete the combustion, it must be in a very finely

subdivided state, or in the form of a vapor at the time of ignition, and

it must be thoroughly mixed with the air so that every part of the oil

is in contact which its chemical equivalent of oxygen. Failure to comply

with any of these conditions will not only result in a waste of fuel but

will also be the cause of troublesome carbon deposits and soot, which

eventually will interfere with the operation of the burner.

Complete combustion is much more easily attained with the lighter

hydrocarbons such as gasoline or naptha than with crude oil or the

heavier distillates, for they are more readily vaporized and mix more

thoroughly with the oxygen. Only a slight degree of heat and pressure is

required with gasoline while with crude oil a high atomizing pressure

and high temperature are required to obtain a satisfactory flame. In the

majority of cases where heavy oils are used the fuel is not even

completely vaporized but enters the combustion chamber in the form of a

more or less finely atomized spray. The methods by which the liquid fuel

is broken up divides the burners into three primary classes.

(1) LOW PRESSURE BURNERS in which the fuel is atomized by a blast of low

pressure air which also supplies a considerable percentage of the air

required for combustion.

(2) HIGH PRESSURE BURNER in which a small jet of high pressure air or

steam is used to atomize the oil, the air for combustion being supplied

from a source external to the burner.

(3) COMBINED HIGH AND LOW PRESSURE BURNER in which the fuel is atomized

by high pressure air or steam, and the greater part of the air for

combustion is furnished by a blower at a comparatively low pressure.

In class (1) the oil is supplied to the burner under pressure and by

means of a specially designed jet is thrown against hot baffle plates or

gauze screens where the partially broken up liquid is caught by the high

velocity air and reduced to a still finer spray by its impact against

other screens or baffles further on in the burner. This system is

applicable only to the light and intermediate grades of oils, such as

gasoline, naptha or kerosene, unless heat is applied to the external

casing to aid in the vaporization. In some cases the projection of the

burner into the furnace gives satisfactory results, but with such an

arrangement there is a tendency to deposit carbon in the burner and for

the flame to “strike back” should the velocity of the air fall below a

certain critical point. Better results were had with this type of

burner, by the author when the air blast was preheated by passing

several long lengths of the intake air pipe over a hot part of the

furnace, instead of entering the burner nozzle into the combustion

chamber proper.

A well known modification of this type is the gasoline torch used by

electricians and plumbers in which the gasoline is sprayed into a

perforated hot tube by air pressure in the tank. When the spray formed

at the needle valve strikes the surrounding hot tube it is instantly

vaporized and is mixed with the air passing through the perforations in

the tube. While the air entering the tube is not forced through the

openings by external pressure it attains sufficient velocity to aid in

the vaporization because of the vacuum established by the jet. This

however is only enough for the more volatile fuels—such as gasoline or

benzine.

The high pressure which is by far the most commonly used with low grade

fuels may be divided into five principal types (a) =ATOMIZER= burner,

(b) The =INJECTOR= burner, (c) =DRIP= feed burner, (d) =CHAMBER OR

INTERNAL= burner, (e) =EXTERNAL BLAST= burner. All of these burners

break up the fuel by high pressure air or steam, the types given being

different only in the way that the pressure is applied to the fuel.

The atomizer acts on the same principle as the medical or perfumery

atomizer, the high pressure jet playing directly across the open end of

the oil passage as shown by Fig. A. As the vacuum created by the blast

is very low, and has little effect in lifting the fuel to the burner,

the oil either is made to flow by gravity or by a pump. In the figure

the oil in the upper passage is shown pouring down in front of the air

or steam jet issuing from the lower port. Both ports are supplied by the

pipes shown by the circular openings at the right. The steam and oil are

controlled by independent valves placed in the two passages.

In practice the oil and steam openings at the end of the burner may be

either single or multiple round openings or long thin slots, the former

style being the most common. Since only a small amount of air is

admitted through the blast nozzle, far too little to completely consume

the oil, the air for the combustion is admitted through openings in the

combustion chamber proper, this air being supplied by natural draft or

by blower. In some cases the burner is entered into the furnace through

an opening that is much larger than the burner itself. The atmospheric

air enters through baffle plates in this opening which impart a whirling

motion to the air that passes over the burner. This is of considerable

aid in maintaining complete combustion in the furnace, and also tends to

prevent deposits in the burner.

[Illustration:

Fig. 135. Showing the Different Classes of Oil Burners.

