[1] It is in this general sense that the subject is considered in
this article. The term is, however, used in more restricted senses,
generally with some word of qualification, e.g. "textual criticism"
or "higher criticism"; see the article TEXTUAL CRITICISM and the
article BIBLE for an outstanding example of both "textual" and
"higher."
CRITIUS and NESIOTES, two Greek sculptors of uncertain school, of the
time of the Persian Wars. When Xerxes carried away to Persia the statues
of Harmodius and Aristogiton made by Antenor, Critius and Nesiotes were
commissioned to replace them. By the help of coins and reliefs, two
statues at Naples, wrongly restored as gladiators, have been identified
as copies of the tyrannicides of Critius; and to them well apply the
words in which Lucian (_Rhetor. praecepta_, 9) describes the works of
Critius and Nesiotes, "closely knit and sinewy, and hard and severe in
outline." Critius also made a statue of the armed runner Epicharinus.
CRITOLAUS, Greek philosopher, was born at Phaselis in the 2nd century
B.C. He lived to the age of eighty-two and died probably before 111 B.C.
He studied philosophy under Aristo of Ceos and became one of the leaders
of the Peripatetic school by his eminence as an orator, a scholar and a
moralist. There has been considerable discussion as to whether he was
the immediate successor of Aristo, but the evidence is confused and
unprofitable. In general he was a loyal adherent to the Peripatetic
succession (cf. Cicero, _De fin._ v. 5 "C. imitari antiquos voluit"),
though in some respects he went beyond his predecessors. For example, he
held that pleasure is an evil (Gellius, _Noctes Atticae_, ix. 5. 6), and
definitely maintained that the soul consists of aether. The end of
existence was to him the general perfection of the natural life,
including the goods of the soul and the body, and also external goods.
Cicero says in the _Tusculans_ that the goods of the soul entirely
outweighed for him the other goods ("tantum propendere illam bonorum
animi lancem"). Further, he defended against the Stoics the Peripatetic
doctrine of the eternity of the world and the indestructibility of the
human race. There is no observed change in the natural order of things;
mankind re-creates itself in the same manner according to the capacity
given by Nature, and the various ills to which it is heir, though fatal
to individuals, do not avail to modify the whole. Just as it is absurd
to suppose that man is merely earth-born, so the possibility of his
ultimate destruction is inconceivable. The world, as the manifestation
of eternal order, must itself be immortal. The life of Critolaus is not
recorded. One incident alone is preserved. From Cicero (_Acad._ ii. 45)
it appears that he was sent with Carneades and Diogenes to Rome in
156-155 B.C. to protest against the fine of 500 talents imposed on
Athens in punishment for the sack of Oropus. The three ambassadors
lectured on philosophy in Rome with so much success that Cato was
alarmed and had them dismissed the city. Gellius describes his arguments
as _scita et teretia_.
Consult the article PERIPATETICS, and histories of ancient philosophy,
e.g. Zeller.
CRITTENDEN, JOHN JORDAN (1787-1863), American statesman, was born in
Versailles, Kentucky, on the 10th of September 1787. After graduating at
the College of William and Mary in 1807, he began the practice of law in
his native state. He served for three months, in 1810, as
attorney-general of Illinois Territory, but soon returned to Kentucky,
and during the War of 1812 he was for a time on the staff of General
Isaac Shelby. In 1811-1817 he served in the state House of
Representatives, being speaker in 1815-1816, and in 1817-1819 was a
United States senator. Settling in Frankfort, he soon took high rank as
a criminal lawyer, was in the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1825
and 1829-1832, acting as speaker in the latter period, and from 1827 to
1829 was United States district-attorney. He was removed by President
Jackson, to whom he was radically opposed. In 1835, as a Whig, he was
again elected to the United States Senate, and was re-elected in 1841,
but resigned to enter the cabinet of President W. H. Harrison as
attorney-general, continuing after President Tyler's accession and
serving from March until September. He was again a member of the United
States Senate from 1842 to 1848, and in 1848-1850 was governor of
Kentucky. He was an ardent and outspoken supporter of Clay's compromise
measures, and in 1850 he entered President Fillmore's cabinet as
attorney-general, serving throughout the administration. From 1855 to
1861 he was once more a member of the United States Senate. During these
years he was perhaps the foremost champion of Union in the South, and
strenuously opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which he declared
prophetically would unite the various elements of opposition in the
North, and render the breach between the sections irreparable.
Nevertheless he laboured unceasingly in the cause of compromise, gave
his strong support to the Bell and Everett ticket in 1860, and in
1860-1861 proposed and vainly contended for the adoption by congress of
the compromise measures which bear his name. When war became inevitable
he threw himself zealously into the Union cause, and lent his great
influence to keep Kentucky in the Union. In 1861-1863 he was a member of
the national House of Representatives, where, while advocating the
prosecution of the war, he opposed such radical measures as the division
of Virginia, the enlistment of slaves and the Conscription Acts. He died
at Frankfort, Kentucky, on the 26th of July 1863.
See the _Life of J. J. Crittenden_, by his daughter Mrs Chapman
Coleman (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1871).
His son, GEORGE BIBB CRITTENDEN (1812-1880), soldier, was born in
Russellville, Kentucky, on the 20th of March 1812, and graduated at West
Point in 1832, but resigned his commission in 1833. He re-entered the
army as a captain of mounted rifles in the Mexican War, served with
distinction, and was breveted major for bravery at Contreras and
Churubusco. After the war he remained in the army, and in 1856 attained
the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In June 1861 he resigned, and entered
the service of the Confederacy. He was commissioned major-general and
given a command in south-east Kentucky and Tennessee, but after the
defeat of his forces by General George H. Thomas at Mill Springs
(January 9, 1862), he was censured and gave up his command. He served
subsequently as a volunteer aide on the staff of Gen. John S. Williams.
From 1867 to 1871 he was state librarian of Kentucky. He died at
Danville, Kentucky, on the 27th of November 1880.
Another son, THOMAS LEONIDAS CRITTENDEN (1815-1893), soldier, was also
born at Russellville, Kentucky. He studied law, and practised with his
father, and in 1842 became commonwealth's attorney. He served in the
Mexican War as a lieutenant-colonel of Kentucky volunteers, and was an
aide on Gen. Zachary Taylor's staff at the battle of Buena Vista. From
1849 to 1853 he was United States consul at Liverpool, England. Like his
father, he was a strong Union man, and in September 1861 he was
commissioned by President Lincoln a brigadier-general of volunteers. He
commanded a division at Shiloh, for gallantry in which battle he was
promoted major-general in July 1862. He was in command of a corps in the
army of the Ohio under Gen. D. C. Buell, and took part in the battles of
Stone River and Chickamauga. Subsequently he served in the Virginia
campaign of 1864. He resigned his commission in December 1864, but in
July 1866 entered the regular army with the rank of colonel of infantry,
receiving the brevet of brigadier-general in 1867, served on the
frontier and in several Indian wars, and retired in 1881. He died on the
23rd of October 1893.
