[1] "It is founded," said Sir J. Fitzjames Stephen, writing in 1863,
"on a set of loose definitions and descriptions of crimes, the most
important of which are as old as Bracton. Upon this foundation there
was built, principally in the course of the 18th century, an entire
and irregular superstructure of acts of parliament, the enactments of
which were for the most part intended to supply the deficiencies of
the original system. These acts have been re-enacted twice over in
the present generation--once between 1826 and 1832 and once in 1861;
besides which they were all amended in 1837. Finally, every part of
the whole system has been made the subject of judicial comments and
constructions occasioned by particular cases, the great mass of which
have arisen within the last fifty years." (_View of the Criminal Law
of England_, by J. Fitzjames Stephen.)
[2] i.e. Itinerant justices. From the Latin _in itinere_, on a
journey.
CRIMINOLOGY, the name given to a new branch of social science, devoted
to the discussion of the genesis of crime (q.v.), which has received
much attention in recent years. The expression is one of modern coinage,
and originated with the speculative theories first advanced by the
school of sociologists which had the Italian savant, Professor Lombroso,
at its head. He discovered or was supposed to have discovered a criminal
type, the "instinctive" or "born" criminal, a creature who had come into
the world predestined to evil deeds, and who could be surely recognized
by certain stigmata, certain facial, physical, even moral birthmarks,
the possession of which, presumably ineradicable, foredoomed him to the
commission of crime. Dr Lombroso, in his ingenious work _L'Uomo
delinquente_, found many attentive and appreciative, not to say bigoted
followers. Large numbers of dissentients exist, however, and the
conclusions of the Italian school have been warmly contested and on very
plausible grounds. If the doctrines be fully accepted the whole theory
of free-will breaks down, and we are faced with the paradox that we have
no right to punish an irresponsible being who is impelled to crime by
congenital causes, entirely beyond his control. The "instinctive"
criminal, under this reasoning, must be classed with the lunatic whom we
cannot justly, and practically never do, punish. There are other points
on which proof of the existence of the criminal type fails absolutely.
The whole theory illustrates a modern phase of psychological doctrine,
and the subject has exercised such a potent effect on modern thought
that the claims and pretensions of the Lombroso school must be examined
and disposed of.
The alleged discovery of the "born-criminal" as a separate and distinct
genus of the human species was first published by Dr Lombroso in 1876 as
the result of long continued investigation and examination of a number
of imprisoned criminals. The personality of this human monster was to be
recognized by certain inherent moral and physical traits, not all
displayed by the same individual but generally appearing in conjunction
and then constituting the type. These traits have been defined as
follows:--various brain and cerebral anomalies; receding foreheads;
massive jaws, prognathous chins; skulls without symmetry; ears long,
large and projecting (the ear _ad ansa_); noses rectilinear, wrinkles
strongly marked, even in the young and in both sexes, hair abundant on
the head, scanty on the cheeks and chin; eyes feline, fixed, cold,
glassy, ferocious; bad repellent faces. Much stress is laid upon the
physiognomy, and it is said that it is independent of nationality; two
natives of the same country do not so nearly resemble each other as two
criminals of different countries. Other peculiarities are:--great width
of the extended arms (_l'envergure_ of the French), extraordinary
ape-like agility; left-handedness as well as ambi-dexterism; obtuse
sense of smell, taste and sometimes of hearing, although the eyesight is
superior to that of normal people. "In general," to quote Lombroso, "the
born criminal has projecting ears, thick hair and thin beard,
projecting frontal eminences, enormous jaws, a square and protruding
chin, large cheek bones and frequent gesticulation." So much for the
anatomical and physiological peculiarities of the criminal. There remain
the psychological or mental characteristics, so far as they have been
observed. Moral insensibility is attributed to him, a dull conscience
that never pricks and a general freedom from remorse. He is said to be
generally lacking in intelligence, hence his stupidity, the want of
proper precautions, both before and after an offence, which leads so
often to his detection and capture. His vanity is strongly marked and
shown in the pride taken in infamous achievements rather than personal
appearance.
No sooner was this new theory made public than the very existence of the
supposed type was questioned and more evidence demanded. A French savant
declared that Lombroso's portraits were very similar to the photographs
of his friends. Save for the dirt, the recklessness, the weariness and
the misery so often seen on it, the face of the criminal does not differ
from that of an honest man's. It was pointed out that if certain traits
denoted the criminal, the converse should be seen in the honest man. A
pertinent objection was that the deductions had been made from
insufficient premises. The criminologists had worked upon a
comparatively small number of criminals, and yet made their discoveries
applicable to the whole class. The facts were collected from too small
an area and no definite conclusions could be based upon them. Moreover,
the criminologists were by no means unanimous. They differed amongst
themselves and often contradicted one another as to the characteristics
exhibited.