]

[Illustration:

Fig. F. Mixed Pressure Burner, Using Both Steam and Low Pressure Air.

]

[Illustration:

Fig. G. Burner Used by the Pennsylvania Railroad Under Locomotives.

]

In the injector type of burner shown by Fig. B the air or steam nozzle

terminates inside of a shell and is completely surrounded by the oil. A

mixture of air and oil issues from main nozzle shown by (2). When the

air or steam blows through the inner opening, a partial vacuum is formed

in the space (1) which draws the oil into the burner from the supply

pipe. On entering this vacuous space the oil comes into contact with the

jet and is blown out through the opening (2) in the form of a spray.

This vacuum is high enough to lift the fuel for a considerable distance

without the aid of a pump and for this reason is the type most commonly

met with in practice. A boiler or furnace equipped with this burner will

lift the oil directly to the furnace from the reservoir in the same way

that a feed water injector will lift water into the boiler. With the

commercial injector, the position of the steam jet is made adjustable in

relation to the main jet to meet different feed conditions. The steam

enters the inner port through the end of the pipe shown at the right.

The oil enters the outer port at the right through a port not shown.

[Illustration:

Fig. H. Lassoe-Lovelsin Burner.

]

Fig. C shows a drip feed or “dribbling” burner in which the oil pours

out of the upper port and over the lower port through which the steam or

air issues. As would be expected, the atomization is not as perfect with

this burner as with the atomizer or injector type.

[Illustration:

Fig. I. Sheedy Oil Burner, Used for Locomotives.

]

A burner in which the oil and steam mix before passing out into the

furnace through the final opening is known as a “Chamber burner,” and is

shown by Fig. D. In some respects, at least in construction, it is

similar to the injector burner, but it does not possess the lifting

abilities of the latter because of the open space in front of the steam

nozzle. The atomization takes place largely within the burner because of

the eddy currents of air and oil vapor created both by the vapor

striking the walls of the outer tube and by the large space in which it

has to circulate before passing out of the orifice.

An external blast burner as shown by Fig. E, in which the oil is forced

out of the openings (3–3) at the extreme end of the burner atomizes by

blowing the oil off of the tube by jets of steam directed by a series of

annular openings in a disc. This is really a type of atomizer burner as

will be seen by close inspection. This type must be very carefully

constructed and the steam jets must be kept very clean in order to have

good results for a little variation in the pressure or a small particle

of dirt in the openings will deflect the steam and prevent a perfect oil

spray. It’s one advantage lies in the fact that the oil and air are

always separate and therefore minimize the danger of carbonization.

[Illustration]

It should be noted that the figures just shown in the illustration of

the various classes of burners are diagrammatic only, and that many

modifications in detail are made in the practical burner such as

regulating valves, sliding steam nozzles, etc.

A burner much used in stationary engine practice and with heating

furnaces, where air at two or three ounces pressure is available, is the

mixed pressure burner shown by Fig. F. In this burned steam or air

compressed, to say 80 pounds per square inch is used for breaking up the

fuel oil. A blast of air at low pressure but with considerable volume is

used to support combustion in the furnace. The steam or compressed air

enters the burner at (5) and meets the oil at the nozzle (8) where it is

sprayed into the chamber (9). The oil enters the burner by the pipe (4),

flows into the annular passage around the steam nozzle and meets the

steam at (8). It will be noted that the steam nozzle (5) is free to

slide back and forth in its casing so that the relation between the

steam nozzle and spray nozzle may be adjusted to meet different

operating conditions. This adjustment is affected by the levers (10) at

the end of the burner.

The low pressure air entering through opening (6) from the blower

passes around the chamber (9) and mixes with the oil spray from (8) in

the mixing chamber (7). This causes a violent swirl in (7) with the

result that a comparatively intimate mixture of oil vapor and air is

formed before they issue into the furnace. In many burners of this type

a gauze screen (11) is placed over the mouth of the final orifice so

that back fires are prevented and a still better mixture is formed. Many

burners of this type have been built by the author with very

satisfactory results, and he knows of only one weak point in the type.

This is due to the fact that if a sufficient volume of air is not kept

flowing through the low pressure pipe (6), the oil vapor may collect in

the piping with the result a back fire will wreck all of the low

pressure connections. To prevent this trouble a light galvanized iron

weighted damper was placed beneath (6) which closed the pipe when the

pressure fell below a certain amount. Since this check valve was placed

there were no more pipe fires.

