Produced by Don Kostuch
[Transcriber's Notes]
Text has been moved to avoid fragmentation of sentences and paragraphs.
This is the last volume in a set of six. The other five volumes are at:
Volume I -- https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/20925
Volume II -- https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/22567
Volume III -- https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/23748
Volume IV -- https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/22676
Volume V -- https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/22777
Here are the definitions of some uncommon words.
capitation
Numbering or assessing by the head. Poll tax. Fee or payment of a
uniform amount for each person.
cumberer
Hindrance.
imperatively
Absolutely necessary; unavoidable; commanding.
justiciable
Capable of being settled by law or by the action of a court:
munificent
Very generous.
[End Transcriber's Notes]
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES
[Illustration: Portrait.]
Copyright, 1907, by Clinedinst. Washington, D. C.
Theodore Roosevelt
At his desk in the executive offices of the White House during his term
as president.
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES
FROM THE EARLIEST DISCOVERY OF AMERICA
TO THE PRESENT TIME
BY
E. BENJAMIN ANDREWS
CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA
FORMERLY PRESIDENT OF BROWN UNIVERSITY
With 650 Illustrations and Maps
VOLUME VI.
NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
1912
COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I. THE RISE OF THEODORE ROOSEVELT
Career of Theodore Roosevelt.
Characteristics.
Temper and Method.
Administration.
Reciprocity.
Trusts.
Industrial Confederations.
Railway, Steel and Steamship Combinations.
Ship Subsidy Bill.
Beef Trust.
Steel Strike of 1901.
Anthracite Coal Strike of 1902.
President Roosevelt Calls Conference for Its Settlement.
CHAPTER II. ROOSEVELT'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION
His Fine Equipment for the Office of President.
A Remarkable Cabinet.
Mr. Root's Work for Cuba and the Philippines.
For the Army.
The Diplomacy of John Hay.
Department of Commerce and Labor Created.
The Panama Canal Achievement.
Recognition of Panama.
The Galveston Flood.
Plan of City Government.
Cuba an Independent Republic.
The Philippines under United States Rule.
The Baltimore Fire.
The St. Louis Exposition.
CHAPTER III. PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1904
President Roosevelt Renominated.
Nominations of the Democratic Convention.
Of the Conventions of the Populist, Socialist and Prohibitionist Parties.
Character of the Campaign.
Charges Made against the Republicans.
President Roosevelt's Reply to Judge Parker's Statements.
Results of the Election.
CHAPTER IV. AMERICA AND THE CHINESE OPEN DOOR
Aggressive Policy of President Roosevelt.
Secretary Hay Continued in Office.
William H. Taft Made Secretary of War.
Trade of America and European Nations with China.
Secretary Hay's Request for Equal Trade Rights in China for All Nations.
The Boxer Rebellion.
Portion of China's Indemnity Cancelled by Congress.
Chinese Students in America.
Russia's Influence in China.
New Commercial Treaty between United States and China.
Opening of Manchurian Ports to All Nations.
Secretary Hay and Chinese Neutrality during the Russo-Japanese War.
Effects of too Strict Interpretation of Chinese Exclusion Act.
President Roosevelt's Instructions to Immigration Officials.
CHAPTER V. INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION.
Progress Made in Settlement of International Difficulties by Arbitration.
First Meeting of the Hague Peace Conference.
Work of the Conference.
Chief Features of a Permanent International Court of Arbitration.
Advantages of Such Court.
Convened for the First Time in 1901.
The Pious Fund Case.
The Venezuela Case.
Mr. Carnegie's Gift for a "Palace of Peace."
The Building.
Peace Congresses Held in the United States in 1904.
Resolutions Adopted.
The Nations Invited by President Roosevelt to a Second Hague Conference.
Work of Second Conference.
Number of Treaties Concluded between the Nations.
CHAPTER VI. THE UNITED STATES AND LATIN-AMERICA
Interest in South American Republics.
Meeting of Pan-American Congress in Washington.
In City of Mexico.
Comparison of Foreign Commerce of South American States with European
Countries and with the United States.
Progress of South American States.
The Third Pan-American Congress, at Rio Janeiro Bureau of Pan-American
Republics Founded.
New Interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine.
The Santo Domingo Situation.
Its Adjustment by President Roosevelt.
CHAPTER VII. CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Waste of Nation's Resources.
Establishment of a Division of Forestry.
Mariposa Forest Reservation.
Preservation of Niagara Falls.
Inland Waterways Commission Appointed by President Roosevelt.
Conference on Conservation Held at the White House.
Resolutions Adopted.
First National Conservation Commission.
The National Conservation Association Formed.
First North American Conservation Congress, called by President
Roosevelt.
Irrigation and the Reclamation Act.
The Roosevelt Dam.
The Shoshone Dam.
The Truckee-Carson Canal.
Proceeds from Sales of Public Lands.
Reclamation of the Swamp Lands.
The Mississippi Basin.
The Lakes to the Gulf Deep Waterways Association.
Projects Submitted by the Inland Waterways Commission.