CRIVELLI, CARLO, Venetian painter, was born in the earlier part of the
15th century. The only dates that can with certainty be given are 1468
and 1493; these are respectively the earliest and the latest years
signed on his pictures--the former on an altar-piece in the church of
San Silvestro at Massa near Fermo, and the latter on a picture in the
Oggioni collection in Milan. Though born in Venice, Crivelli seems to
have worked chiefly in the March of Ancona, and especially in and near
Ascoli; there are only two pictures of his proper to a Venetian
building, both of these being in the church of San Sebastiano. He is
said to have studied under Jacobello del Fiore, who was painting as late
at any rate as 1436; at that time Crivelli was probably only a boy. The
latter always signed as "Carolus Crivellus Venetus"; from 1490 he added
"Miles," having been then knighted ("Cavaliere") by Ferdinand II. of
Naples. He painted in tempera only, and is seen to most advantage in
subject pictures of moderate size. He introduced agreeable landscape
backgrounds; and was particularly partial to giving fruits and flowers
(the peach is one of his favourite fruits) as accessories, often in
pendent festoons. The National Gallery in London is well supplied with
examples of Crivelli; the "Annunciation," and the "Beato Ferretti" (of
the same family as Pope Pius IX.) in religious ecstasy, may be
specified. Another of his principal pictures is in San Francesco di
Matelica; in Berlin is a "Madonna and Saints" (1491); in the Vatican
Gallery a "Dead Christ," and in the Brera of Milan the painter's own
portrait, with other examples. Crivelli is a painter of marked
individuality,--hard in form, crudely definite in contour; stern,
forced, energetic, almost grotesque and repellent, in feature and
expression, and yet well capable of a prim sort of prettiness; simply
vigorous in his effect of detachment and relief, and sometimes admitting
into his pictures objects actually raised in surface; distinct and warm
in colour, with an effect at once harsh and harmonious. His pictures
gain by being seen in half-light, and at some little distance; under
favouring conditions they grip the spectator with uncommon power. Few
artists seem to have worked with more uniformity of purpose, or more
forthright command of his materials, so far as they go. It is surmised
that Carlo was of the same family as the painters Donato Crivelli (who
was working in 1459, and was also a scholar of Jacobello) and Vittorio
Crivelli. Pietro Alamanni was his pupil.
See, along with Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Berenson, _Venetian Painters
of the Renaissance_ (1899); Morelli, _Italian Painters_ (1892-1893);
Rushforth, _Carlo Crivelli_ (1900). (W. M. R.)
CROATIA-SLAVONIA (Serbo-Croatian _Hrvatska i Slavonija_; Hung.
_Horvat-Szlavonorszag_; Ger. _Kroatien und Slawonien_), a kingdom of the
Hungarian monarchy; bounded on the N. by Carniola, Styria and Hungary
proper; E. by Hungary and Servia; S. by Servia, Bosnia and Dalmatia; and
W. by the Adriatic Sea, Istria and Carniola. Until 1881 Croatia, in the
N.W. of this region, was divided from Slavonia, in the N.E., by a
section of the Austrian Military Frontier. This section is now the
county of Bjelovar, and forms part of the united kingdom of
Croatia-Slavonia. The river Kulpa, which bisects the county of Agram, is
usually regarded as the north-eastern limit of the Balkan Peninsula; and
thus the greater part of Croatia, lying south of this river, falls
within the peninsular boundary, while the remainder, with all Slavonia,
belongs to the continental mainland. According to the official survey of
1900, the total area of the country is 16,423 sq. m. The Croatian
littoral extends for about 90 m. from Fiume to the Dalmatian frontier. A
narrow strait, the Canale della Morlacca (or della Montagna), separates
it from Veglia, Arbe, Pago and other Istrian or Dalmatian islands. The
city and territories of Fiume, the sole important harbour on this coast,
are included in Hungary proper, and controlled by the Budapest
government. Westward from Warasdin, and along the borders of Styria,
Carniola, Istria, Dalmatia and north-western Bosnia, the frontier is
generally mountainous and follows an irregular course. The central and
eastern region, situated between the Drave and Danube on the north, and
the Save on the south, forms one long wedge, with its point at Semlin.
_Physical Features_.--Croatia-Slavonia is naturally divided into two
great sections, the highlands of the west and the lowlands of the east.
The plateau of the Istrian Karst is prolonged in several of the bare and
desolate mountain chains between the Save and the Adriatic, notably the
Great and Little Kapella (or Kapela), which link together the Karst and
the Dinaric Alps, culminating in Biela Lazica (5029 ft.); the Pljecevica
or Plicevica Planina (5410 ft.), overlooking the valley of the river
Una; and the Velebit Planina, which follows the westward curve of the
coast, and rises above the sea in an abrupt wall, unbroken by any
considerable bay or inlet. As it skirts the Dalmatian border, this range
attains its greatest altitude in the adjacent peaks of Sveto Brdo (5751
ft.), and Vakanski Vrh (5768 ft.). Large tracts of the Croatian
highlands are well-nigh waterless, and it is only in the more sheltered
hollows that sufficient soil collects for large trees to flourish. In
northern Croatia and Slavonia the mountains are far more fertile, being
often densely wooded with oaks, beeches and pines. They comprise the
Uskoken Gebirge, or Uskoks Mountains, named after the piratical Uskoks
(q.v.) of Zengg, who were deported hither after the fall of their
stronghold in 1617; the Warasdin Mountains, with the peak of Ivanscica
(3478 ft.); the Agram Mountains, culminating in Sljeme or Slema (3396
ft.), and including the beautiful stretches of Alpine pasture known as
the Zagorje, or "land beyond the hills"; the Bilo Gebirge, or White
Mountains, a low range of chalk, and, farther to the south, several
groups of mountains, among which Psunj (3228 ft.), Papuk (3217 ft.) Crni
Vrh (2833 ft.), and the Ravna Gora (2808 ft.) are the chief summits. All
these ranges, except the Uskoken Gebirge, constitute the central
watershed of the kingdom, between the Drave and Save. In the east
Slavonian county of Syrmia[1] the Frucka Gora or Vrdnik Mountains rise
to a height of 1768 ft. along the southern bank of the Danube, their
picturesque vineyards and pine or oak woods contrasting strongly with
the plains that surround them.
The lowlands, in the valleys of the Drave, Danube, Save and Kulpa,
belong partly to the great Hungarian Plains, or Alfold. Besides the
sterile and monotonous steppes, valuable only as pasture, and so
sparsely populated that it is possible to travel for many hours without
encountering any sign of human life except a primitive artesian well or
a shepherd's hut, there are wide expanses of fen-country, regularly
flooded in spring and autumn. The marshes which line the Save below
Sissek are often impassable except at Brod and Mitrovica, and the river
is constantly scooping out fresh channels in the soft soil, only to
abandon each in turn. The total area liable to yearly inundation exceeds
200 sq. m. But along the Drave and Danube the plains are sometimes
strikingly fertile, and yield an abundance of grain, fruit and wine.