In all cases a sliding damper should be placed in the opening so that

the blast can be regulated to suit the amount of oil injected.

As these burners were used in a closed building continuously without

smoke or smell and with indifferent grade of oil it will be seen that

the combustion was as nearly perfect as could be expected with any type

of oil burner.

Several of these burners were made from ordinary steam pipe fittings

without steam nozzle adjustment.

While the burners shown are arranged to give a flat flame (with the

exception of burner F) they may all be built for a circular flame by

surrounding the injection nozzle with a suitable nozzle. A =ROSE= or

circular flame is particularly desirable for a vertical boiler where it

can be made to conform with the circular shell and apply the heat

directly to the tube sheet through suitable fire brick baffles.

A burner of the injector type shown by Fig. G, has been used by the

Pennsylvania Railroad with a considerable degree of success. The steam

enters the steam nozzle at (12) through the circular openings from which

point it passes through the nozzle (13) and carries the oil from the air

port (14). The mixture or spray of steam and oil passes out of the

nozzle (15) into the furnace. The steam nozzle is threaded into the

casing at (16), and is keyed to the bevel gear (17). Meshing with (17)

is the bevel mounted on the vertical stem which terminates in a

hand-wheel in the engineer’s cab. By turning the bevels, the nozzle

turns in the casing threads causing it to move back and forth for the

adjustment.

In many types of burners having a nozzle similar to (15) a twisted form

of rifling is placed in the bore that gives the escaping gas a rotary

motion. This is very effective in mixing the air and oil vapor and

spreads the flame very close to the orifice. In burners of the chamber

type a spiral vane is sometimes used to gain the same effect, and in one

make a rotating fan, is placed near the opening of the outer nozzle

which gives a sudden whirl to the gases. While this latter attachment

does all that is claimed for it while it is in good repair, it is very

likely to stick and put the burner out of commission.

The Lassoe-Lovelsin locomotive burner is shown by Fig. H in which the

gas exits through a series of holes in the end of the nozzle (22). The

steam enters the outside casing, and unlike the burners just described,

entirely surrounds the central oil nozzle, (20). The steam in passing

through the openings 21–22 draws the oil through the central opening

(23), this oil nozzle being controlled by the needle valve (24) which

terminates in the handle (25). Oil enters the oil nozzle through the

inlet pipe (26).

The Sheedy oil burner shown by Fig. I has a rectangular nozzle for a

flat flame, and has no steam nozzle adjustment. Oil surrounds the steam

nozzle and enters the casing through the upper connection. Air enters

the lower port through the lower opening as shown in the cross-section

of the burner. As the oil flows over the trough formed by the steam

nozzle it meets the jet of steam at (30) and is atomized. The air from

the lower port aids in bringing the combustion near the tip of the

nozzle and therefore prevents carbon deposits from being formed in the

burner as well as spreading the flame at a wide angle.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

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[Illustration]

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=Modern Battery Systems=—Including Delco, Remy, Atwater-Kent, etc.

Application of ignition apparatus to self-starting circuit.

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=Automobile Driving=—General Instructions—Starting the engine—Advancing

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=Difficulty in starting=—Symptoms, causes and remedies.

=Involuntary stops=—Causes and remedies.

=Loss of power=—Causes and remedies.

=Care and maintenance of motor cars=—Private housing—The

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=Laying up a car=—Cleaning the engine—The transmission gear—Connections

and chains—The lubricators—Tire treatment—Laying up for the winter.

=Gasolene=—Its properties and Economical Use—Production of Gasolene—Its

distillation—Specific gravity—Vaporization experiments—Proper design and

function of the carbureter—The ton mileage Method of arriving at

economy—Quality of the fuel.

=Gasolene hints and tips.=

=Operating mechanism of a modern car.=

=Choice of a car, Etc.=—Considerations of price and cost of

maintenance—Small and large cars—New and tried types—Second hand cars.

=Change speed gear=—Various forms—Selective sliding gears—The Panhard

and Mercedes systems—Gate control mechanism, etc.

=Don’ts= for motor car drivers and tire owners.

Price, FLEXIBLE LEATHER $1.50

CLOTH BINDING 1.00

Gas Engine Troubles and Installation

[Illustration]

By J. B. RATHBUN. B. S. C. E.

Author of “Commercial Vehicles for All Purposes,”

“Oxygen—Acetylene Welding,” etc.

