ILLUSTRATIONS REVIEWED — THE PLANES OF THE FACE . . . 132
PART II.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION . . . 153
CHAPTER II.
TASTE . . . 163
CHAPTER III.
MISCELLANEOUS ILLUSTRATIONS — ECONOMY IN PRINTING . . . 175
CHAPTER IV.
LETTERING: THEORY AND PRACTICE . . . 181
CHAPTER V.
SOME STANDARD HISTORIC ALPHABETS STUDIED . . . 191
CHAPTER VI.
EARLY AND MODERN TYPE: ITS APPROPRIATENESS, ITS
ORNAMENTATION . . . 197
CHAPTER VII.
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF LETTERS . . . 207
CHAPTER VIII.
SUMMARY OF METHOD OF INSTRUCTION — ANALYSIS OF STYLES OF BOOK
DECORATION . . . 211
CHAPTER IX.
WOOD ENGRAVING — DIRECTIONS FOR PRACTICE . . . 223
CHAPTER X.
DIRECTIONS FOR EXPERIMENTS WITH ZINC PLATES — COPPERPLATE
ENGRAVING—LITHOGRAPHY—CHALK PLATE . . . 234
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Aldine Horace:
Title-page from . . . 199
Auriol, Georg:
Heading design . . . 175
Designs . . . 205, 216
_Theatre du Chat Noir_ . . . 217
Bauernfeind, Michael:
Alphabet . . . 189
Beggarstaff Brothers:
Poster . . . 219
Bergomensis, J. P. F.:
Title-page . . . 193
Bonnard, Pierre:
Head of Pierre Réné Choudieu . . . 87
Tailpiece . . . 95
Bonnat, Léon:
Studies for figures in a painting . . . 54
Portrait of Léon Cogniet . . . 91
Brun, A.:
At the Café Aphrodite . . . 97
Caspari:
Title-page to Volume II of _Jugend_ . . . 169
_Chap-Book_:
Illustration, Genuine . . . 227
Chaume, Geoffrey de:
Mask of Béranger . . . 141
Crawhall, Joseph:
Illustration, imitation of _Chap-Book_ . . . 229
Dagnan-Bouveret:
Study of a head . . . 72
David d’Angers:
Medallion . . . 137
d’Illzach, Ringel:
Medallion portrait . . . 138
Diagrams:
Of Herkomer pine trees—
No. 1 . . . 60
No. 2 . . . 61
Of Grasset ornament—
Nos. 3 and 4 . . . 64
Practice blocks for wood-engraving, Nos. 1 and 2 . . . 232
No. 3 . . . 233
Dollman, J. C., R. I.:
“Hawks Dinna Pike Out Hawks’ Een” . . . 139
Donatello:
Bust of young girl, after . . . 104
_Don Chisciotte_, Caricature from:
Crispi as Cæsar . . . 37
Eaton, Wyatt:
Portrait of Robert Louis Stevenson . . . 116
Engström, Albert:
Caricature of the artist himself . . . 21
Hedin—a caricature . . . 28
Jörgen—a caricature . . . 29
Daniel Fallström—a caricature . . . 44
_Figaro_, Illustration from . . . 156
Forain:
Newspaper caricatures . . . 127, 142
French Art Schools Studies, published under the direction
of Bargue and Gérôme:
Figure, . . . 56
Hand, Fig. A . . . 66
Hand, Fig. B . . . 67
Foot . . . 98
Foot . . . 99
French Periodical:
Headpiece from . . . 211
Caricature of French actor, Dailly, from . . . 213
Battle of the Sphinx, from . . . 216
French Periodical:
Headpiece from . . . 222
Wood cut portrait from . . . 231
Tailpiece, Silhouette . . . 233
Gaillard, C. F.:
Study for the portrait of Mme. R. . . . 77
Gerbault, H.:
Pen drawing with mechanically stippled background . . . 24
_Gil Blas_—front page from . . . 164
Girardet, Jules:
Pen drawing . . . 36
Grasset, Eugene:
Typographical ornaments . . . 32, 39, 41, 48
Cover of a dictionary . . . 166
Department headings . . . 172, 203
Typographical design repeated from page 39 . . . 234
Grellet, F.:
Study from bust of Young Girl, by Donatello . . . 104
Study from bust of Brontolone, by Luca della Robbia . . . 109
Guillaume:
Caricature of Eugène Carrière . . . 125
Pen drawing from French daily paper . . . 143
Herkomer, Hubert:
Study of pine trees . . . 51
Holbein:
Book-cover . . . 222
_Jugend_:
Title-page from . . . 169
Knaus, Ludwig:
Head of Old Man . . . 83
Lansyer, E.:
The Courtyard of the Sorbonne . . . 20
Larousse’s New Dictionary:
First page from . . . 201
_L’Artist_:
Initial L’s from . . . 217, 218
Initial L and paragraph heading, from . . . 220
La-Tour, Fantin:
Portraits . . . 68
Lautrec, H. de T.:
“Zimmerman and his machine” . . . 212
Lefebvre, J.:
Crayon study of a child . . . 106
Leloir, Maurice:
Pen drawing . . . 147
Le Roux, E.:
On the Banks of the Isole . . . 140
Lœwe-Marchand:
Portrait of M. X. . . . 75
Lormier, E.:
Crayon drawing from Medallion of Alf. Leroux . . . 138
Luca della Robbia:
Bust of Brontolone, after . . . 109
Lucas, F. H.:
Book illustration . . . 144
_Lucidario_:
Title-page from . . . 186
Luque, M.:
Crispi, a caricature . . . 40
Pen drawing . . . 146
Mantelet, Albert:
Initial letter . . . 214
Same enlarged . . . 215
Marchetti:
Initial letter . . . 121
Chapter heading . . . 123
Matlay, P.:
Portrait of Félicien Rops . . . 237
Millais, John Everett:
Pencil sketch . . . 45
_Minnesinger’s Song Book_:
Page from . . . 183
Moloch, B.:
“Crispi under Hostile Lightning,” a caricature . . . 31
Monet, Claude:
Marine . . . 148
Munkacsy, Michael:
Study for a figure in a painting . . . 53
Moullier, Marc:
Pen drawing for _La Plume_ . . . 130
Novel Heading:
See _Pall Mall Budget_.