The controversy was long maintained. Many eminent persons have been
arrayed on either side. In Italy Lombroso was supported by Colajanni,
Ferri, Garofalo; in France by J. A. Lacassagne. In Germany Lombroso has
found few followers; Dr Naecke of Hubertusburg near Leipzig, one of the
most eminent of German alienists, declined to admit there was any
special animal type. Van Hamel of Amsterdam gives only a qualified
approval. In England it stands generally condemned, because it gives no
importance to circumstance and passing temptation, or to domestic or
social environment, as affecting the causation of crime. Dr Nicholson of
Broadmoor has said that "if the criminal is such by predestination,
heredity or accidental flaws or anomalies in brain or physical
structure, he is such for good and all; no cure is possible, all the
plans and processes for his betterment, education, moral training and
disciplinary treatment are nugatory and vain." No weight can then be
attached to evil example, or unfavourable social surroundings, in
moulding and forming character, particularly during the more plastic
periods of childhood and youth.
The pertinent question remains, has the study and development of
criminology served any useful purpose? Little perhaps can come of it in
its restricted sense, but it has taken a wider meaning and embraces
larger researches. It has inquired into the sources and causes of crime,
it has collected criminal statistics and deduced valuable lessons from
them, it has sought and obtained guidance in the best methods of
prevention, repression, and forms of procedure. The champions of law and
order have been greatly aided by the criminologist in carrying on the
continual combat with crime, and in dealing with the most complicated of
social phenomena. The new science has, in fact, by accumulating a number
of curious details, in recording the psychology, the secret desires, the
springs of the criminal's nefarious actions, his corrigibility or the
reverse, "prepared the way to his sociological explanation" (Tarde).
Thanks to the labours of the criminologist we are moving steadily
forward to a future improved treatment of the criminal, and may thus
arrive at the increased morality and greater safety of society. Very
appreciable advance has been made in the increased attention paid to
juvenile and adult crime, the acceptance of the theory, now well
established, that there is an especially criminal age, a period when the
moral fibre is weaker and more yielding to temptation to crime, when
happily human nature is more malleable and susceptible to improvement
and reform.
The study of criminology has, however, gone far to satisfy us that the
true genesis of crime is not to be sought in the anatomical anomalies of
individuals, or in the fact that there are people who under "any social
conditions whatever and of any nationality at no matter what epoch,
would have undoubtedly become murderers and thieves." On the contrary it
may be safely assumed that many such would have done no wrong if they
had, e.g., been born rich, had been free from the pressing needs that
drove them into crime, and had escaped the evil influences of their
surroundings. The criminologists have strengthened the hands of
administrators, have emphasized the paramount importance of child-rescue
and judicious direction of adults, have held the balance between penal
methods, advocating the moralizing effect of open-air labour as opposed
to prolonged isolation, and have insisted upon the desirability of
indefinite detention for all who have obstinately determined to wage
perpetual war against society by the persistent perpetration of crime.
AUTHORITIES.--See A. Weingart, _Kriminaltaktik, ein Handbuch fur das
Untersuchen von Verbrechen_ (Leipzig, 1904); F. H. Wines, _Punishment
and Reformation_ (New York, 1895); C. Perrier, _Les Criminels_ (Paris,
1905); G. Mace, _Femmes criminelles_ (Paris, 1904); E. Carpenter,
_Prisons, Police and Punishment_ (1905); R. R. Rentoul, _Proposed
Sterilization of certain Mental and Physical Degenerates_ (1904); R.
Sommer, _Kriminalpsychologie und strafrechtliche Psychopathologie auf
naturwissenschaftlicher Grundlage_ (Leipzig, 1904); F. Kitzinger, _Die
internationale kriminalistische Vereinigung_ (1905); Reports of
Committee on the best mode of giving efficiency to Secondary
Punishments (1831-1832); Reports of the House of Commons Committee of
1853, of the royal commission of 1884, of the departmental committee
of 1895, and the annual reports of H. M. inspectors for Great Britain
and Ireland. (A. G.)
CRIMMITZSCHAU, or KRIMMITSCHAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Saxony, on the Pleisse and the main Leipzig-Hof railway, 7 m. N.W. from
Zwickau. Pop. (1900) 22,845. The most important industries of the town
are the manufacture of buckskin, the spinning of carded yarn and
vicuna-wool, and the processes of dyeing, finishing and wool-spinning
connected with these. Among other manufactures are brushes, boilers and
the like, machinery, metal ware generally, the cases and other parts of
watches. The town has a modern school (Realschule), a commercial school,
and technical schools for weaving and finishing.