The main rivers of Croatia-Slavonia, the Danube, Drave and Save, are
fully described under separate headings. After reaching Croatian
territory 13 m. N.W. of Warasdin, the Drave flows along the northern
frontier for 155 m., receiving the Bednja and Karasnica on the right,
and falling, near Esseg, into the Danube, which serves as the
Hungaro-Slavonian boundary for an additional 116 m. The Save enters the
country 16 m. W. of Agram, and, after winding for 106 m. S.E. to
Jasenovac, constitutes the southern frontier for 253 m., and meets the
Danube at Belgrade. It is joined by the Sotla, Krapina, Lonja, Ilova,
Pakra and Oljana, which drain the central watershed; but its only large
tributaries are the Una, a Bosnian stream, which springs in the Dinaric
Alps, and skirts the Croatian border for 40 m. before entering the Save
at Jasenovac; and the Kulpa, which follows a tortuous course of 60 m.
from its headwaters north of Fiume, to its confluence with the Save at
Sissek. The Mreznica, Dobra, Glina and Korana are right-hand tributaries
of the Kulpa. In the Croatian Karst the seven streams of the Lika unite
and plunge into a rocky chasm near Gospic, and the few small brooks
of this region usually vanish underground in a similar manner. Near
Fiume, the Recina, Rjeka or Fiumara falls into the Adriatic after a
brief course. There is no large lake in Croatia-Slavonia, but the upland
pools and waterfalls of Plitvica, near Ogulin, are celebrated for their
beauty. After a thaw or heavy rain, the subterranean rivers flood the
mountain hollows of the Karst; and a lake thus formed by the river
Gajka, near Otocac, has occasionally filled its basin to a depth of 160
ft.
_Minerals_.--The mineral resources of the kingdom, though capable of
further development, are not rich. They are chiefly confined to the
mountains, where iron, coal, copper, lead, zinc, silver and sulphur
are mined in small quantities. Warm mineral springs rise at Krapina,
at Toplice near Warasdin, at Stubica near Agram, and elsewhere.
_Climate_.--The climate of Croatia-Slavonia varies greatly in
different regions. In the Karst it is liable to sudden and violent
changes, and especially to the _bora_, a fierce N.N.E. wind, which
renders navigation perilous among the islands off the coast, and, in
winter, blocks the roads and railway-cuttings with deep snowdrifts.
The sheltered bays near Fiume enjoy an equable climate; but in all
other districts the temperature in mid-winter falls regularly below
zero, and the summer heats are excessive. Earthquakes are common among
the mountains, and the eastern lowlands are exposed to the great winds
and sandstorms which sweep down the Alfold. At Agram, during the years
1896-1900, the mean annual temperature was 52 deg. F., with 34.6 in.
of rain and snow; at Fiume, the figures for the same period were 57
deg. and 71 in.
_Agriculture_.--The agricultural inquiry of 1895 showed that 94.5% of
the country consisted of arable land, gardens, vineyards, meadows,
pastures and forests; but much of this area must be set down as
mountainous and swampy pasture of poor quality. The richest land
occurs in the Zagorje and its neighbourhood, in the hills near
Warasdin and in the northern half of Syrmia. The Karst and the fens
are of least agricultural value. Indian corn heads the list of
cereals, but wheat, oats, rye and barley are also cultivated, besides
hemp, flax, tobacco and large quantities of potatoes. The extensive
vineyards were much injured by _phylloxera_ towards the close of the
19th century. The Slavonian plum orchards furnish dried prunes,
besides a kind of brandy largely exported under the name of
_sliwowitz_ or _shlivovitsa_. Near Fiume the orange, lemon,
pomegranate, fig and olive bear well; mulberries are planted on many
estates for silkworms; and the heather-clad uplands of the central
region favour the keeping of bees. Large herds of swine fatten in the
oak and beech forests; and dairy-farming is a thriving industry in the
highlands between Agram and Warasdin, where, during the last years of
the 19th century, systematic attempts were made to replace the
mountain pastures by clover and sown grass. The proportion of sheep to
other live-stock is lower than in most of the South Slavonic lands,
and the scarcity of goats is also noteworthy. Horsebreeding is a
favourite pursuit in Slavonia; and between 1900 and 1902 many
thousands of remounts were shipped to the British army in South
Africa. The local administration endeavours to better the quality of
live-stock by importing purer breeds, distributing prizes, and other
measures; but the native farmers are slow to accept improvements.
_Forests_.--Forests, principally of oak, pine and beech, covered
3,734,000 acres in 1895, about one-fifth being state property.
Especially valuable are the Croatian oak-forests, near Agram and
Sissek. Timber is exported from Fiume and down the Danube.
_Industries_.--Apart from the distilleries and breweries scattered
throughout the country, the rude flour-mills which lie moored in the
rivers, and a few glass-works, saw-mills, silk-mills and tobacco
factories, the chief industrial establishments of Croatia-Slavonia are
at Agram, Fiume, Semlin, Buccari and Porto Re. Only 8.3 of the
population was, in 1900, engaged in industries other than farming,
which occupied 85.2%. The exports mainly consist of foodstuffs,
especially grain, of live-stock, especially pigs and horses, and of
timber. The imports include textiles, iron, coal, wine and colonial
products; with machinery and other finished articles. Goods in transit
to and from Hungary figure largely in the official returns for
Fiume[2] and Semlin, which are the centres of the foreign trade. In
1900 Croatia-Slavonia possessed 253 banking establishments.
_Communications_.--The commerce of the country is furthered by upwards
of 2000 m. of carriage-roads, the most remarkable of these being the
Maria Louisa, which connects Karlstadt with Fiume, and the Josephina,
which passes inland from Zengg. Many excellent highways were built for
strategic purposes before the abolition of the Military Frontier in
1881. The railways, which are all owned and managed by the Hungarian
state, intersect most parts of the country except the mountains south
of Ogulin, where there is, nevertheless, a considerable traffic over
the passes into Dalmatia and Bosnia. Agram is the principal railway
centre, from which lines radiate S. W. to Fiume, W. into Austria,
N.N.E. to Warasdin and into Hungary, and S.E. into Bosnia by way of
Kostajnica. The main line eastward from Agram passes through Brod,
where it meets the Bosnian system, and on to Belgrade; throwing out
two branch lines to Brcka and Samac in Bosnia, and several
branches on the north, which traverse the central watershed, and cross
the Hungarian frontier at Zakany, Barcs, Esseg, Erdar and
Peterwardein. Above Agram the Save is used chiefly for floating rafts
of timber; east of Sissek it is navigable by small steamboats, but,
despite its great volume, the multitude of its perpetually shifting
sandbanks interferes greatly with traffic. Steamers also ply on the
Una, the Drave below Barcs, and the Danube. The marshes of Syrmia are
partially drained by the so-called "Canal of Probus," the one large
artificial waterway in the country, said to have been cut by the
Romans in the 3rd century.