_Pall Mall Budget_:
Heading for novel from . . . 168
_Pall Mall Gazette_:
Portraits from . . . 108
_Paris Illustré_:
Illustration from . . . 145
Paul, Herman:
_Des Gueules_ . . . 132
Penlick:
Nos Soldats . . . 221
Pomeroy, F. W.:
Burns’ statue . . . 178
Renard, E.:
The Grandmother . . . 114
Ricketts, Charles:
Page from Nimphidia . . . 185
Rivoire:
Cover design . . . 176
Robert, Carl:
Portrait of Hahnemann from medallion by David
d’Angers . . . 137
Rogel, Hans:
Alphabet . . . 189
Sickert, Walter:
Portrait of C. Rivers Wilson . . . 119
Same reduced . . . 150
Silhouette, an old-fashioned:
Goethe’s Mother . . . 153
St. Elme:
Pen drawing from a French journal . . . 124
Stimmer, Chr.:
Alphabet . . . 189
Strange’s Book on Lettering:
Examples of Seventh Century Lettering, from . . . 195
Stuck, Franz:
Cover design for _Pan_ . . . 171
Lettering of same repeated . . . 236
T., E. G.:
Portrait of Fred Walker . . . 102
Same reduced . . . 149
_Tid-Bits_:
Newspaper cut from, portrait of George Frederick
Watts, R. A. (artist unknown) . . . 79
Same reduced . . . 112
Toussaint, T.:
The late Duc d’Aumale . . . 89
Vallet, L.:
News drawing from French periodical . . . 128
Vallotton, F.:
Three portraits of Frederick Nietzsche . . . 134
Portrait of the artist, portrait of Malthus, portrait of
Paul Robin . . . 135
Verdyen:
A fête at Brussels . . . 93
Vierge, Daniel:
Illustration to _Pablo de Segovie_ . . . 122
_Westminster Budget_:
Cover design, from . . . 157
Wood cut:
The Standard-bearer of Schafhausen . . . 226
{17} DRAWING FOR PRINTERS.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY — DESIGNING OF VALUE TO THE PRINTER — NATURAL ABILITY
VERSUS INSTRUCTION — SMALL DESIGNS AS DIFFICULT AS LARGE — READER NOT
TO BE DISCOURAGED BECAUSE HE CANNOT BE A FULL-FLEDGED ARTIST — “HOW
SHOULD I BEGIN TO LEARN TO DRAW?” — LEARNING TO SEE — INSTRUCTION DOES
NOT CONSIST OF NAMING MATERIALS — THE STUDY OF A HAT SEEN IN DIFFERENT
POSITIONS — THE VALUE OF OBSERVATION.
There has been in recent years a marked change in the character of the
printing done in this country; plain printing has been superseded by
decorative printing; the typographer of a few years back was only a
compositor and pressman, today he should be a designer as well. In view
of that requirement this little treatise is written, in the hope that,
though its advice may not make an illustrator out of its reader, it
will at least acquaint him with some principles of design that he may
apply in his daily practice.
The reader will not be deceived, the writer not misunderstood, if at
the outset it is put on record that great success in art is dependent
much more upon natural ability, aye, genius, than upon study, and that
these chapters can only tell you how to study—they cannot guarantee
you success. A man of fifty, a master printer, may study our advice
thoroughly and then attempt to {18} draw an elephant chasing an
African, and the result may be conspicuously inferior to the treatment
of the same subject by little eight-year-old Johnny Green who is yet
in the primary school; but Johnny Green may have “an eye for drawing”
and our master printer be as devoid of it as is a cow of melody in her
voice.
Not only is it true that without talent you must not expect to succeed
in producing important pictures, such as full-page illustrations,
double-column portraits, poster designs and large work in general,
but it is almost more unlikely that you will succeed in designing the
most simple tailpiece or initial letter. It is quite natural that you
should suppose it a very easy task to design an initial letter or a
tiny silhouette of a leaf or flower, a branch or wreath or two forming
a “printer’s mark”; every artist in Christendom thinks the same—until
he tries it; but you would be surprised if I filled this chapter with
the history of certain initial letters and devices, and tracing them to
their fountain head, we found that in nine cases out of ten they were
designed by the very greatest artists of the time.