Appropriation for Enlargement of Erie Canal.
CHAPTER VIII. DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW SOUTH
Splendid Natural Gifts of the South.
Its Water Power Facilities.
Wealth of Minerals and Forests, Coal and Iron.
Waste of Forest Lands.
Wonderful Economic Advancement.
Mr. Rockefeller's Gift.
Cotton Production.
Improved Methods of Agriculture.
Roads.
Methods of Financing the Plantation System.
Cultivation of Hay and Corn.
Stock-Raising.
The New Social Life.
Bright Prospect for the Future.
CHAPTER IX. PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION
Exposition at Portland, Oregon, Commemorating Lewis and Clark Expedition.
Interstate Commerce Commission.
Provisions of Interstate Commerce Laws.
Pure Food and Drugs Law.
Investigation of Meat-Packing Methods.
The Earthquake in San Francisco.
Relief Fund.
Rebuilding of the City.
CHAPTER X. THE FINANCIAL PANIC OF 1907
Popular Explanations of Its Cause.
The Real Causes.
Insolvency of Knickerbocker Trust Company.
Lack of Confidence in Financial Institutions.
Aid from the United States Treasury's Surplus Fund.
Enormous Amounts Paid Out to Depositors.
Radical Steps Taken by Bankers.
"Emergency Currency" Issued.
Strengthening of the New York Stock Exchange.
Gold from Foreign Countries.
Sale of Panama Bonds and Notes.
Confidence Restored.
Discussions Concerning Financial System.
The Aldrich-Vreeland Act.
CHAPTER XI. IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION
Great Increase in Immigration.
Change in Its Character.
Gain in Percentage from Southern Europe over that from Northern Europe.
Reasons Why These Foreigners Emigrate to America.
The Immigration Act of 1907.
And Its Effect.
The Emigration of Italians.
Slavs in the United States.
The Jews.
The Question of Oriental Immigration.
Dangers of Increasing Immigration.
Foreign Colonies in Chicago and Other Cities.
Increase in Criminality.
The Chief Problem.
Emigration of United States Farmers to Canada.
CHAPTER XII. NOTABLE SUPREME COURT DECISIONS
The Northern Securities Company Case.
The Alonzo Bailey Case.
Case of Loewe vs. Lawler, or the Danbury Hatters Case.
The Standard Oil Case.
The Case of the American Tobacco Company.
CHAPTER XIII. PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION, CONTINUED
President Roosevelt's Advocacy of a Larger and More Efficient Navy.
Rear-Admiral Evans's Effective Work.
Cruise of the Atlantic Fleet.
Unusual Honors Tendered by Brazil and Other Countries Visited by the
Fleet.
Purchase and Settlement of Oklahoma Territory.
Indian System of Government.
Oklahoma and Indian Territory Admitted to the Union.
Exclusion of Japanese Students in San Francisco and President
Roosevelt's Prompt Action.
Child-Labor in the United States.
The Beveridge-Parsons Bill.
New Uses of Electricity.
Wireless Telegraphy, Air-Ships and Submarine Boats.
Business and Political Reforms.
Advances in Educational Work.
Notable Gifts of Mr. Carnegie and Mr. Rockefeller.
CHAPTER XIV. THE PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1908
The Republican Convention.
William H. Taft Nominated for President.
Other Candidates for Nomination.
James S. Sherman Nominated for Vice-President.
The Democratic Convention.
And Its Nominations.
Platforms of Both Parties.
The Socialist Convention and Platform.
Convention of the Prohibition Party and Its Platform.
Lack of Campaign "Issues."
Personal Fitness of the Candidates.
Fear of the Power of Great Corporations.
Efficiency of President Roosevelt's Administration.
Results of the Election.
CHAPTER XV. THE ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT TAFT
Inauguration of President Taft.
His Cabinet.
Increase of Salaries of Principal Executive Officers.
Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition.
Alaskan Products.
Hudson-Fulton Celebration.
Arctic Exploration.
Commander Peary's Expedition.
Dr. Cook's Claims.
State Constitutions of Arizona and New Mexico Formed.
President Taft's Disapproval of Them.
New Mexico Admitted to the Union.
Population and Products of Arizona.
Of New Mexico.
The Aeroplane.
Tests and Records Made by Aviators.
The Federal Publicity Law.
President Taft's Recommendation Concerning Classified Service.
His Advance Position on International Arbitration.
CHAPTER XVI. THE THIRTEENTH CENSUS, 1910
Permanent Census Bureau Established.
Work of the Enumerators.
Special Attention Given to Character of Questions.
Enormous Labor of Tabulation and Classification.
Cost of Census.
Population of United States and Territorial Possessions.
Comparisons of Population with That of Previous Decade.
Rapid Growth of Cities.
Westward Advance of Centre of Population.
Emigration to Canada.
Congressional Reapportionment.
Farms of the United States.
Value of Foreign Commerce.
Of Exports.
CHAPTER XVII. THE PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT
Government by the People.
Attitude Toward Senator La Follette, the First Progressive.