_Chief Towns_,--The principal towns are Agram, the capital, with
61,002 inhabitants in 1900; Esseg, the capital of Slavonia (24,930);
Semlin (15,079); Mitrovica (11,518); Warasdin (12,930); Karlstadt
(7396); Brod (7310); Sissek (7047); Djakovo (6824); Karlowitz (5643);
Peterwardein (5019); Zengg (3182); and Buccari (1870). These are
described in separate articles. The centre of the coasting trade is
Novi, and other small seaports are San Giorgio (_Sveto Juraj_), Porto
Re (_Kraljevica_) and Carlopago. Agram, Gospic (10,799), Ogulin
(8699), Warasdin and Bjelovar (6056) are respectively the capitals of
the five counties which belong to Croatia proper,--Agram (Hung.
_Zagrab_), Modruc-Fiume, Lika-Krbava, Warasdin (_Varasd_) and
Bjelovar (_Belovar-Koros_); while the capitals of the three Slavonian
counties, Virovitica (_Verocze_), Pozega (_Pozsega_) and Syrmia
(_Szerem_), are Esseg, Pozega (5000) and Semlin.
_Population and National Characteristics_.--The population rose from
1,892,499 in 1881 to 2,416,304 in 1900, an increase of little less than
one-third, resulting from a uniformly low death rate, with a high
marriage and birth rate, and characterized by that preponderance of male
over female children which is common to all the South Slavonic lands.
More than 75% of the inhabitants are Croats, the bulk of the remainder
being Serbs, who predominate in eastern Slavonia. Outside
Croatia-Slavonia, the Croats occupy the greater part of Dalmatia and
northern Bosnia. There are large Croatian settlements in the south of
Hungary, and smaller colonies in Austria. The numbers of the whole
nation may be estimated at 3,500,000 or 4,000,000. The distinction
between Croats and Serbs is religious, and, to a less extent,
linguistic. Croats and Serbs together constitute a single branch of the
Slavonic race, frequently called the Serbo-Croatian branch. The literary
language of the two nations is identical, but the Croats use the Latin
alphabet,[3] while the Serbs prefer a modified form of the Cyrillic. The
two nations have also been politically separated since the 7th century,
if not for a longer period; but this division has produced little
difference of character or physical type. Even the costume of the
Croatian peasantry, to whom brilliant colours and intricate embroideries
are always dear, proclaims their racial identity with the Serbs; their
songs, dances and musical instruments, the chief part of their customs
and folk-lore, their whole manner of life, so little changed by its
closer contact with Western civilization, may be studied in Servia
(q.v.) itself. In both countries rural society was based on the
old-fashioned household community, or _zadruga_, which still survives in
the territories that formed the Military Frontier, though everywhere
tending to disappear and be replaced by individual ownership. The
Croatian peasantry are least prosperous in the riverside districts,
where marsh-fevers prevail, and especially beside the Save. Even in many
of the towns the houses are mere cabins of wood and thatch. As in
Servia, there is practically no middle class between the peasants and
the educated minority; and the commercial element consists to a great
extent of foreigners, especially Germans, Hungarians, Italians and Jews.
Numerically this alien population is insignificant. The Italians are
chiefly confined to the coast; the Germans congregate at Semlin and
Warasdin; the Slovenes are settled along the north-western frontier,
where they have introduced their language, and so greatly modified the
local dialect; the gipsies wander from city to city, as horse-dealers,
metal workers or musicians; there are numerous Moravian and Bohemian
settlements; and near Mitrovica there is a colony of Albanians. It is
impossible to give accurate statistics of the alien population; for, in
the compilation of the official figures, language is taken as a test of
nationality, an utterly untrustworthy method in a country where every
educated person speaks two or three languages. Croatian nationalists
also maintain that official figures are systematically altered in the
Hungarian interest.
_Constitution and Government_.--By the fundamental law of the 21st of
December 1867 Austria-Hungary was divided, for purposes of internal
government, into Cisleithania, or the Austrian empire, and
Transleithania, or the kingdoms of Hungary and Croatia-Slavonia. In
theory the viceroy, or _ban_ of Croatia-Slavonia is nominated by the
crown, and enjoys almost unlimited authority over local affairs; in
practice the consent of the crown is purely formal, and the _ban_ is
appointed by the Hungarian premier, who can dismiss him at any moment.
The provincial government is subject to the _ban_, and comprises three
ministries--the interior, justice, and religion and education,--for
whose working the _ban_ is responsible to the Hungarian premier, and to
the national assembly of Croatia-Slavonia (_Narodna Skupctina_). This
body consists of a single chamber, composed partly of elected deputies,
partly of privileged members, whose numbers cannot exceed half those of
the deputies. There are 69 constituencies, besides the 21 royal free
cities which also return deputies. Electors must belong to certain
professions or pay a small tax. The privileged members are the heads of
the nobility, with the highest ecclesiastics and officials. As a rule,
they represent the "Magyarist" section of society, which sympathizes
with Hungarian policy. The chamber deals with religion, education,
justice and certain strictly provincial affairs, but even within this
limited sphere all its important enactments must be countersigned by the
minister for Croatia-Slavonia, a member, without portfolio, of the
Hungarian cabinet. At the polls, all votes are given orally, a system
which facilitates corruption; the officials who control the elections
depend for their livelihood on the _ban_, usually a Magyarist; and thus,
even apart from the privileged members, a majority favourable to Hungary
can usually be secured. The constitutional relations between Hungary and
Croatia-Slavonia are regulated by the agreement, or _nagoda_, of 1868.
This instrument determines the functions of the _ban_; the control of
common interests, such as railways, posts, telegraphs, telephones,
commerce, industry, agriculture or forests; and the choice of delegates
by the chamber, to sit in the Hungarian parliament. See also below,
under _History_.
Local administration.
For administrative purposes Croatia-Slavonia is divided into 8 rural
counties, already enumerated; besides the 4 urban counties, or
municipalities of Agram, Semlin, Warasdin and Esseg. These are
subdivided into rural and urban communes, each with its representative
council. The affairs of each rural county are managed by an assembly
chosen for 6 years, which comprises not only elected members, but
delegates from all the cities except Agram and Esseg, with certain
high ecclesiastics and officials.
Justice.
The highest judicial authority is the supreme court or Septemviral
Table, which sits at Agram, and ranks above the royal courts of
appeal, the county courts of first instance, and the district courts
or magistracies.