CRIMP (possibly connected with "crimp," to draw together, or fold in
parallel lines, in the sense of "confine"; the primary meaning, however,
seems to be that of "agent," and the word may be a distinct one, of
which the origin is lost), an agent for the supplying of soldiers and
sailors, by kidnapping, drugging, decoying or other illegal means.
Crimps were formerly regularly employed in the days of impressment
(q.v.). Now the term is used, first of any one who engages to supply
merchant seamen without a licence from the Board of Trade, and is not
either the owner, master or mate of the ship, or is not bona fide the
servant, and in the constant employment of the owner, or is not a
superintendent (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, S 111); and, with a wide
application, of the extortionate lodging or boarding-house keepers, who
are generally in league with the "crimp" proper.
Sections 212 to 219 inclusive of the above act provide for the
protection of merchant seamen in the United Kingdom from imposition.
Local authorities at seaports have power to make by-laws for the
licensing and regulating of lodging-houses for sailors, and to inflict
penalties for the infringement thereof. If this power be not exercised,
the Board of Trade may do so. Penalties are also imposed by the act for
overcharging by lodging-house keepers, for detaining of seamen's
effects, and for soliciting. Unauthorized persons are prohibited from
boarding a ship in port without leave. The Board of Trade officer at a
port may provide money for sending a seaman to his home on discharge,
and may forward his wages after deducting the expenses. Facilities are
also given for having wages sent home from foreign ports at a small
charge. These provisions have practically killed "crimping" in the
United Kingdom. In the ports of the United States of America crimping
was long prevalent, especially on the Pacific coast, and its prevention
was very difficult, but state regulations as to the licensing of
boarding-houses, and the limitation of the amount of so-called
"blood-money" paid by masters of vessels to the suppliers of crews to
ships denuded by desertions, have reduced the abuse materially.
The term "to shanghai" is used of a more serious offence. Literally
meaning "to ship to Shanghai," in China, it is applied to the drugging
or rendering unconscious by violence or other means of persons, whether
sailors or not, and shipping them to distant ports, in order
fraudulently to obtain money in advance of wages, or for the sake of the
premium paid for supplying crews.
CRIMSON, the name of a strong, bright red colour tinged to a greater or
less degree with purple. It is the colour of the dye produced from the
dried bodies of the cochineal insect (_Coccus cacti_). The word, in its
earlier forms _cremesin, crymysyn_, also _cramoysin_, cf. "cramoisy,"
the name of a red cloth, is adapted from the Med. Lat. _cremesinus_ for
_kermesinus_ or _carmesinus_, the dye produced from the insect _Kermes_
(_Coccus ilicis_), Arab. _quirmiz_, which Skeat (_Etym. Dict._, 1898)
connects with the Sanskrit _krimi_, cognate with Lat. _vermis_ and Eng.
"worm." From the Lat. _carminus_, a shortened form of carmesinus, comes
"carmine" (q.v.).
CRINAGORAS, of Mytilene, Greek epigrammatist, flourished during the
reign of Augustus (Strabo xiii. p. 617). A number of epigrams appear
under his name in the Greek Anthology. From inscriptions discovered at
Mytilene, he appears to have been one of the ambassadors sent from that
city to Rome in 45 and 26 B.C.
The epigrams have been edited by M. Rubensohn (1888).
CRINOLINE (a Fr. word formed of the Lat. _crinis_, hair, and _linum_,
thread), a stiffening material made of horse-hair and cotton or linen
thread. Substitutes for this, such as the straw-like material used in
making hat shapes, are also known by the same name. From the use of the
material to expand ladies' skirts the term was applied, during the third
quarter of the 19th century, when the fashion of wearing greatly
expanded skirts was at its height, to the whalebone and steel hoops
employed to support the skirts thus worn (see COSTUME). The term is also
used of structures resembling these articles, especially of the
framework of booms, spars and netting forming a protection for a warship
against torpedo attack.
CRINUM, a genus (nat. ord. Amaryllidaceae) of bulbous plants with rather
broad leaves and a solid leafless stem, bearing a cluster of handsome
white or red funnel-shaped regular flowers. They are well known in
cultivation, and owing to the wide distribution of the genus different
methods are adopted with different species. Some require the hot, moist
temperature of a stove; such are _C. amabile_, a native of Sumatra, _C.
amoenum_ (India), _C. Balfourii_ (Socotra), _C. giganteum_ (West
tropical Africa), _C. Kirkii_ (Zanzibar), _C. latifolium_ (India), _C.
zeylanicum_ (tropical Asia and Africa), and others. Others thrive in a
greenhouse; such are _C. asiaticum_, a widely distributed plant on the
sea-coast of tropical Asia, _C. capense_ and _C. longiflorum_, from the
Cape, and _C. Macowani_ and _C. Moorei_ from Natal. _C. asiaticum_, _C.
capense_ and _C. Macowani_ will also thrive in sheltered positions in
the garden.