Number of Progressives in Senate.
Laws Annulled by Courts.
National Progressive Republican League Formed.
Its Platform.
The "Initiative."
The "Referendum."
The "Recall."
Tariff Revision.
The Payne-Aldrich Bill Passed.
Criticism of the Cotton Schedule.
Of the Wool Schedule.
The "Maximum and Minimum" Clause.
Democratic Revision of the Tariff.
Farmers' Free List Bill.
Reciprocity with Canada.
President Taft and the Progressive Movement.
APPENDIX:
I. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
II. ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION
III. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
IV. PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES
V. STATES ADMITTED INTO THE UNION
VI. AREA OF THE UNITED STATES
VII. POPULATION OF CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES BY DECADES, 1790--1910
VIII. APPROXIMATE POPULATION UNDER THE AMERICAN FLAG, 1910.
IX. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 1910, 1900, 1890
X. NUMBER OF MEMBERS IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES AFTER EACH APPORTIONMENT
XI. POPULATION LIVING IN URBAN AND RURAL TERRITORY 1890-1900.
XII. TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES FROM 1880 to 1910.
INDEX
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
THEODORE ROOSEVELT AT HIS DESK IN THE EXECUTIVE
OFFICES OF THE WHITE HOUSE DURING HIS TERM AS
PRESIDENT. (Copyright, 1907, Clinedinst, Washington).
THEODORE ROOSEVELT.
(From a copyrighted photograph by Pach Bros., New York).
THEODORE ROOSEVELT, AS LIEUT.-COLONEL OF THE "ROUGH RIDERS."
COLLIS P. HUNTINGTON.
JAMES J. HILL. (Copyright, 1902, by Pach Bros., N. Y.).
E. H. HARRIMAN.
JOHN W. GATES.
ANDREW CARNEGIE. (Copyright, 1902, by Rockwood, N. Y.).
J. PIERPONT MORGAN. (Copyright, 1901, by Pach Bros., N. Y.).
COL. CLEMENTS. GEN. GOBIN COMMANDING TROOPS SENT TO SHENANDOAH IN THE
COAL STRIKE OF 1902.
COAL STRIKE AT SHENANDOAH, PA., 1902. A STRIKERS' PICKET.
THE COAL STRIKE ARBITRATORS CHOSEN BY THE PRESIDENT. (Copyright, 1902,
by George Grantham Bain).
JOHN HAY, SECRETARY OF STATE. (Copyright, 1904, by Pach Bros., N. Y.).
ELIHU ROOT, SECRETARY OF WAR. (Copyright, 1903, by Clinedinst,
Washington).
GEORGE B. CORTELYOU, SECRETARY OF THE DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND LABOR.
(Photograph by Rice).
THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION, TAKEN MARCH 22,1904.
THE AMERICAN ISTHMUS, SHOWING ROUTES INVESTIGATED FOR A SHIP-CANAL.
M. BUNAU-VARILLA, MINISTER FROM PANAMA. (Photograph by Clinedinst).
GREAT HEAPS OF WRECKAGE PILED HIGH BY THE GALVESTON DISASTER.
(Copyright, 1900, by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y.).
THE BOULEVARD AND SEA-WALL, GALVESTON. BUILT AFTER THE FLOOD.
(Photograph by H. H. Morris).
TOMASO ESTRADA Y PALMA, FIRST PRESIDENT OF CUBA, IN THE PALACE, HAVANA.
(Copyright, 1902, by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y.).
LOWERING THE STARS AND STRIPES ON THE PALACE, MAY 20, 1902, FOR THE FLAG
OF THE CUBAN REPUBLIC. (Copyright, 1901, by Underwood & Underwood).
GOV. WILLIAM H. TAFT.
THE BALTIMORE FIRE. (Lombard and Calvert Streets, showing Continental
and Equitable Buildings).
THE BALTIMORE FIRE. (Hopkins Place and German Street, looking east).
OPENING DAY AT THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION. PRESIDENT D. K.
FRANCIS DELIVERING THE OPENING ADDRESS. (Copyright, 1904, by William H.
Rau, Philadelphia).
THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION. THE VARIED INDUSTRIES BUILDING.
CHARLES W. FAIRBANKS, VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES.
THE REPUBLICAN CONVENTION AT CHICAGO, 1904.
WILLIAM R. HEARST.
THE DEMOCRATIC CONVENTION AT ST. LOUIS, 1904.
ALTON B. PARKER.
INAUGURATION OF PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT, MARCH 4, 1905. (Photograph by
Clinedinst, Washington, D. C.).
COUNT VON WALDERSEE, ESCORTED BY OFFICERS OF THE ALLIED ARMIES BETWEEN
LINES OF U. S. TROOPS TOWARD THE SACRED GATE, PEKING. (Copyright by
Underwood & Underwood, N, Y.).
AMERICAN FLAG RAISED OVER BATTERED REMNANTS OF SOUTH GATE IMMEDIATELY
AFTER CITY'S CAPTURE. BATTLE OF TIEN-TSIN CHINA. (Copyright, 1901, by
Underwood & Underwood).