Religion.
Fully four-fifths of the population belong to the Roman Catholic
Church, which has an archbishop at Agram and bishops at Zengg and
Djakovo. There are about 12,000 Greek Catholics, with a bishop at
Kreuz (_Krizevac_). The Serb congregations, who had previously been
classed as Orthodox Greek, were officially recognized as members of
the Orthodox Church of Servia after 1883. Their episcopal sees of
Karlowitz and Pakrac depend upon the metropolitanate of Belgrade; but
from 1830 to 1838 Karlowitz was itself the headquarters of the Servian
Church.
Education.
During the 19th century strenuous efforts to better the state of
education were made by Bishop Strossmayer (1815-1905) and other
reformers; but, although some success was achieved, only one-third of
the population could read and write in 1900. Foremost among the
educational institutions is the South Slavonic Academy of Sciences and
Arts (_Jugoslavenska Akademija Znanosti i Umjetnosti_), founded by
Strossmayer and others in 1867, as an improvement on a learned society
which had existed since 1836. The academy is the headquarters of the
nationalist propaganda. Its numerous publications, though sometimes
biased by political passion, throw much light on Serbo-Croatian
history, law, philology and kindred topics. Agram University, founded
in 1874, possesses three faculties--theology, philosophy and law; but,
unlike other Hungarian universities, it lacks a faculty of medicine.
Its average number of students varies from 300 to 350. In 1900 there
were also 19 _real-gymnasia_, teaching science, art and modern
languages, as well as classics and mathematics; 1400 elementary
schools; and a few special institutions, such as the naval and
military academies of Fiume, ecclesiastical seminaries and commercial
colleges. In almost every case the language of instruction is
Serbo-Croatian. The development of higher education, without a
corresponding advance of technical education, has created an
intellectual class, comprising many men of letters, and several
painters, musicians and sculptors, though none of great eminence; it
also tends to produce many aspirants to official or professional
careers, who find employment difficult to obtain. The want of a strong
native middle class may partly be traced to this tendency.
_History._
Medieval historians did not use the terms Croatia and Slavonia in their
present sense. The Croatia of the middle ages comprised north-western
Bosnia, Turkish Croatia, and the region now known as Upper Croatia. The
whole country between the Drave and Save, thus including a large part of
modern Croatia, was called in Latin _Slavonia_, in German _Windisches
Land_, and in Hungarian _Totorszag_, to distinguish it from the
territories in which the Croats were racially supreme (_Horvatorszag_).
At the time of their conquest by the Romans (35 B.C.) both these
divisions were occupied by the Pannonians, who in Slavonia had displaced
an older population, the Scordisci; and both were included in the Roman
province of Pannonia Inferior, although Slavonia had the distinctive
name of Pannonia Savia (see PANNONIA). When the Roman dominions were
broken up in A.D. 395, Croatia-Slavonia remained part of the Western
empire. The Ostrogoths overran it in 489; in 535 it was annexed by
Justinian; in 568 it was conquered by the Avars. These were in turn
expelled from Croatia by the Croats, a Slavonic people from the western
Carpathians, who, according to some authorities, had occupied the
territories of the Marcomanni in Bohemia, and been driven thence in the
6th century by the Czechs. The main body of the Croats, whose tribal and
racial names respectively are perpetuated in the names of Croatia and
Slavonia, entered Croatia between 634 and 638, and were encouraged by
the emperor Heraclius to attack the Avars. Smaller bodies had led the
way southwards since 548. The Croats formed the western division of the
great migratory horde of Serbo-Croats which colonized the lands between
Bulgaria and the Adriatic. Contemporary chroniclers called them
_Chrobati_, _Belochrobati_ ("White Croats"), _Chrovati_, _Horvati_, or
by some similar Latin or Byzantine variant of the Slavonic _Khrvaty_.
The Croats occupied most of the region now known as Croatia-Slavonia,
Dalmatia, and north-western Bosnia, displacing or absorbing the earlier
inhabitants everywhere except along the Dalmatian littoral, where the
Italian city-states usually maintained their independence, and in
certain districts of Slavonia, where, out of a mixed population of
Slavonic immigrants, Avars and Pannonians, the Slavs, and especially the
Serbo-Croats, gradually became predominant. The Croats brought with them
their primitive tribal institutions, organized on a basis partly
military, partly patriarchal, and identical with the Zhupanates of the
Serbs (see SERVIA); agriculture, war and hunting were their chief
pursuits. Although they at first acknowledged no alien sovereign, they
passed gradually under Italian influence in the extreme west, and under
Byzantine influence in the south and south-east. In 806 the northern and
north-eastern districts were added to the empire of the Franks, and thus
won for the Western Church. Frankish predominance was long commemorated
by the name Francochorion, given by the Byzantines to Syrmia; it is
still commemorated by the name Frucka Gora, "Mountains of the
Franks," in that province.
_The Croatian Kingdom: c. 910-1091._--In 877 the Croats were temporarily
subdued by the Byzantine emperor, but after successive insurrections
which tended to centralize their loosely knit tribal organization, and
to place all power in the hands of a military chief, they regained their
independence and founded a national kingdom about 910. It is probable
that Tomislav or Timislav, who had led their armies to victory, assumed
the title of king in that year. Some authorities, however, state that
Tomislav only bore the title of _veliki zupan_ or "paramount chief,"
and was only one in a long line of princes which can be traced without
interruption back to 818. On this view, Drzislav (c. 978-1000) was
the first king properly so called. But Tomislav, whatever his official
style, was certainly the first of a series of independent national
rulers which lasted for nearly two centuries. The records of this
period, regarded by many Croats as the golden age of their country, are
often scanty, and its chronology is still unsettled. Little is known of
Trpimir, who preceded Drzislav, or of Stephen I. (1035-1058), but a
few of the kings gained a more lasting fame by their success in war and
diplomacy. Among these were Krecimir I. (c. 940--946), his successor
Miroslav, and especially Krecimir II., surnamed the Great (c.
1000-1035), who harried the Bulgarians, at that time a powerful nation,
and conquered a large part of Dalmatia, including some of the Italian
cities. Already, under his predecessors, the Croats had built a fleet,
which they used first for piracy and afterwards for trade. Their skill
in maritime affairs, exemplified first in the 9th century by the pagan
corsairs of the Narenta (see DALMATIA: _History_), and later by the
numerous Dalmatian and Croatian sailors who served in the navies of
Venice and Austria, is remarkable in a Slavonic people, and one which
had so recently migrated from central Europe. At the end of the 10th
century they even for a short period exacted tribute from Venice, but
their power was temporarily destroyed in 1000, when the Venetians
captured and sacked Biograd or Belgrade, the Italian Zaravecchia. This
Dalmatian port was not only the Croatian arsenal, but the seat of the
kings, who here sought to enhance their dignity by borrowing the
grandiose titles and elaborate procedure of the Byzantine court.