CRIOBOLIUM, the sacrifice of a ram in the cult of Attis and the Great
Mother. It seems to have been a special ceremony instituted after the
rise, and on the analogy of the taurobolium (q.v.), which was performed
in honour of the Great Mother, for the purpose of giving fuller
recognition to Attis in the duality which he formed with the Mother.
There is no evidence of its existence either in Asia or in Italy before
the taurobolium came into prominence (after A.D. 134). When the
criobolium was performed in conjunction with the taurobolium, the altar
was almost invariably inscribed to both the Mother and Attis, while the
inscription was to the Mother alone when the taurobolium only was
performed. The celebration of the criobolium was widespread, and its
importance such that it was sometimes performed in place of the
taurobolium (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ vi. 505, 506). The details and effect
of the ceremony were no doubt similar to those of the taurobolium. (G.
SN.)
CRIPPLE CREEK, a city and the county-seat of Teller county, almost at
the geographical centre of Colorado, U.S.A., one of the phenomenal
mining camps of the West. Pop. (1900) 10,147 (1408 foreign-born);
(1910) 6206. The city is served by three railways--the Colorado Springs
& Cripple Creek District (a branch of the Colorado & Southern), the
Midland Terminal (which connects at Divide, 30 m. distant by rail, with
the Colorado Midland), and the Florence & Cripple Creek. Cripple Creek
is situated on a mountain slope in a pocket amid the ranges, about 9600
ft. above the sea at the head of the stream after which it is named. The
municipal water-supply is drawn from Pike's Peak, 10 m. distant. The
interest of the city is in its extraordinary mines and their history.
Cripple Creek's site was frequently prospected after 1860, and "colours"
and gold "float" were always found, but not until February 1891 was the
source discovered. Cripple Creek was at that time a cattle range. In
1891 the output of gold in the district was valued at $449, in 1892 at
$583,010, and in the next three years at $2,010,367, $2,908,702 and
$6,879,137 respectively. From 1891 to 1906 the total production of gold
was valued at $168,584,331; in 1905[1] the product of gold was valued at
$15,411,724, the total for the whole state being valued at $25,023,973;
in 1906 the output for the district was valued at $14,253,245, out of
$23,210,629 for the entire state. The development of the camp into a
yellow-pine town and then into something more like a substantial city
was marvellously rapid. The first railway was completed in 1894. In the
same year a great strike--one of the most famous in American industrial
history--threatening civil war, temporarily closed the mines; in 1896
fire almost destroyed the city; in 1903-1904 a second strike, lasting
more than a year and greater than the first, occurred. The first strike,
which was for an eight-hour day and $3.00 wage, was won by the miners.
The second, for the recognition outright of the union organization of
the miners, secured only a reaffirmation of the former conditions. The
ores are almost exclusively gold, tellurides being the most
characteristic form, and occur in fissure veins. Outcroppings were very
rare, as the veins were covered with loose wash, and this accounted for
the late opening of the field. The field covers a district about 8 X 10
m. Some peculiarities of the ores have required the use of new methods
in their treatment, and in general the development of mining methods and
machinery is of a wonderful character. The whole surrounding country is
seamed with miles of tunnels in granite, and the hillsides are dotted
everywhere with enormous dumps. The most famous mines have been the
"Independence" (1891) and the "Portland" (1892). The latter had in 1904
more than 25 m. of workings above the 1100-ft. level. In 1903 the El
Paso drain was completed, to unwater the western half of the field to
the 880-ft. level, greatly increasing many mine values and outputs; in
1906 the work of drainage was again taken up, and work on a long bore
was begun in May 1907. There are smelters and cyanide extracters in the
district, but the bulk of the ore product is shipped to other places for
treatment. Among the towns around Cripple Creek in the same mining
district is Victor, pop. (1910) 3162, incorporated in 1894, chartered as
a city in 1898.
See W. Lindgren and F. L. Ransome, _Geology and Gold Deposits of the
Cripple Creek District, Colorado_, with maps (Washington, 1906), being
Professional Paper No. 54 of the United States Geological Survey; and
Benjamin McKie Rastall, _The Labor History of the Cripple Creek
District; A Study in Industrial Evolution_ (Madison, Wis., 1908), a
full account of the strikes of 1894 and of 1903-1904.