ARRIVAL OF CHINAMEN AT MALONE, N. Y., FROM CANADA, ACCOMPANIED BY
OFFICIALS.
THE HOUSE IN THE WOODS, THE HAGUE, HOLLAND, WHERE THE FIRST PEACE
CONFERENCE WAS HELD.
PRESIDENT CASTRO OF VENEZUELA.
THE NEW PEACE PALACE, THE HAGUE, HOLLAND.
RUSSIAN AND JAPANESE PEACE ENVOYS IN SESSION AT PORTSMOUTH, N. H.
BUILDING WHERE THE SECOND PEACE CONFERENCE WAS HELD, THE HAGUE, HOLLAND.
FIRST SESSION OF THE SECOND PEACE CONFERENCE, THE HAGUE, HOLLAND.
FEDERAL PALACE, WHERE THE SECOND PAN-AMERICAN CONGRESS WAS HELD IN THE
CITY OF MEXICO. (Courtesy of the Pan-American Union).
MONROE PALACE, WHERE THE THIRD PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCE WAS HELD IN RIO
DE JANEIRO. (Courtesy of the Pan-American Union).
ARRIVAL OF SECRETARY ROOT AT RIO DE JANEIRO. (Courtesy of the
Pan-American Union).
THE BUREAU OF THE PAN-AMERICAN REPUBLICS. (Photograph by Clinedinst).
GRIZZLY GIANT, MARIPOSA GROVE, CALIFORNIA, WITH A SQUAD OF CAVALRY AT
ITS BASE.
BIG TREE "WAWONA," SHOWING THE RELATIVE SIZE OF OTHER CONIFERS COMPARED
WITH BIG TREES. MARIPOSA GROVE.
THE PRESIDENT, GOVERNORS, AND OTHER LEADING MEN AT THE NATIONAL
RESOURCES CONFERENCE, AT THE WHITE HOUSE, MAY 13 TO 15, 1908. (Copyright
by Underwood & Underwood).
GIFFORD PINCHOT, PRESIDENT OF THE CONSERVATION COMMISSION.
ROOSEVELT DAM FROM THE ROAD.
SHOSHONE DAM, WYOMING. HIGHEST DAM IN THE WORLD. HEIGHT, 328.4 FEET.
SHOSHONE PROJECT. WYOMING PARK WAGON ROAD, SHOWING WONDERFUL TUNNELLING
WORK ON THE NEW WAGON ROAD FROM CODY, WYO., TO THE NATIONAL PARK VIA THE
SHOSHONE DAM. (Photograph by Clinedinst).
TRUCKEE-CARSON RECLAMATION PROJECT. DIVERSION DAM AND GATES AT HEADING
OF MAIN CANAL.
INLAND WATERWAYS COMMISSION.
THE PORT OF NEW ORLEANS. (Copyright, 1900, by Detroit Photographic Co.).
JAMES WILSON, SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE.
A FIELD OF COTTON.
BALES OF COTTON READY FOR SHIPMENT. COTTON-PRESS YARD, NEW ORLEANS.
LOADING COTTON ON THE LEVEE, NEW ORLEANS.
THE PRICE-CAMPBELL COTTON-PICKING MACHINE, WHICH DOES THE WORK OF FIFTY
PERSONS.
THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPOSITION, PORTLAND, ORE. GENERAL VIEW ACROSS THE
LAGOON.
THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPOSITION, PORTLAND, ORE. THE GOVERNMENT BUILDINGS
ACROSS THE LAGOON.
DR. HARVEY W. WILEY, MANY YEARS CHIEF OF THE U. S. BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY.
(Copyright by Clinedinst, Washington).
U. S. GOVERNMENT INSPECTION OF A PACKING-HOUSE.
EARTHQUAKE AT SAN FRANCISCO, APRIL 18, 1906. UPHEAVAL OF SIDEWALK AT
EIGHTEENTH AND CAPP STREETS.
BURNING OF SAN FRANCISCO FOLLOWING THE EARTHQUAKE.
SHOWING DESTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS AFTER THE EARTHQUAKE AND FIRE IN SAN
FRANCISCO.
REFUGEES IN GOLDEN GATE PARK, SAN FRANCISCO.
THE JAMESTOWN EXPOSITION--MANUFACTURES AND LIBERAL ARTS BUILDING--FROM
THE AUDITORIUM. (Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y.).
THE PANIC OF 1907. RUN ON THE KNICKERBOCKER TRUST COMPANY, 34TH STREET
AND FIFTH AVENUE.
THE PANIC OF 1907. UPTOWN BRANCH OF THE KNICKERBOCKER TRUST COMPANY,
125TH STREET.
THE PANIC OF 1907. RUN ON THE COLONIAL TRUST COMPANY. LINE OF DEPOSITORS
IN ANN STREET WAITING THEIR TURN.
THE PANIC OF 1907. RUN ON THE LINCOLN TRUST COMPANY, FIFTH AVENUE
ENTRANCE.