Krecimir II. and Krecimir Peter (c. 1058-1073), the hero of many
national legends and lays, restored the naval power of the Croats. After
the death of Krecimir Peter, Slavic or Slaviza reigned until 1076,
when he was succeeded by Zvonimir (Svinimir or Zvoinimir) Demetrius.
Zvonimir was crowned by the legate of Pope Gregory VII, and appears to
have been regarded as a vassal of the papacy. Both he and Stephen II., a
nephew of Krecimir II., died in 1089.
_Hungarian Supremacy: 1091-c. 1526._--Amid the strife of rival claimants
to the throne, Helena, the widow of Stephen, appealed for aid to her
brother Ladislaus I., king of Hungary. Ladislaus took possession of the
country in 1091. He founded the bishopric of Agram and introduced
Hungarian law. His death in 1095 was the signal for a nationalist
insurrection, but after two years the rebels were crushed by his
successor Coloman. This monarch reorganized the administration on a
system which has been maintained, with modifications in detail, by
almost all subsequent rulers. He respected the existing institutions of
the conquered territory so far as to leave its autonomy in domestic
affairs intact; but delegated his own sovereignty, and especially the
control of foreign affairs and war, to a governor known as the ban
(q.v.). This office was sometimes held by princes of the royal house,
often by Croatian nobles. Coloman also extended his authority over
Dalmatia and the islands of the Quarnero, but the best modern
authorities reject the tradition that in 1102 he was crowned king of
Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia. In 1127 Syrmia, which had been annexed
to Bulgaria from about 700 to 1018, and to the Eastern empire from 1019,
was united to Slavonia. The Hungarian government left much liberty to
the Croatian nobles, a turbulent and fanatical class, ever ready for
civil war, rebellion or a campaign against the Bosnian heretics. Their
most powerful leaders were the counts of Zrin and Bribir (or Brebir),
whose surname was Subic. This family played an important part in
local politics from the 13th century to 1670, when Peter Subic was
its last member to hold the office of ban. Paul Subic (d. 1312)
and Mladen Subic (d. 1322) even for a short period united Croatia,
Slavonia, Bosnia and part of Dalmatia under their own rule. From 1322 to
1326 the Croatian nobles successfully withstood the armies of Hungary
and Bosnia; from 1337 to 1340, instigated by the Vatican, they carried
on a crusade against the Bosnian Bogomils; and in the Krajina (Turkish
Croatia) hostilities were resumed at intervals until the Turkish
conquest.
_The Turkish Occupation: c. 1526-1718._--Here, as elsewhere, the Ottoman
invasion was facilitated by the feuds of the Christian sects. When King
Matthias Corvinus undertook to defend Slavonia in 1490 it was too late;
Matthias lost Syrmia and died in the same year. His successor Ladislaus
of Poland (1490-1516) added Slavonia to the kingdoms named in the royal
title, which now included the words "King of Dalmatia and Croatia and
Slavonia" (_Rex Dalmatiae et Croatiae et Slavoniae_). But he failed to
repel the Turks, who in 1526 destroyed the power of Hungary at the
battle of Mohacs. In 1527 the Croats were compelled to swear allegiance
to Ferdinand I. of Austria, who had been elected king of Hungary.
Ferdinand founded the generalcy of Karlstadt and thus laid the
foundation of the military frontier. The provinces of Agram, Warasdin
and Kreutz, previously included in Slavonia, were added to Croatia, to
counterbalance the loss of territory in the Krajina. Throughout the
century the Turks continued to extend their conquests until, in 1606,
the emperor retained only western Croatia, with the cities of Agram,
Karlstadt, Warasdin and Zengg. During the same period the doctrines of
the Reformation had spread among the Croats; but they were forcibly
suppressed in 1607-1610. The military occupation by the Turks left
little permanent impression; colonization was never attempted; and the
continuous wars by which the victors strove to secure or enlarge their
dominions north of the Save left no time for the introduction of Moslem
religion or civilization among the vanquished. Thus in the reconquest of
Croatia-Slavonia there was none of the local opposition which afterwards
hindered the Austrian occupation of Bosnia. The successes of Prince
Eugene in 1697 led two years later to the peace of Carlowitz, by which
the Turks ceded the greater part of Slavonia and Hungary to Austria; and
the remainder was surrendered in 1718 by the treaty of Passarowitz. Only
Turkish Croatia henceforth remained part of the Ottoman empire.
_Austrian and French Supremacy: 1718-1814._--Austrian influence
predominated throughout Croatia-Slavonia during most of the 18th
century, although Slavonia was constitutionally regarded as belonging to
Hungary. Despite Magyar protests the misleading name "Croatia" was
popularly and even in official documents applied to the whole country,
including the purely Slavonian provinces of Virovitica, Pozega and
Syrmia. From 1767 to 1777 Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia were
collectively named Illyria, and governed from Vienna, but each of these
divisions was subsequently declared a separate kingdom, with a separate
administration, while the military frontier remained under military
rule. In 1776 the Croatian seaboard, which had previously been under the
same administration as the rest of the Austrian coast, was annexed to
Croatia, but three years later Fiume was declared an integral part of
Hungary. These administrative changes, and especially the brief
existence of united "Illyria," stimulated the dormant nationalism of the
Croats and their jealousy of the Magyars. In 1809 Austria was forced to
surrender to Napoleon a large part of Croatia, with Dalmatia, Istria,
Carinthia, Carniola, Gorz and Gradisca. These territories received the
name of the Illyrian Provinces, and remained under French rule until
1813. All the Croats capable of service were enrolled under the French
flag; their country was divided for administrative purposes into
_Croatie civile_ and _Croatie militaire_. In 1814 Dalmatia was
incorporated in Austria, while Istria, Carinthia, Carniola, Gorz and
Gradisca became the Illyrian kingdom of Austria, and retained their
united government until 1849. Croatia and Slavonia were declared
appanages of the Hungarian crown--_partes adnexae_, or subject
provinces, according to the Magyars; _regna socia_, or allied kingdoms,
according to their own view. Each phrase afterwards became the watchword
of a political party: neither is accurate. The Croats preserved their
local autonomy, the use of their language for official purposes, their
elected diet and other ancient institutions, but Hungarian control was
represented by the ban.