You can take it as an undisputed fact that should some publishing house
wish an ordinary full-page illustration for a book, and at the same
time a simple “publisher’s mark,” a device about an inch square for the
title-page of that book, they would find ten artists who could execute
the former to one who could design the latter so that it would be up to
the standard of the best “marks” in history.
Is it then, you ask, our intention at the very start to discourage you,
and advise you to attempt nothing because you cannot excel in anything?
Not at all. A {19} country editor need not refrain from studying
rhetoric so as to improve the style of his editorials, just because he
knows that without genius he may not expect to equal the diction of
Macaulay. The rhetoric may not give him wit to put in his editorials,
but it at least may teach him to cast his sentences properly. So this
treatise may not supply you with “art feeling,” but it will, we hope,
show you how to make a design in a more workmanlike way than you would
without our advice; and we most sincerely advise you to try.
Everyone in asking the question, “How should I begin to learn to draw?”
expects that the answer will direct him to use certain materials in a
certain way, and that by the manipulation of these materials in this
certain way, he will get the desired result. So far as this treatise
is concerned, the reader will be disappointed in this regard; it is
true that the writer is particularly interested in the technic of the
different graphic arts, and later on will have something to say about
the best methods for pen drawing, for chalk-plate, for wood engraving;
but in these first chapters on drawing it must be distinctly understood
that our advice is that the student should not worry about what pencil
or what paper he should use, or about how his lines should look, but
should realize from the outset that his principal study should be the
education of his eye. The reason that we do not draw well in infancy
is because we have not learned to see. You may take it as a positive
fact that the untrained eye of every man sees things in an absolutely
incorrect manner—or rather he does not know how he sees things. Let
us take, for example, an immense factory-building with over a hundred
windows■
{20} [Illustration: THE COURTYARD OF THE SORBONNE IN 1886.
Pen drawing by E. Lansyer.
Looking at these buildings as in this picture, an artist knows that a
doorway or a window in the building with the dome would appear as a
perfect rectangle, as we see in the case of the main doorway, because
seen “in front view”; but the windows in the buildings at the sides
are not perfect rectangles because, being seen “in perspective,” or at
an angle, their sills and lintels seem to tip downward. The uneducated
eye, however, knowing them to be rectangles, sees them as such, not
realizing that each receding window is narrower than its predecessor;
and that, moreover, the lintels and sills of a window in a higher story
have a greater tip than those of one below, and that every lintel has
greater tip than its corresponding sill. This knowledge, however,
should be known to all artists through the study of perspective.]
{21} [Illustration: CARICATURE OF THE ARTIST HIMSELF.
By Albert Engström.]
■{22} on its front and on its sides. Let us presume that a man is
standing directly in front of the building; the chances are that he
sees every window in a tolerably correct manner. He sees that all the
windows are alike, etc.; that each is a certain distance from the
other, etc. Good! But now let him walk to the end of the building and
look at it diagonally; he still sees the building as he saw it in the
front view; depend upon it, that he sees each window as a perfect
rectangle, and each window the same distance from the other; he would
be incapable of going home and showing you on a piece of paper the
“direction” of every window line. Let an artist step in his place and
he sees every window _different_ from the other! You probably do not
realize the full truth of this statement at present, but you will after
we have our chapter on perspective. For the present please take my word
for it, and bear in mind that you must first learn to see.
Let us take the caricature by Albert Engström for our first lesson. We
have selected it for two reasons: first, because it is a caricature,
and we wish our readers to realize that this treatise is going to
be of use to printers from the beginning, and that we are going to
study drawing in an interesting manner. Many a printer is as well the
publisher of a newspaper and feels that from time to time he would
like to publish a caricature to enliven his pages, or at any rate he
is interested in the cartoons in the illustrated press, and would
like to know how they are done, and the best way to acquire this
knowledge is to practice a little one’s self. Besides, the practice of
caricaturing is most beneficial to every draftsman; there have been
but few great painters who {23} have not indulged in it. Another
reason for using this cut is that it is drawn in a very simple manner
in a few strong lines. While the students at the art schools usually
begin to get effects with light and shade, the printer will do well
to master outline sooner than light and shade, for it is the most
quickly executed and the most easily engraved, and, I need not add,
last but not least, most easily printed. I should advise you then to
take commonplace objects that are about the house and make innumerable
sketches of them in the manner of this drawing. Take a derby hat for
example, place it a little above the eye and endeavor to draw it as
Engström did his. Do not worry much about your style of drawing, do
not complain that your pen will not work and that you cannot get a
line varying in thickness like this one; or if you do succeed, do not
ask your friends to admire your handsome pen line; do not think about
your drawing at all, but solely about learning to see. Place the hat
above you, notice that you see the under part of the brim nearer you,
and the inside of the brim on the far side; if there is not a head
under the hat endeavor with a single curved line to indicate as much
of the lining as you see; if you see anything else that is _not_ given
in Engström’s drawing and you try to express it as he expresses things
you employ an excellent method of study. Next place the hat in the same
position but below the eye, on the seat of a chair, and notice that
you no longer see under the brims but inside of them; then place the
hat on its crown upon the chair so that you see the oval of the inside
of its crown, and endeavor to express that oval with two semi-circles,
as simple as the one which Engström uses in drawing the {24} crown of
the hat. Again, put the hat on the mantelpiece and draw a side view of
it; this will be more simple than any of the other views. I think that
an hour’s practice of this kind will soon convince you that the casual
glance of the uneducated eye does not take in a complete or perfect
view of an object, but that after you have studied an object with a
view to drawing it, you begin to see with more thoroughness. You will,
I think, notice, as you walk home in the evening, the contours of the
different hats that you see in the hatter’s■
[Illustration: PEN DRAWING WITH MECHANICALLY STIPPLED BACKGROUND.