420 Pages, 150 Detailed Line Drawings and Illustrations.

¶ A book that shows you HOW TO INSTALL—HOW TO OPERATE—HOW TO MAKE

IMMEDIATE REPAIRS and HOW TO KEEP A GASOLENE ENGINE RUNNING. The

language is simple—The illustrations are clear. The book is

authentic—complete—up-to-the-minute, written by an expert who is

employed daily as a Consulting and Demonstrating Engineer and

Instructor. Nothing has been omitted—It contains no useless

matter—Just the cream of daily experience. Two Folding Trouble

Charts.

CONTENTS

Elementary mechanics—Units of heat and mechanics defined—Fuels—Behavior

of gases under the influence of heat and pressure—Combustion—Work done

by the expansion of gases—Composition of the charge—The elementary gas

engine—Functions of the cylinder, piston connections, rod and

crank—Cycle defined—Four stroke cycle, two stroke cycle, six Stroke

cycle defined—Functions of ports, valves, and cams as applied to

foregoing types—Events in cycles—Periods of ignition, compression, etc.,

outlined—Multiple cylinder engines—Crank relations—Ignition—Flame,

catalytic, hot tube, electric (high and low tension)—Make and break

ignition—Batteries—Spark coils, dynamos—Magnetos—Wiring

systems—Timing—discussion of prominent makes of ignition apparatus—Valve

gears—Practical construction of valves and valve operating

mechanism—Valve timing charts—Location of ports in two stroke cycle

engines—Three port, two-stroke cycle engines—Mixing

valves—Carburetors—Manifolds for multi-cylinder engines—Mufflers—Exhaust

pots, etc.—Cooling systems—Purpose of cooling systems—The radiator—Air

cooling—Tank, hopper and trays—Circulating pumps—Thermo—Syphon—Water vs.

oil—Anti-freezing solutions—Lubrication—Splash, force feed, exhaust

feed, properties of lubricating oils, grease, pumps, strainers, filters,

cups, connections, etc.—Details of approved systems—Construction

details—Engines for various purposes—Electric lighting

engines—Dynamos—Storage batteries—Wiring—Switch

Board—Installation—Engine room

arrangement—Foundations—Piping—Shafting—Hangers, etc.—Operation—_Trouble

Chart_ for location of troubles—Remedies for trouble—Shop

rules—Formulas—Automobile, motor boat and aero motors, _Trouble

Chart_—Accessories—Operation, etc., etc.

Price, FLEXIBLE LEATHER $1.50

CLOTH BINDING 1.00

THE PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF GAS, OIL, AND STEAM ENGINES

[Illustration]

BY JOHN B. RATHBUN.

Author of “Gas Engine Troubles and Installation,” Editor

“Ignition”—Instructor Chicago Technical College.

370 Pages, 150 Line Drawings and Illustrations.

This book is the most complete and up-to-the-minute book for the

practical man on the subjects of gas, gasoline, oil, and steam engines.

Oil burners for use in steam engines in a useful feature. Special

emphasis is placed on farm tractors and their operation, both oil and

steam driven. The engines described are the latest types, and include

the Diesel, Semi-Diesel Gnome, Low and Turbine types.

CONTENTS

=Heat and Power.=—=Fuels=—Calorific Values of Fuels—Solid,

Liquid and Gaseous Fuels—Kerosene—Gasoline—Crude Oil—Producer

Gas—Illuminating Gas—Coal—Benzol. =Working Cycles=—Definitions

of =Cycles Indicator Diagrams=—Practical Use of the Indicator—=Typical

Four Stroke Cycle Engines=—=Single Cylinder=—=Four

Cylinder=—=Automobile=—=Opposed Type=—V Type—Tandem—Twin Tandem—Rotary

Cylinder—Radial—Diesel—Knight—Argyle—Rotary Valve. =Typical Two

Stroke Cycle Engines=—Two Port—Three Port—Marine—Controlled

Port—Aeronautic—Oechehauser—Gnome Rotary Two Stroke. =Oil

Engines=—Elyria—Marine Diesel—Installation—Aspiration Types—Fairbanks

Morse—Kerosene—Carburetion—Semi-Diesel—Combustion of Heavy Oils.