_The National Revival._--The Croats acquiesced in their position of
inferiority until 1840, when the Magyars endeavoured to introduce
Hungarian as the official language. A nationalist or "Illyrist" party
was formed under Count Drackovic and Bishop J. Strossmayer (q.v.)
to combat Hungarian influence and promote the union of the "Illyrian"
Slavs, i.e. the Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. Ljudevit Gaj, the leading
Croatian publicist, strongly supported the movement. The elections of
1842 were marked by a series of sanguinary conflicts between Illyrists
and Magyarists, but not until 1848 were the Illyrists returned to
office. One of their leaders, Baron Josef Jellachich, was appointed ban
in 1848. He strongly advocated the union of Croatia with Carinthia,
Carniola and Styria, but found his policy thwarted as much by the apathy
of the Slovenes as by the hostility of the Magyars. A Croatian
deputation was received at Innsbruck by Ferdinand V., but before its
arrival the Hungarians had obtained a royal manifesto hostile to
Illyrism. But failure only increased the agitation among the southern
Slavs; all attempts at mediation proved unsuccessful, and on the 31st of
August the Croats claimed to have convinced the king that justice was on
their side. On the 11th of September the advance-guard of their army
crossed the Drave under the command of Jellachich. On the 29th they were
driven back from Pakozd by the Hungarians, and retired towards Vienna;
they subsequently aided the Austrian army against the Hungarian
revolutionaries (see JELLACHICH, JOSEF, and HUNGARY: _History_). The
constitution of 1849 proclaimed Croatia and Slavonia separated from
Hungary and united as a single Austrian crownland, to which was annexed
the Croatian littoral, including Fiume. Austrian supremacy lasted until
1867; no ban was appointed, and owing to the suspension of local
autonomy from 1850 to 1860 this period is known as "the ten years of
reaction." It was ended by the celebrated "October Diploma" of the 20th
of October 1860, which promised the restoration of constitutional
liberty. But the so-called "Constitution of February" (21st February
1861) placed all practical power in the hands of an executive controlled
by the government at Vienna. The newly elected diet was soon dissolved
for its advocacy of a great South Slavonic confederation under imperial
rule, and no other was elected until 1865.
From 1865 to 1867 Strossmayer and the nationalists endeavoured to secure
the formation of a subordinate Austrian kingdom comprising Dalmatia,
Croatia-Slavonia and the islands of the Quarnero. The Magyars had,
however, resolved to subject Croatia-Slavonia to the crown of St
Stephen, and in 1867 had secured control of the finances and electoral
machinery. The office of ban was revived, and its holder, Baron Levin
Rauch, was an ardent Magyarist. At the elections of December 1867 a
majority of Hungarian partisans was easily obtained, and on the 29th of
January the diet passed a resolution in favour of reunion with Hungary.
The whole Opposition refused to take any part in the proceedings, as a
protest against the alleged illegality of the elections; but by the 25th
of June the Croatian commissioners and the Hungarian government had
framed a new constitution, which was ratified in September. Besides
substituting Hungarian for Austrian sovereignty, it provided that the
diet and the ban should control local affairs, subject to the Croatian
minister in the Hungarian cabinet, and that Croatia-Slavonia should pay
55% of its revenue to Hungary for mutual and imperial expenses, but
should be represented in the Hungarian parliament by thirty-six
delegates, and should continue to use Serbo-Croatian as the official
language. Hungary guaranteed that the 45% retained by the territorial
government should be not less than two and a half million gulden
(L250,000). In May 1870 Fiume was annexed to Hungary, but in 1873 the
Croats received as compensation an increase of their guaranteed revenue
to L350,000, an addition of seven to the number of their representatives
at Budapest, and a promise that the military frontier should be
incorporated in the existing civil provinces. In 1877 a convention with
Hungary regulated the control of public estates in the military
frontier, and on the 15th of July 1881 the frontier, including the
district of Sichelburg claimed by Carniola, was handed over to the local
administration.
Meanwhile the events of 1875-1878 in the Balkans, culminating in the
Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, revived the agitation for
a "Great Croatia." A party separate from the regular Opposition, and
known as the "Party of the Right," was formed to oppose the Magyarists.
Its activity resulted in the riots of 1883, which were with difficulty
quelled; in 1885 its leader, N. Starcevic, was condemned to
imprisonment for the violence of his speeches against the ban, Count
Khuen-Hedervary. In 1888 the moderate Opposition also lost its leader,
Bishop Strossmayer, who was censured by the king on account of his
famous Panslavist telegram to the Russian Church (see STROSSMAYER). In
1889 the financial agreement with Hungary was revised and the
contribution of Croatia-Slavonia to the expenses shared with Hungary or
common to the whole of the Dual Monarchy was raised by 1%. This added
burden combined with bad harvests, a fall in the revenue and a deficit
in the budget to heighten popular discontent. Count Khuen-Hedervary was
responsible for several administrative improvements, but the prosperity
of the country declined from year to year. The government was accused of
illegal interference with the elections, with the use of the Hungarian
arms and language in official documents, and with undue harshness in the
censorship of the press. In May 1903 there were outbreaks of rioting in
Agram, Sissek and other towns, besides serious agrarian disturbances
directed against the Magyarist landowners; in a debate in the Reichsrath
(18th May) an Austrian deputy named Bianchini unsuccessfully attempted
to induce the imperial government to intervene. At the end of June Count
Khuen-Hedervary was made Hungarian prime minister; Count T.
Pejacevic succeeded him as ban, and restored quiet by promising
freedom of assembly and greater liberty of the press. Since 1898 the
financial agreement had only been renewed from year to year. But the
estimates for 1904 revealed another heavy deficit; and this was only
paid by Hungary on condition that the agreement should be renewed until
the 31st of December 1913, and the contribution of 56% maintained.
The constitutional crisis of 1905 in Hungary stimulated the nationalist
agitation. A congress of Croatian and Dalmatian deputies met at Spalato
to advocate Serbo-Croatian unity, and in 1906 the municipality of Agram
endeavoured to petition the king in favour of union with Bosnia and
Herzegovina. This propaganda was severely discouraged. Baron Rauch,
appointed ban in 1908, refused to summon the diet, in which he could not
command a single vote, and much excitement was caused in 1909 by the
trial of 57 nationalist leaders for high treason. The policy of the
nationalists, who now aimed at the political union, under the
king-emperor, of all Serbo-Croats in Austria-Hungary--upwards of
4,500,000--was less visionary than the older Illyrism, and less
aggressively Panslavist. It no longer sought to include Carinthia,
Carniola and Styria in the proposed "Great Croatia." It was opposed by
Austria as tending to create a new and formidable Slavonic nation within
the Dual Monarchy, and by Hungary as a menace to Magyar predominance in
Transleithania.
_Language and Literature._
For the place of the Croatian dialects among Slavonic languages
generally, see SLAVS. The Croatian dialects, like the Servian, have
gradually developed from the Old Slavonic, which survives in medieval
liturgies and biblical or apocryphal writings. The course of this
development was similar in both cases, except that the Croats, owing to
their dependence on Austria-Hungary, were not so deeply influenced as
the Serbs by Byzantine culture in the middle ages, and by Russian
linguistic forms and Russian ideas in modern times. The Orthodox Serbs,
moreover, use a modified form of the Cyrillic alphabet, while the Roman
Catholic Croats use Latin characters, except in a few liturgical books
which are written in the ancient Glagolitic script. As the literary
language of both nations is now practically the same, and is, indeed,
commonly known as "Serbo-Croatian," the reader may be referred to the
article SERVIA: _Language and Literature_, for an account of its
history, of its chief literary monuments up to the 19th century and
inclusive of Dalmatian literature, and of the principal differences
between the dialects spoken in Servia and Croatia-Slavonia.