By H. Gerbault.
Showing different kinds of hats in various positions.]
■window, and upon the pedestrians; you will begin to guess how you
would draw such a hat or cap, and from time to time you will see
headgear that “lends itself to drawing,” as it were; you will say,
“When I go home I will try to draw that hat.” We print on this page
an interesting drawing by Gerbault. To the casual observer a drawing
of this kind simply represents some men with their hats on, and he
enjoys looking at the hats collectively, while he may enjoy the
individual {25} faces; but the illustrator, with his practiced eye,
finds enjoyment in examining the way each individual hat is drawn. You
will find the same enjoyment if you practice drawing hats as we have
recommended, and it is needless to say that your enjoyment will be
profitable, and, moreover, that your practice need not be limited to
the drawing of hats, but may embrace coats, gloves, and shoes as well.
If such is the influence upon your mind made by this chapter, we feel
sure that you will never regret having read it and given the time to
the practice we recommend, and we think that the first step in the
study of drawing will have been made, and that you will feel it has
been a successful one.
{26} CHAPTER II.
MORE ABOUT HATS — PERSPECTIVE MAY BE LEARNED FROM THEM — DRAWING MORE
A MATTER OF SEEING PROPERLY THAN USE OF PEN — TEXTURE — SILHOUETTE
DRAWINGS USED BY EGYPTIANS.
We trust that you followed the advice of our former chapter, that you
tried to draw a hat in several positions, and that you then found, as
we prophesied, that you were led to observe the hats that you saw in
the street with a new sense of discernment; if that is true, you will
appreciate this chapter, we think, though it be very short.
We select two more caricatures for you, in which we find hats that are
very similar. Now we can tell you quite positively whether you have
an eye for drawing or not. Stop a moment, and before reading the next
paragraph, look at these hats, pages 28, 29, and argue out the reason
why they are drawn as they are; if your reasons are somewhat like the
following, your chances for learning to draw are good; if not, you have
much study ahead of you, even before you can make a start.
Your observation is good if you realize that in drawing almost anything
you may represent it as a silhouette. The Egyptians did much of their
writing in hieroglyphs, using silhouette pictures of thousands of
different objects; helmets and crowns, hands and feet, men and animals,
tools and utensils were employed as characters in their alphabet; and
if you see plainly how a silhouette is made by outlining an object as
it is seen from one point {27} of view, usually a perfect side view,
the object on a level with the eye, and that the outline is filled in
with black, you may be sure that you have been observing correctly. You
will notice then that these two hats are (1) on a level with the eye,
for if (2) below the eye, you would see the top of the crown and into
the brim; if (3) above the eye, you would see underneath the brim. You
notice also that the “Hedin” is the true silhouette, which is made by
leaving out the lights on the side, the suggestion of the band, and the
upper edge of the brim. You will also notice (4), particularly in the
“Jörgen,” that the feet are as though the gentleman were walking on a
chalk-line on a table and the spectator sitting on a low chair, so that
the feet were on a level with his eye; this is a characteristic feature
of Egyptian hieroglyphs. If the feet were drawn realistically they
would not only not be on a line one with the other, but we would seem
to look down upon the shoes, as ordinarily a man’s feet are below the
spectator’s eye.
We think that this is enough for one lesson, and if you find that
the propositions that we have numbered are not clear to you, you
would better work out the problems on a sheet of paper. We take it
for granted that Nos. 1 and 2 are clear to anyone who drew the hats
according to our last chapter; but Nos. 3 and 4 may not be so evident;
if not, get a pair of shoes and put them on the mantel on a level with
your eye; next place them upon the floor in the position in which one
ordinarily walks or stands, and our propositions will be clear to you.
It is most important that you should understand all these matters of
optics, though it makes little difference■
{28} [Illustration: “HEDIN”—A CARICATURE.
By Albert Engström.
The hat and coat are pure silhouette, the face “suggestive outline.”]
{29} [Illustration: “JÖRGEN”—A CARICATURE.
By Albert Engström.
The hat and shoes are partially silhouette; but the high lights upon
them are connected with finished work.]
■{30} with what kind of a pen you may make your drawing. Having
mastered these principles, you would then understand such a criticism
on Engström’s work as the following: Mr. Engström sometimes employs
the pure silhouette, as in the “Hedin,” and sometimes silhouette in
a modified form, as in the “Jörgen”; in the former case an artist
sacrifices rotundity, detail and texture (the white streaks on the
“Jörgen” hat suggest the surface of the beaver; this we call texture;
a felt hat has no such white streaks upon it, and might be adequately
represented by a set of lines such as are used on Jörgen’s coat, but
no silhouette can suggest texture); in his caricatures Engström unites
with the silhouette effect the single-plane effect of the Egyptian
hieroglyphs. (The hieroglyphs were mostly painted on walls and the
feet represented as though flush with the wall, and not one farther
from us than the other, hence we say that they are on one plane.)