=Ignition Systems=—Hot Tube System—Low Tension System—High Tension

System—Details of Make-and-Break Batteries—Low Tension Magnetos—High

Tension Magnetos—Coils—Adjustment—Troubles. Carburetors—Principles of

Carburetion—Jet Carburetors—Water Jacketing—Fuel Supply—Different Types

of Auto Carburetors—Adjustment—Carburetor Troubles. =Lubrication=—Forced

Speed—Splash System—=Oil Pumps=—Lubrication Troubles. Cooling

Systems—Evaporation Systems—Radiators—Air Cooling. =Speed

Governors=—Automobiles—Stationary—Adjustment—Mixture—Control Hit and

Miss—Mixed Systems. =Tractors and Various Farm Engines=—Gasoline and Oil

Tractors—Mechanism of Various Types—Steam Tractors—Plowing and Threshing

Costs—Plowing Contests Data—Two Speed Mechanisms—Draw Bar Pole—Oil

Carburetors, etc. Oil Burners—Combustion—High Pressure System—Low

Pressure System—Mixed System—Burners for Furnaces, Locomotives,

Pennsylvania Type, Sheedy Burner, Kirchoff Burner, etc.

Price, FLEXIBLE LEATHER $1.50

SILK CLOTH 1.00

Questions and Answers

For Automobile Students and Mechanics

[Illustration]

—By—

Thomas H. Russell, A.M., M.E.

Author of “Automobile Driving Self-Taught,” “Automobile Motors and

Mechanism.” “Ignition, Timing and Valve Setting,” “Motor Boats:

Construction and Operation,” etc., etc.

A book of 600 Questions and Answers, adapted for teaching School,

the Machine-shop or before the Board of Examining Engineers. This is

the largest, the latest and most authentic book of its kind upon the

market. Prepared especially for Home Study. 150 pages. Bound in

Cloth, Stiff Covers—In fact it is a regular text book.

The Questions and Answers in this book will be found useful by every

Student and Mechanic of Motor Cars and Motoring, as a handy means of

reviewing systematic study or in daily work.

It has long been recognized that the Question and Answer method is most

effective in fixing in the memory facts gained by study or problems that

confront the Mechanic in his daily work; hence it is adapted for the

purpose.

The more important subjects connected with Motor Cars, are treated

individually, there being a separate set of Questions and Answers for

each. For the greater convenience of the reader, the Questions and the

Answers in each set appear on separate pages; the Questions can thus be

used alone for self-instruction, while the Answers if needed are close

at hand for reference.

Minor subjects are covered in a special Catechism, which deals with all

the factors which go to make up the power plant of a Modern Motor Car.

Price, CLOTH $1.00

LEATHER $1.50

AUTOMOBILE MOTORS AND MECHANISM.

[Illustration]

By THOMAS H. RUSSELL, M. E., LL. B. Author of “Automobile Driving

Self-Taught.” “Ignition, Timing and Valve Setting.” “Motor Boats:

Construction and Operation,” etc

Pocket size, 265 pages, Blue flexible leather, round corners, red edges,

fully illustrated

CONTENTS

=The Internal Combustion Engine=—Principles and Construction—Production

of the fuel mixture—Function of the carbureter—The cycle of

operations—Cylinders, piston and rings—Shafts and bearings—Ignition

apparatus—Single and multi-cylinder engines—The two cycle engine—Valves

and their functions—Silencing the exhaust—Engine hints and tips—=A

Typical Modern Motor=—Detailed description of construction—=Governing

and Governors=—The centrifugal governor—Throttle valves—Governing and

control—The hit-or-miss governor—=Carbureters=—The float-feed

principle—The float chamber and jet—Various types of modern

construction—Quality of mixture—Flooding the carbureter—Carbureter

troubles and adjustments, etc.—=Transmission Mechanism=—=The

Clutch=—Various forms in use—Positive and friction clutches—Plate or

disk clutches—The combined disk and cone type—Expanding clutches—Clutch

troubles, etc.—=Gear or Gearing=—Belt and chain gearing—Friction

gear—Spur or tooth gearing—Spiral, helical, worm and bevel

gearing—Epicyclic gear—Infinitely variable gear—=Differential or

Balance Gear=—Its functions—=Shafts and their Functions=—The

crankshaft, half-speed shaft, countershaft, etc.—=Lubrication and

Lubricators=—=Pumps and their Purposes=—=Motor Misfiring, Causes and

Remedies=—=Noises in the Motor, Causes and Remedies=—=Motor Overheating,

Causes and Remedies=—=Electric Motors=—Principles and operation—=Steam

Cars=—The engine, generator, reverse gear, etc.