THE PANIC OF 1907. WALL STREET, IN FRONT OF THE SUB-TREASURY BUILDING,
WHEN THE RUN ON THE TRUST COMPANY OF AMERICA WAS AT ITS HEIGHT.
THE PANIC OF 1907. RUN ON THE STATE BANK, GRAND STREET, NEW YORK.
EMIGRANTS BOUND FOR AMERICA.
ENTRANCE TO EMIGRANT STATION OR "MODEL TOWN" IN HAMBURG. BUILT FOR
EMIGRANTS WAITING TO SAIL.
ONE OF SEVERAL CHURCHES BUILT FOR EMIGRANTS OF VARIOUS FAITHS IN THE
STATION OR "MODEL TOWN" OF THE HAMBURG-AMERICAN COMPANY, FOR USE WHILE
WAITING TO SAIL.
U. S. IMMIGRANT STATION, ELLIS ISLAND, N. Y.
GROUPS OF IMMIGRANTS UPON THEIR ARRIVAL AT ELLIS ISLAND.
GROUP OF COSSACK IMMIGRANTS CONSIDERED DESIRABLE AND QUALIFIED TO ENTER.
SWEDISH IMMIGRANT FAMILY CONSIDERED DESIRABLE AND QUALIFIED TO ENTER.
JUSTICES OF THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT WHO ACTED UPON THE CASES OF
THE STANDARD OIL AND AMERICAN TOBACCO COMPANIES. (Copyright by
Clinedinst, Washington).
CHIEF JUSTICE MELVILLE W. FULLER. (Photograph copyright by Clinedinst,
Washington).
REAR-ADMIRAL ROBLEY D. EVANS. (Copyright, 1908, by Harris & Ewing).
THE ATLANTIC FLEET STARTING ON ITS JOURNEY ROUND THE WORLD, DECEMBER,
1907. (Copyright, 1907, by Underwood & Underwood).
REAR-ADMIRAL CHARLES S. SPERRY.
COTTON-MILL OPERATIVES SO SMALL THAT IN ORDER TO REACH THEIR WORK THEY
HAVE TO STAND UPON THE MACHINERY.
THE SPINNING-ROOM OVERSEER AND HIS FLOCK IN A MISSISSIPPI COTTON-MILL.
ELECTRIC TRAIN, LONG ISLAND R. R.
GUGLIELMO MARCONI AND HIS WIRELESS TELEGRAPH.
MARCONI TRANSATLANTIC STATION AT SOUTH WELLFLEET, CAPE COD, MASS.
THE "ARROW" GETTING UNDER WAY. (Courtesy of Scientific American).
BALDWIN'S AIRSHIP "ARROW" AT A HEIGHT OF 600 FEET OVER THE EXPOSITION
PALACES, ST. LOUIS, OCTOBER 25, 1904.
CARNEGIE FREE PUBLIC LIBRARIES.
JOSEPH G. CANNON. (Copyright by Clinedinst, Washington).
JAMES S. SHERMAN, NOMINATED FOR VICE-PRESIDENT. (Photograph by C. M.
Bell, Washington).
WILLIAM H. TAFT ON HIS TRIP, STUMPING FOR THE NOMINATION.
MR. TAFT FORMALLY ACCEPTING THE REPUBLICAN NOMINATION FOR THE
PRESIDENCY, ON THE VERANDA OF THE RESIDENCE OF HIS BROTHER, MR. CHARLES
P. TAFT, OF CINCINNATI, OHIO. (Copyright, 1908, by Young & Carl,
Cincinnati, Ohio).
PRESIDENT WILLIAM H. TAFT AND GOVERNOR HUGHES ON THE REVIEWING STAND AT
THE INAUGURATION, MARCH 4,1909. (Copyright by Clinedinst, Washington).
PRESIDENT TAFT AND CABINET, 1909. (Copyright, 1909, by Brown Bros., N.
Y.).
THE ALASKA-YUKON-PACIFIC EXPOSITION, SEATTLE. THE PALACE OF FINE ARTS.
THE HUDSON-FULTON CELEBRATION. THE CLERMONT PROCEEDING UP THE HUDSON
RIVER UNDER HER OWN STEAM.
COMMANDER PEARY'S SHIP, THE ROOSEVELT.
COMMANDER ROBERT E. PEARY, AND THREE OF HIS ESKIMO DOGS, ON THE
ROOSEVELT.
DR. F. A. COOK ON HIS ARRIVAL IN NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 21, 1909.
(Photograph by Brown Bros., N. Y.).
PRESIDENT TAFT SIGNING THE PROCLAMATION MAKING ARIZONA THE FORTY-EIGHTH
STATE OF THE UNION, AT THE WHITE HOUSE, FEBRUARY 14, 1912. (Copyright by
Clinedinst, Washington).
PRESIDENT TAFT SIGNING THE PROCLAMATION MAKING NEW MEXICO A STATE,
JANUARY 6, 1912. (Photograph, copyright, by Clinedinst, Washington).
CHARLES K. HAMILTON RACING AN AUTOMOBILE ON THE BEACH AT GALVESTON,
TEXAS. (From a photograph by H. H. Morris).