Many caricaturists have effectually burlesqued the Egyptian method of
drawing and the placing of their figures. The trousers and the cane
in the “Jörgen” drawing are the only objects in one plane; the coat
collar is distinctly rounded. In the Moloch illustration we see also
silhouette treatment. You can easily imagine how Hedin’s hat, if the
proper size, would fittingly rest on Crispi’s head.
{31} [Illustration: CRISPI UNDER HOSTILE LIGHTNING.
Caricature by B. Moloch.
An example of silhouette drawing.]
{32} [Illustration: TYPOGRAPHICAL ORNAMENT.
Designed by Eugene Grasset.]
CHAPTER III.
HIEROGLYPHIC DESIGNS OR SILHOUETTES — THEIR USE AS TYPOGRAPHICAL
ORNAMENTS — OBJECTS SEEN AS ON ONE PLANE — PLACING YOUR
OBJECT — HORIZONTAL LINES PARALLEL TO THE EYE — HORIZONTAL LINES NOT
PARALLEL TO THE EYE.
We publish two kinds of drawings with this chapter, which many be
classified as follows: The Grassets are hieroglyphic-like designs or
silhouettes; the Crispi, in his _robe de chambre_, which for want
of the artist’s name we shall call the _Don Chisciotte_ cut—“Don
Chisciotte” you no doubt suspect is the Italian for Don Quixote, and it
is the name of a cartoon paper—is a pure outline drawing.
Now let us take them in turn. Every printer will recognize that the
Grasset designs are excellent, for they may be printed with greater
ease than shaded drawings, and their simplicity is in perfect harmony
with the solid black of type. Now, not only would it {33} be pleasant
for you as a printer to begin making some such silhouettes, but it is
very good practice in drawing for you to search the house for objects
that you can put up against the window pane and draw their contours,
filling them in with black. A whisk broom, a pair of scissors, a pair
of eyeglasses, a leaf, a feather may be put up against the glass and
its silhouette copied, and you then realize how many objects may be
represented by their contours. Later you learn how to silhouette
objects less flat; you may try the ink bottle with a pen in it, the
glue pot with the brush in it; this leads you to such a thorough
understanding of Grasset’s flowers as pages of writing would never
give. In walking in the streets after such an exercise you will notice
not only the “block” of a man’s hat (which we spoke of in Chapter I),
but you will notice what kind of a silhouette it makes against the sky;
then the shape of the birds, the weather vanes, the church steeples as
they are “etched against the sky,” as the poets say, will have a new
interest for you.
In this practice of silhouetting objects you learn something that is
most important in more advanced work. You learn _to see objects as on
one plane_. We fancy your knowledge of geometry is sufficient for you
to understand what we mean, but let us go over the ground slowly so
that it may facilitate our future explanations of perspective problems.
By a plane we mean a plain, a flat surface. A table top is a plane.
But the plane the artist draws upon—say a sheet of paper—though he may
let it lie horizontal on a table, is always considered a _vertical
plane_, corresponding to a pane of glass in a window. Now, if {34} we
are looking across the street, through the window, we know that each
receding cobblestone in the street (though in one horizontal plane)
is in a different _vertical_ plane from the others. If we wished to
make the plane a tangible one we could set up a pane of glass in front
of the nearest cobblestone, and then another pane in front of the
cobblestone across the street, then it would be evident to anyone that
these stones were in two planes, would it not? Good! Now, if you should
go to the window and trace with a paint brush a picture of these two
cobblestones on the glass, you would draw your picture on one plane,
and that a _vertical_ plane. Well, that is just what the artist does
when he draws a picture by the eye. He may lay his paper horizontally
on a common table, or obliquely on a tipping drawing table, or on
an easel, but he does not draw the objects as though seen through a
horizontal or oblique plane (except sometimes when he sketches from a
church-steeple or a hilltop), but on the contrary, the ordinary drawing
always represents objects as seen through a vertical pane of glass and
as they would be traced on that pane, hence _reduced to one plane_.
Having read the foregoing two or three times we will ask you to turn
to the _Don Chisciotte_ caricature. Has it not a new interest to you?
Do you not see immediately that the legs of the bureau, though in
reality some few feet apart and so in different planes, are drawn on
a sheet of paper on one plane? Well, the second step after you have
learned to draw a simple form in outline is to learn to “place” your
objects and their receding parts—as the legs of the bureau. It would
be impossible for me to overestimate the trouble this gives the {35}
beginner—such as the man who sees the factory viewed at an angle as
though it were seen from the front (see Chapter I). But if perchance
you can get it into your mind that you must draw as though tracing on a
window pane, nay, better still, if you will dip a brush in the ink and
actually draw on the pane for several days, you will soon have little
need of puzzling over perspective, and when you look diagonally at a
rectangular object—as the windows in a factory—you will see at a glance
that they are no longer rectangles, as in a front view, but the lintels
and sills actually seem to _tip_ (in an upward direction if below the
eye, in a downward direction if above the eye). Then you suddenly
realize that certain laws of optics come into play in making the very
simplest of views. You look at such a simple interior as in the _Don
Chisciotte_ room and you recognize at once that the lines in it which
were horizontal in nature are governed by three laws; the portière
rod and the side boards of the couch are drawn horizontal because the
artist sees them in a front view—they are parallel to his eye—but the
lines of the front of the bureau and the floor line behind it run up
because they are lines seen not in front view, but seen diagonally, and
they are below the artist’s eye; but the top line of the mirror runs
down because it is above the artist’s eye.