The three most important Croatian dialects are known as the _Cakavci_,
_Cakavctina_ or, in Servian, _Chakavski_, spoken along the Adriatic
littoral; the _Stokavci_ (_Stokavctina_, _Shtokavski_), spoken in Servia
and elsewhere in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula; and the
_Kajkavci_ (_Kajkavctina_, _Kaykavski_), spoken by the partly Slovene
population of the districts of Agram, Warasdin and Kreuz. This
classification is based on the form, varying in different localities, of
the pronoun _ca_, _cto_, or _kaj_, meaning "what."
The Cakavci literature includes most of the works of the Dalmatian
writers of the 15th and 16th centuries--the golden age of Serbo-Croatian
literature. Its history is indissolubly interwoven with that of the
Stokavci, which ultimately superseded it, and became the literary
language of all the Serbo-Croats, as it had long been the language of
the best national ballads and legends.
Kajkavci had from about 1550 to 1830 a distinctive literature,
consisting of chronicles and histories, poems of a religious or
educational character, fables and moral tales. These writings possess
more philological interest than literary merit, and are hardly known
outside Croatia-Slavonia and the Slovene districts of Austria.
Apart from the Kajkavci dialect, the whole body of Serbo-Croatian
literature up to the 19th century may justly be regarded as the common
heritage of Serbs and Croats. The linguistic and literary reforms which
Dossitey Obradovich and Vuk Stefanovich Karajich carried out in Servia
about the close of this period helped to stimulate among the Croats a
new interest in their national history, their traditions, folk-songs and
folk-tales. One result of this nationalist revival was the unsuccessful
attempt made between 1814 and 1830 to raise the Cakavci dialect to the
rank of a distinctive literary language for Croatia-Slavonia; but the
Illyrist movement of 1840 led to the adoption of the Stokavci, which was
already the vernacular of the majority of Serbo-Croats. Ljudevit Gaj
(1809-1872), though he failed to create an artificial literary language
by the fusion of the principal dialects spoken by Serbs, Croats and
Slovenes, was by his championship of Illyrism instrumental in securing
the triumph of the Stokavci. Gaj was a poet of considerable talent, and
one of the founders of Croatian journalism. Among other writers of the
first half of the 19th century may be mentioned Ivan Mazuranic
(1813-1890), whose first poems were published in the _Danica ilirska_
("Illyrian Dawnstar"), a journal founded and for a time edited by Gaj.
In 1846 Mazuranic published his _Smrt Smail Aga Cengica_ ("Death of
Ismail Aga Cengic"), called by Serbo-Croats the "Epos of Hate." This
remarkable poem, written in the metre of the old Servian ballads, gives
a vivid description of life in Bosnia under Turkish rule, and of the
hereditary border feuds between Christians and Moslems. In later life
Mazuranic distinguished himself as a statesman, and became ban of
Croatia from 1873 to 1880. Other writers representative of Croatian
literature before 1867 were the lyric poet Stanko Vraz (1810-1851) and
Dragutin Rakovac (1813-1854), the author of many patriotic songs.
With the foundation of the South Slavonic Academy at Agram, in 1867, the
study of science and history received a new impetus. Under the
presidency of Franko Racki (1825-1894) the academy, with its journal the
_Rad jugoskovenske Akademije_, became the headquarters of an active
group of savants, among whom may be mentioned Vastroslav Jagic (b.
1838), sometime editor of the _Archiv fur slavische Philologie_; the
historians Sime Ljubic (1822-1896) and Vjekoslav Klaic, author of
several standard works on Croatia and the Croats; the lexicographer
Bogoslav Sulek (1816-1895); the ethnographer and philologist Franko
Karelac (1811-1874). In Dalmatia, where the Ragusan journal _Slovinac_
has served, like the Agram _Rad_, as a focus of literary activity, there
have been numerous poets and prose writers, associated, in many cases,
with the Illyrist or the nationalist propaganda. Among these may be
mentioned Count Medo Pucic (1821-1882), and the dramatist Matija Ban
(1818-1903), whose tragedy _Meyrimah_ is considered by many the finest
dramatic poem in the Serbo-Croatian language.
AUTHORITIES.--For the topography, products, inhabitants and modern
condition of Croatia-Slavonia, see _Bau und Bild Osterreichs_, by C.
Diener, F. E. Suess, R. Hoernes and V. Uhlig (Leipzig, 1903); _Die
osterreich-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild_, vol. xxiv., edited
by J. von Weilen (Vienna, 1902); _Fuhrer durch Ungarn, Kroatien und
Slawonien_, by B. Alfoldi (Vienna, 1900); _Reisefuhrer durch Kroatien
und Slawonien_, by A. Lukcic (Agram, 1893);
_Vegetationsverhaltnisse von Kroatien_, by A. Neilreich (Vienna,
1868); "Die Slowenen," by J. Suman, and "Die Kroaten," by F. Stare,
in vol. x. of _Die Volker Osterreich-Ungarns_ (Vienna, 1881-1882);
_Die Serbokroaten der adriatischen Kustenlander_, by A. Weisbach
(Berlin, 1884); and the map _Zemljovid Hrvatske i Slavonije_, by M.
Katzenschlager (Vienna, 1895). The only detailed history is one in
Serbo-Croatian, written by a succession of the highest native
authorities, and published by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, from
1861). It is largely based on the following works: _Vetera monumenta
historica Hungariam sacram illustrantia_, containing documents from
the Vatican library edited by A. Theiner (Rome, 1860); _Vetera
monumenta historiam Slavorum meridionalium illustrantia_, published by
the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1863, &c.); _Jura regni Croatiae,
Dalmatiae, et Slavoniae cum privilegiis_, by J. Kukuljevic (Agram,
1861-1862); _Monumenta historica Slavorum meridionalium_, by V.
Makushev, in Latin and Italian, with notes in Slavonic (Belgrade,
1885); _De regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae_, by G. Lucio (Amsterdam, 1666;
see DALMATIA, under bibliography); _Regno degli Slavi_, by M. Orbini
(Pesaro, 1601); and, for ecclesiastical history, _Illyricum sacrum_,
by D. Farlatus and others (Venice, 1751-1819). See also _Hrvatska i
Hrvati_, by V. Klaic (Agram, 1890, &c.); and _Slawonien vom 10. bis
zum 13. Jahrhundert_, translated from the Serbo-Croatian of Klaic
by J. von Vojnicic (Agram, 1882). (K. G. J.)