WILBUR AND ORVILLE WRIGHT, AND THE LATE KING EDWARD OF ENGLAND.
(Photograph by Brown Bros., N. Y.).
WILBUR WRIGHT IN HIS AEROPLANE AT PAU, FRANCE, WITH KING ALFONSO OF
SPAIN.
HARRY K. ATWOOD WITH LIEUT. FICKLE FLYING OVER GOVERNOR'S ISLAND, N. Y.,
AFTER COMPLETING HIS LIGHT FROM ST. LOUIS TO NEW YORK.
E. DANA DURAND, DIRECTOR OF THE CENSUS. (Copyright by Clinedinst,
Washington).
CENTRE OF POPULATION AT EACH CENSUS.
ROBERT M. LA FOLLETTE. (Copyright by Harris & Ewing, Washington).
ALBERT J. BEVERIDGE, SENATOR FROM INDIANA. (Copyright by Clinedinst,
Washington).
SENATOR NELSON W. ALDRICH. (Photograph by Clinedinst, Washington).
PERIOD VII
PROBLEMS OF THE NEW CENTURY
1902-1912
CHAPTER I
THE RISE OF THEODORE ROOSEVELT
[1900]
Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York City, October 27, 1858. He was
graduated from Harvard in 1880. At the age of twenty-three he entered
the New York State Assembly, where he served six years with great
credit. Two years he was a "cowboy" in Dakota. He was United States
Civil Service Commissioner and President of the New York City Police
Board. In 1897 he became Assistant Secretary of the Navy, holding this
position long enough to indite the despatch which took Dewey to Manila.
He then raised the first United States Volunteer Cavalry, commonly
spoken of as "Rough Riders," and went to Cuba as their
lieutenant-colonel. Gallantry at Las Guasimas made him their colonel,
the first colonel, Leonard Wood, having received a brigadier-general's
commission. Returning from the war, Colonel Roosevelt found himself, as
by a magic metamorphosis, Governor of his State, fighting civic battles
against growing corporate abuses. He urged compulsory publicity for the
affairs of monopolistic combinations, and was prominently instrumental
in the enactment of the New York Franchise Tax Law.
The party managers in the 1900 convention hoped by making him
Vice-President to remove him from competition for the presidency in
1904. But the most unexpected of the many swift transitions in his
career foiled their calculations and brought him in a moment to the
summit of a citizen's ambition.
The new chief magistrate was no less honest, fearless, or
public-spirited than the recent one; it only remained to be seen whether
he were not less astute and cautious. Coming to the office as he did, he
was absolutely unfettered, which, in one of so frank a temperament,
might prove a danger. He was more popular with the people than with
politicians. Though highly educated and used to the best associations,
he was more approachable than any of his predecessors. At a public
dinner which he attended, one round of cheers was given him as "the
President of the United States" another as "Roosevelt," and a third as
"Teddy." Had McKinley been in his place a corresponding variation would
have been unthinkable.
[Illustration: Portrait.]
From a copyrighted photograph by Pach Bros., N. Y.
Theodore Roosevelt.
President Roosevelt's temper and method were in pointed contrast to
McKinley's. Whereas McKinley seemed simply to hold the tiller, availing
himself of currents that to the eye deviously, yet easily and
inevitably, bore him to his objective, Roosevelt strenuously plied the
oar, recking little of cross currents or head winds, if, indeed, he did
not delight in them. Chauncey Depew aptly styled McKinley "a Western man
with Eastern ideas." Roosevelt, "an Eastern man with Western ideas."
This aspect of the new President's character gave him hold on both West
and East. Roosevelt was the first President since William Henry Harrison
to bring to his office the vigor and freshness of the frontier, as he
was, anomalously, the first city-born or wealthy-born incumbent.
[Illustration: Roosevelt on horseback.]
Theodore Roosevelt, as Lieut.-Colonel of the "Rough Riders."
[1901]
The members of President McKinley's cabinet were invited to retain their
portfolios, which they agreed to do. At the time, Roosevelt was reputed
to be the foremost civil service reformer in the country. Politicians
were soon made aware that the President regarded fitness for office as
the first test. Unfortunately during the presidency of McKinley, some
8000 offices had been taken out of the competitive lists. During
Roosevelt's first term, however, the list of offices placed under the
merit system was greatly extended. Within the twenty-one years from the
enactment of the first national civil service reform law wonders had
been accomplished in that more than one-half of the 300,000 offices in
the executive civil service were placed in the classified competitive
service.
President Roosevelt stood for liberal reciprocity with Cuba, urging
this, at first, with results disastrous to party harmony. He was
vindicated by public opinion, but learned wisdom. Though believed to be
favorable to a decided easing of custom-house levies, his administration
soon frankly avowed itself unable to proceed further than high-
protectionists would follow. The evidence of his tariff convictions won
him strong support in the West, which was prepared to go greater lengths
than he. In the congressional campaign of 1902, ex-Speaker Henderson, of
Iowa, a stanch protectionist, withdrew from public life, as was
supposed, rather than misrepresent himself by acceding to tariff reform
or his constituents by opposing it.