From this chapter any reader with a mathematical mind will have already
deduced the facts of the following rules of perspective, even if he has
not formulated them in precise language; but you might as well learn
them by heart, as they are applied every time you draw a box, a table,
a room, a railroad track, a street, etc.
1. All horizontal lines in nature that are parallel to■
{36} [Illustration: PEN DRAWING.
By Jules Girardet.
Showing a mantel a little below the eye.
The student should practice drawing interiors with the purpose of
learning the theory of perspective from every object drawn. The
horizontal lines of the picture frame, for example, tip in the opposite
direction to the mantel, because they are above the eye. Had the mantel
been a few inches higher it would have been drawn as a perfectly
horizontal line.]
{37} [Illustration: CRISPI AS CÆSAR IN HIS ROBE DE CHAMBRE.
A political caricature from _Don Chisciotte_.]
■{38} the eyes of the spectator (like the portière rod and the bed
part of the couch in the _Don Chisciotte_ caricature, like the lintels
and sills of the Sorbonne doorway), that is when one is standing
directly in front of them, appear as horizontal lines and are to be so
drawn, they do not tip either up or down whether below or above the eye.
2. But when a horizontal line is no longer parallel to the axis of
the eyes, that is when it is seen diagonally, as the floor line, the
front of the bureau and the top of the mirror, then it follows this
law; if it happens to be just on a level with the eyes, that is on the
horizon line, then it _is_ horizontal to the sight and is so drawn; if
the mirror were hanging where it is in the _Don Chisciotte_, but were
cut off just on a level with Crispi’s eyes, and the draftsman of the
picture were just Crispi’s height, then the base of the mirror would be
drawn horizontal. But when the lines are below the eye, as the floor
line and the bureau lines, then they seem to run up to the horizon and
are drawn slanting upward; while if they are above the eye, as the top
of the mirror, they tip down to the horizon and are drawn slanting
downward—the end farther away from the artist lower in the picture than
the end nearer him. (See the side buildings in the Sorbonne courtyard.)
It is advisable for the student of perspective to cut a rectangular
opening, not too large, say the size of this page, in a piece of
pasteboard, which he may hold at arm’s length in front of him and look
through as he would through a small window. This will not only frame
his picture for him, but it gives him two horizontal lines and two
perpendicular lines, and he can hold his pencil or his ruler against
the face of the frame {39} so that it just covers any straight line
he wishes to draw; and he will readily see that all vertical lines in
nature make his pencil run parallel to the sides of his frame, while
horizontal lines if in nature parallel to the axis of his eyes, or if
on a level with his eyes, make it run parallel to the base and top. And
then, best of all, he can hold his pencil parallel to oblique lines
which run away from him, and they will appear parallel to the face of
his frame, or in one plane, as they would be in a drawing. This is very
helpful, as there is nothing so confusing to the beginner as the lines
which run away from him. (In looking up a railroad track the rails seem
to run away. You know they are actually parallel, but to your eye they
converge. Not only that, but you know they are flat on the ground,
whereas, in a picture, you draw them standing up. All this is at first
very confusing.)
[Illustration: TYPOGRAPHICAL ORNAMENT.
Designed by Eugene Grasset.]
{40} [Illustration: MEN OF THE DAY—CRISPI.
By Luque.
From _La Caricature_.]
{41} [Illustration: TYPOGRAPHICAL ORNAMENT.
Designed by Eugene Grasset.]
CHAPTER IV.
POWER OF OUTLINE — SHADED DRAWINGS — TEXTURE — LOCAL COLOR AND
VALUES — THROWN SHADOW AND MODELING SHADOW — MANNERISMS OF A
CARICATURIST — BEGINNER ADVISED TO USE OUTLINE ONLY, BUT HE MAY
PRACTICE IN SHADING.
If I have been successful in making every point clear in my foregoing
chapters the reader now has such a knowledge of the art of drawing as
will enable him to understand, (1) the power of an outline, and (2)
to realize that one may become a tolerable draftsman if he will train
his eye to see the outline of an object as if marked upon a pane of
glass—that is, reduced to one plane; and to realize, moreover, that
(3) this learning to see things in one plane involves some knowledge
of perspective, of which more anon; but for the present let us leave
outline and take up another branch of the subject. In the Luque cartoon
the helmet is represented {42} in a new form. The careful observer
will see instantly that it differs materially from the helmet in the
_Don Chisciotte_ cartoon, shown upon page 37.