Price, FLEXIBLE LEATHER $1.50

CLOTH BINDING 1.00

A B C of the MOTORCYCLE

[Illustration]

By W. J. JACKMAN. M. E. Author of “Facts for Motorist,” “Crushed

Stone and Its Uses,” and Similar Books.

Pocket Size, 250 pages, fully Illustrated, Leather and Cloth, Round

Corners, Red Edges. A “Show How” Book for Owners and Operators of

Motorcycles.

CONTENTS

Inception and Evolution of the Motorcycle—Modern Machines and their

Vital Parts—How to Master the Mechanism—Production and Application of

Motive Power—Construction and Operation of the Carbureter—What the

Carbureter Does—Ignition Systems—Batteries and Magnetos—Practical

Methods of Handling—Various Types of Motors—Theory and Effect of

Internal Combustion—Troubles of all Kinds and How to Avoid or Overcome

Them—Lubrication Methods—Transmission or Drive Systems—How to Compute

Horse Power—Relation of Power and Speed—Weather Effects on Gasolene

Engines—Cost of Maintenance on Basis of Mileage—Some Dont’s that will

save Time and Money—Selecting a Motorcycle—Hints for the Buyer—What an

Owner should do on receiving a New Machine—The First Ride.

Price, FLEXIBLE LEATHER $1.50

CLOTH BINDING 1.00

DUSTMAN’S PLAN BOOK

and

COMPLETE MODERN ESTIMATOR of GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

By U. M. Dustman, Licensed Architect,

Editor of “The Progressive Builder.”

250 pages, 9×13 inches, Several Books Combined in One.

Invaluable to the Contractor, Builder or Layman.

[Illustration]

Cloth Binding, White Foil Stamping,

Price $2.00

CONTENTS

Designs and Suggestions—Geometrical Problems Illustrated—Roof Trusses

Illustrated—Rafter Diagrams—Construction Diagrams—Stair Work

Diagrams—Stair and Handrailing Tables—Window Frame Work and

Diagrams—Store Front Problems Illustrated—Brick Work Construction and

Tables—Window Frames for Brick Walls—General Construction Problems,

Concrete Work, Arches, Brick Work, Mill Construction, Beams, Columns

and Splices, Framing, Drafting, Properties of Woods and

Metals—Plastering—Painting—Roofs—Tables of Mensuration—Engineering

Tables of Beams, Columns, Channels, etc.—Tables of Rafters—Building

Terms—Builders’ Arithmetic—How to Read Plans—Detailed Estimates of

various mechanical departments—Complete Detailed Specifications

Form—Concrete Mixing, Construction of Houses, Barns, Garages, Silos,

Sidewalks, etc.—Photographs, Plans and Elevations of Many Houses,

Barns. Public Buildings, Out-buildings, etc.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES

1. “Baumé” was consistently misspelled as “Beaumé”. Did not correct.

2. The spelling of words such as “distributor/distributer” and

“carburetor/carbureter” was inconsistent.

3. The section and paragraph numbers are not always sequential.

4. Changed “may read” to “may be read” on p. 22.

5. Changed “engine is instrument” to “engine is an instrument” on p.

27.

6. Changed “use in temperature” to “rise in temperature” on p. 32.

7. Changed “air the same temperature” to “air at the same temperature”

on p. 52.

8. Changed “alcohol than for in the neighborhood” to “alcohol in the

neighborhood” on p. 55.

9. Changed “fuel heated” to “fuel is heated” on p. 56.

10. Changed “moving ports.” to“moving parts.” on p. 64.

11. Changed “reading for the succeeding suction stroke” to “ready for

the succeeding suction stroke” on p. 76.

12. Changed “inlet shots” to “inlet slots” on p. 124.

13. Silently corrected typographical errors.

14. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.

15. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.

16. Enclosed bold font in =equals=.

17. Superscripts are denoted by a caret before a single superscript

character or a series of superscripted characters enclosed in

curly braces, e.g. M^r. or M^{ister}.

18. Subscripts are denoted by an underscore before a series of

subscripted characters enclosed in curly braces, e.g. H_{2}O.

Practical Hand Book of Gas, Oil and Steam Engines Stationary, Marine, Traction; Gas Burners, Oil Burners, Etc.; Farm, Traction, Automobile, Locomotive; A simple, practical and comprehensive book on the construction, operation and repair of all kinds of engines. Dealing with the various parts in detail and the various types of engines and also the use of different kinds of fuel. · 第 20 / 20 章

If the above attempts have proved unsuccessful remove the exhaust valve