Mr. Roosevelt signalized his accession by an effort to make the federal
anti-trust law something more than a cumberer of the statute-book. His
inaugural message and innumerable addresses of his boldly handled the
whole trust evil and called for the regulation of capitalistic
combinations in the interest of the public.
Appreciation of the President's attitude on these matters may be
assisted by some notice of the then threatening vigor and universality
of the movement toward industrial combination. Mr. Beck, Assistant
Attorney-General of the United States, declared in 1892:
"Excessive capitalization of corporations, dishonest management by their
executive officers, the destruction of the rights of the minority, the
theft of public utilities, the subordination of public interests to
private gain, the debauchery of our local legislatures and executive
officers, and the corruption of the elective franchise, have resulted
from the facility afforded by the law to corporations to concentrate the
control of colossal wealth in the hands of a few men . . . . The
question presses ever more importunately for decision whether these
marvellous aggregations of capital can be subordinated to the very laws
which created them."
Legislation in many States, the enactment of the Sherman anti-trust law
by Congress, and the decision of the Supreme Court in the Trans-Missouri
case rendered insecure trust agreements of the old type, in which
constituent corporations surrendered the control of their affairs to
trustees. But the current merely shifted to a different channel, the
trust proper giving way to the giant corporation having the same aims,
methods, and efficiency, while, as more legal, it was less vulnerable.
In the railway world, "community of interest" assumed the place of
pooling agreements. The Union Pacific acquired large holdings from
Collis P. Huntington's estate and controlled the Southern Pacific. The
power behind the Southern Railway got control of nearly all the other
Southern railways, including the Atlantic Coast Line, the Plant System,
and at last even the Louisville and Nashville. The New York Central
dominated the other Vanderbilt roads. The Pennsylvania secured decisive
amounts of Baltimore and Ohio stock, as well as weighty interests in the
Chesapeake and Ohio and the Norfolk and Western, and so on.
[1902]
[Illustration: Portrait.]
Collis P. Huntington.
Great banking establishments, foremost among them the house of J. P.
Morgan & Co., took to financing these schemes. Morgan re-organized the
Northern Pacific, and it would forthwith have pooled issues with the
Great Northern but for opposition by the State of Minnesota. James J.
Hill was master of the Great Northern, and confidence existed between
him and Morgan.
They wished a secure outlet for the products of the Northwest, also
access to Chicago over a line of their own. After a survey of the field
the promoters selected as the most available for the latter office the
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy. Purchase of shares in this corporation
was quietly begun. Soon the Burlington road was apparently in hand.
Prices rose.
[Illustration: Portrait.]
Copyright. 1902. by Pach Bros., N. Y.
James J. Hill.
The Union Pacific control perceived in the aggression of the two
northern lines a menace to its northwestern and Pacific coast
connections. The Union Pacific leader, E. H. Harriman, resorted to an
unexpected coup. He attempted to purchase the Northern Pacific,
Burlington and all. A mysterious demand, set Northern Pacific shares
soaring. The stock reached $1,000 a share and none was obtainable. Panic
arose; bankers and brokers faced ruin.
The two sides now declared a truce. The Northern Securities Company was
created, with a capital approaching a billion dollars, to take over the
Burlington, Northern Pacific, and Great Northern stocks.
[Illustration: Portrait.]
E. H. Harriman.
The States of Minnesota and Washington, unable in their own courts to
thwart this plan, sought the intervention of the United States Supreme
Court. Their suit was vain till the Administration came to the rescue.
At the instance of the Attorney-General, an injunction issued from the
high court named forbidding the Securities Company to receive the
control of the roads, and the holders of the railroad stocks involved to
give it over. It was observed, however, that at the very time of the
above proceedings the Southern Railways' power obtained control of the
Louisville and Nashville without jar or judicial obstruction.
While general, the process of confederation was specially conspicuous in
the iron and steel trade. In rapid succession the National Steel
Company, the American Sheet Steel Company, and the American Tin Plate
Company were each made up of numerous smaller plants. Each of these
corporations, with a capital from $12,000,000 to $40,000,000, owned the
mines, the ships, and the railways for hauling its products, the mills
for manufacturing, and the agencies for sale. Through the efforts of
John W. Gates numerous wire and nail works were combined into the
American Steel and Wire Company. The Federal Steel Company, the American
Bridge Company, the Republic Iron and Steel Company, huge and complete,
were dictators each in its field.
[Illustration: Portrait.]
John W. Gates.
The Carnegie Steel Company long remained independent. Determined not to
enter a "combine," Andrew Carnegie sought to fortify his position. He
obtained a fleet of ships upon the lakes, purchased mines, undertook to
construct tube works at Conneaut, Ohio, and planned for railroads. A
battle of the giants, with loss and possible ruin for one side or the
other, impended. Carnegie was finally willing to sell. Hence, the United
States Steel Corporation capitalized for a billion dollars. Carnegie and
his partners were said to receive about $300,000,000 in bonds of the new
corporation, while the other trusts and the promoters absorbed the stock
for their properties and services. The underwriting syndicate probably
realized $25,000,000.