Let us make an analysis of this difference. I contemplated no pun
when I wrote of a _material_ difference. Yet that is the main point
of contrast. We guess that the helmet of the major domo in the _Don
Chisciotte_ is metal, but we only guess it. We argue that the Romans
wore metal helmets, hence we fancy this is one; but outline rarely
indicates texture (we mean by texture the material of an object—wood,
wool, stone, linen, etc.) or color. But in the Luque we are very sure
that the helmet is of black leather. True, we surmise this only,
because we know that modern helmets are apt to be either metal or black
patent leather, and this one is too dark for metal, and the high light
upon it is just like the white light on a black patent leather helmet.
(When the light falls on a rounded object there is nearly always one
place upon it where the light strikes, creating a white light—no matter
what the color of the object—which artists call the high light. This
is always more apparent upon highly polished objects than upon rough
objects.)
Now, you see in the Luque we have a very different kind of drawing
from a pure outline like the _Don Chisciotte_, or a silhouette like
the Grasset. In such drawing the outline is only the framework; after
it is put in, the labor is by no means over; to the contrary, every
bit of surface has to be covered with an appropriate tint, and two
different considerations decide how light or how heavy this tint shall
be: first, the consideration of light and shade; secondly, local color.
When the artist put a {43} dark mass under Crispi’s mustache he did
not mean to suggest that Crispi had been eating blackberry jam, or
that he had a negro’s lower lip, but he meant to represent the strong
shadow that a thick mustache throws upon a lower lip when the light
comes from above; in doing this he noted a “thrown shadow.” When,
however, he made the dark line on the lower part of the chin he did not
mean to suggest that the upper part of the chin threw a shadow on the
lower part, but he represented the part of the chin that rounds under
the jaw; this is called a “modeling shadow.” (A circle may represent
a ring, or a disk—as in the medal inscribed _Literis et Artibus_ in
the Fallström (page 44)—or a sphere; but without shading it is said
not to have modeling; and if it is intended for a sphere, it can only
suggest a sphere; to make it fully represent one, we shade it; then it
is positively not a ring, nor a disk, if the shading is properly done.
This shading gives it rotundity, or bulk, and this effect we designate
as modeling.) When Luque makes the part of the visor of the helmet to
our right darker than the part to our left and leaves a light between,
he also models—that is, represents modeling or rotundity; but when he
makes both the shaded side and the lighter side dark, and also makes
Crispi’s coat black, then he is said to represent local color.
Here you see we have a very advanced form of drawing, and a form
I should not advise you to employ in your early efforts to do
professional work; if you essay to make a cartoon for your paper, I
should advise you to confine yourself to outline or silhouette. But in
order that you may fully understand a drawing which at first appears to
be outline, but which upon examination turns■
{44} [Illustration: DANIEL FALLSTRÖM.
A caricature by Albert Engström.]
{45} [Illustration: PENCIL SKETCH.
By John Everett Millais.
This is not a careful study, but shows an artist’s method of “placing”
objects. The right-hand figure is evidently that of a minister, and the
artist at first intended to have his coat fall over his left thigh but
afterwards changed it. The gray lines which thus place the skirt of the
coat are those referred to in Chapter V. In the left-hand figure the
head was drawn first and the hat added. It is interesting to note how
low upon the head the hat rests. The mistake of the beginner is usually
to put a hat too high on the skull. (Or perhaps the artist’s first
intention was to draw a derby hat, which was afterwards changed to a
high hat.)]
■{46} out to be partly shaded, we have introduced in these first
chapters this question of modeling and local color. We have pointed
out (Chapter II) that Engström sometimes uses pure outline, sometimes
outline and silhouette, and sometimes outline, silhouette and shading.
His “Fallström,” given with this chapter, is without silhouette effect,
but is in outline, shading and local color. The medal referred to is
a piece of pure outline. Ordinarily, when an artist draws a thing of
this kind—a button, a policeman’s badge, etc.—he makes the lower line
a little heavier than the rest so as to suggest the shadow the object
throws upon the coat; but Engström has omitted this. In the nose,
however, we have not pure outline, but a distinct broadening of the
line under the nose giving the same suggestion of its protruding and of
its throwing a shadow as does Crispi’s mustache in Luque’s drawing. In
the hat, moreover, we have both modeling—very good modeling, too,—and
local color.