[Illustration: Portrait.]
Copyright. 1902, by Rockwood. N. Y.
Andrew Carnegie.
The trust creators extended their operations abroad. In 1901 J. Pierpont
Morgan and associates acquired the Leyland line of Atlantic
steamships. British nerves had not recovered tone when a steamship
combination, embracing not only American and British but also German
lines and ship-building firms at Belfast and on the Clyde was announced.
Of the great Atlantic companies, only the Cunard line remained
independent. Parliamentary and ministerial assurances of governmental
attention only emphasized the strength of the association.
[Illustration: Portrait.]
Copyright, 1901. by Pach Bros., N. Y:
J. Pierpont Morgan.
One effect of this organization at home was to place the Ship Subsidy
Bill, which passed the Senate in 1901, for the time, at least, on the
table. The sentiment of the country, especially of the Middle West,
would not permit the payment of public money to a concern commercially
able to defy Britannia on the sea.
The Yankee Peril confronted Londoners when they saw American capital
securing control of their proposed underground transit system. At their
tables they beheld the output of food trusts. One of these, the
so-called Beef Trust, called down upon itself in 1902 domestic as well
as foreign anathema.
The failure of the corn crop in 1900, together with a scarcity of
cattle, tended to raise the price of beef. In 1902 outcry became
emphatic. Advance in meat values drew forcibly to view the control held
by six slaughtering concerns acting in unison.
The President ordered an investigation, and, as a result, proceedings
under the Sherman Act to restrain the great packers from continuing
their alleged combination. A temporary injunction was granted. The slow
machinery of chancery bade fair to work out a decree, but long before it
was on record, alert spirits among the packing firms evolved a new plan
not obnoxious to decrees, but effective for union.
If the public suffered from these phalanxed industries while they ran
smoothly, it endured peculiar evils from the periodical conflicts
between the capital and the labor engaged in them.
The Steel Strike of 1901 was a conflict over the unionizing of certain
hitherto non-union plants of the United States Steel Corporation. It
resulted in defeat for the strikers and in the disunionizing of plants.
[Illustration: Two officers standing in front of a rail car.]
Col. Clements. Gen. Gobin, commanding troops sent to Shenandoah in the
coal strike of 1902.
This strike had no such consequences for the consuming public as
attended the anthracite coal strike of 1902, which was more bitterly
fought in that it was a conflict over wages. The standard of living had
been lowered in one of the coal-fields by the introduction of cheap
foreign labor. Now the same process threatened the other coal-field.
A strike ordered by the United Mine Workers began May 12, 1902, when one
hundred and forty-seven thousand miners went out. Though the record was
marred at places, they behaved well and retained to a large degree
public sympathy. When the price of anthracite rose from about $5 a ton
to $28 and $30, the parts of the country using hard coal were threatened
with a fuel famine and had begun to realize it. For the five months
ending October 12th, the strike was estimated to have cost over
$126,000,000. The operators stubbornly refused to arbitrate or to
recognize the union, and the miners, with equal constancy, held their
ranks intact.
[Illustration: Three men is suits sitting on a large log.]
Coal strike at Shenandoah, Pa., 1902. A strikers' picket.
[Illustration: Seven men around a large desk.]
Copyright, 1902, by George Grantham Bain.
The coal strike arbitrators chosen by the President. Carroll D. Wright,
Recorder; T. H. Watkins, General J. M. Wilson, Judge Gray, Presiding
Officer; E, W. Parker, E. E. Clark. and Bishop Spalding.
The problem of protecting the public pressed for solution as never
before. The only suggestion at first discussed was arbitration. Enforced
arbitration could not be effected in the absence of contract without
infringing the workingman's right to labor or to decline to do so; in
other words, without reducing him, in case of adverse decision by
arbitration, to a condition of involuntary servitude. It looked as
though no solution would be reached unless State or nation should
condemn and acquire ample portions of the mining lands to be worked
under its own auspices and in a just manner. This course was suggested,
but nearly all deemed it dangerously radical; nor was it as yet likely
to be adopted by Congress or by the Pennsylvania legislature, should
these powers be called to deal with the problem.
On October 3 President Roosevelt called the coal operators and President
Mitchell of the United Mine Workers to a conference at the White House,
urging them to agree. His effort, at first seeming unsuccessful, was
much criticised, but very few failed to praise it when, a few days
later, it was found to have succeeded completely. An able and impartial
commission, satisfactory to both sides, was appointed by the President
to act as arbitrator, both miners and operators agreeing to abide its
decrees. The miners, the four hundred thousand women and children
dependent on them, the poor beginning to suffer from cold, indeed the
whole nation, including, no doubt, the operators, felt relief.
"How much better," said the young President, once, addressing a
fashionable assembly, "boldly to attempt remedying a bad situation than
to sit quietly in one's retreat, sigh, and think how good it would be if
the situation could be remedied!"