You should be reminded that Engström is a caricaturist, and takes
liberties with the art of drawing as well as with his subjects. The
example we gave in Chapter I, his own portrait, was a perfectly
consistent drawing, all pure outline; so was the “Hedin” (Chapter II),
because silhouette goes perfectly well with outline. But to model a
hat as fully as in this “Fallström” drawing, so that under its rim is
a shadow, and yet not have it throw a suggestion of a shadow upon the
man’s head, is most inconsistent drawing—permitted the caricaturist
only. If you were making such a study from nature you would surely see
a _thrown_ shadow on the head and you should put it in. {47}
While I say you should not employ shading and local color to any great
extent in your early work, yet you may study the theory of it so as to
use it sparingly, and that study is best pursued by putting on a table
a group of objects of different colors and textures; put a white box
beside a brown book, an ink bottle beside a glass, a teacup beside a
brown stone jug, and draw each object in relation to the others. Make
your ink bottle blacker than your brown jug, but note that both have
distinct high-lights upon them. The white box will probably not have
a high-light upon it, but one side of it may be all light, while the
corresponding side of the brown book will be darkish, though lighter
than its side in shadow. (We suppose that you place your table near
a window so that the light from it falls on one side of the objects,
the other side being in shadow; this is the best arrangement for
objects studied for their light and shade. Do not have light come
from other windows.) You, therefore, in your drawing, have white
paper to represent the light side of the box, but you put on a slight
tint to represent the light side of the brown book. The ink bottle
you will treat very much like Luque’s helmet; black as it is there
will be streaks of white upon it—sometimes high-lights, and sometimes
reflection of the window as seen in a mirror. If the cover of the box,
because it projects a little, throws a line of shadow upon the side
of the box, you will instantly recognize that this is the same kind
of a thrown shadow as that which Luque put under Crispi’s mustache
and Engström put under Fallström’s nose. Some study of this sort will
soon train your eye to see the reason of _spots of light and dark_ in
artists’ drawings. {48}
One of the points we admire in an expert’s drawing is the use he makes
of black spots. The Japanese have rules of composition, governing this
distribution of spots, which they follow, balancing a black here with
another there in an admirable manner. In our chapter on wood engraving
we shall give some specimens of well distributed blacks. In our
tailpiece by Grasset you will notice how on the right-hand side five
petals and two buds balance a tri-parted leaf on the opposite side. One
of the problems for the designer of printers’ devices is to balance
them properly. It is much easier to copy a spray from nature and fill
it in with black ink than it is to make that spray balance so that when
placed at the end of a chapter or used to divide paragraphs it will
balance as perfectly as the letter V or A. It is needless to note that
every printer realizes that paragraphs might be separated by the letter
I or A or V, but not properly by the letter B or D or E.
[Illustration: TYPOGRAPHICAL ORNAMENT.
Designed by Eugene Grasset.]
{49} CHAPTER V.
HOW TO BEGIN A DRAWING — EDUCATION OF THE EYE THE FIRST
THING — MANTELSHELF SEEN FRONT VIEW — SIDE VIEW BUT EXACTLY ON A LEVEL
WITH THE EYE — TIPPING DOWNWARD IF ABOVE THE EYE — UPWARD IF BELOW
THE EYE — PLACE THE BIG PROPORTIONS OF OBJECTS BEFORE ATTEMPTING
DETAIL — THIS SHOULD SHOW PROPORTION AND DIRECTION — SEPARATE
COMPLEX SUBJECTS INTO ELEMENTS — MEANING OF ELEMENTS — EVERY OBJECT
HAS ITS AXIS — BEGINNING OF EVERY FIGURE SHOULD ALWAYS SHOW ITS
ACTION — GENERAL PRACTICE TO PLACE ALL THE OBJECTS IN A PICTURE WITH
PENCIL LINES FIRST — SOME EXAMPLES FROM MUNKACSY.
I hear some of my readers ask, “Is there not something a teacher should
tell us that will help us whether we are drawing in outline or whether
we are shading—something that will teach us _how to begin_ any kind of
a drawing?” The reply is “Yes,” and I propose to give such help in this
chapter; but it has purposely been delayed till now, because I wished
to emphasize the fact that the principal thing is not for me to tell
you how to draw, but for me to help you to learn to see so as to know
what to draw. For example, I will ask the printer to insert a rule here
in a horizontal position, thus:■
[Illustration]
■This represents a mantelshelf seen in front view, or one seen in side
view exactly on a level with your eyes. Now, it stands to reason, does
it not, that anybody can {50} draw such a line? What you need to be
taught, is that the mantel is to be drawn that way only under the two
circumstances mentioned. The moment you have a side view of it when it
is below or above the eyes, you must draw it tipping. Tipping downward
(away from you) if above the eye; upward, if below. Thus, if above the
eye:
[Illustration: (A, the end nearer spectator.) Thus, if below:]
This difference in the direction of line according to the position
of the spectator is something the novice does not see, and it is the
business of the teacher to point it out. Hence the many references to
seeing and the few to drawing which are found in our foregoing chapters.
But there is a suggestion about drawing which I will give you that
will help you at the first stage of your study. It is this: Accustom
yourself to place something on your paper—some form having a height and
a breadth—that resembles the big proportions of your subject, before
you attempt to finish any single part of it.
Our illustrations clearly show the working of this method. In the
Herkomer study the lower parts of the tree trunks are not finished,
they are merely placed. The outlines of the trunks show (1) the
relation of the two trunks to one another, (2) their size, and (3)
their direction. With the same simple means the artist could have shown
contrary facts; for example, that (1) the trees were nearer together,
(2) that the left one was■
{51} [Illustration: STUDY OF PINE TREES BY HUBERT HERKOMER.
The form above the lowest branch, which looks something like a cloud,
shows us the artist’s method of “placing” a branch before finishing
it; also the lower parts of the trunks show their placing. All objects
should be thus outlined before they are shaded.]
■{52} wider than the right, (3) that they tipped at an angle of
fifteen degrees to our left.
Again, the mass that at first glance looks like a cloud, is really the
“placing” of a branch. Now, before the artist put any of the black in
his picture, which suggests the dark colors of a pine, he placed all
the principal branches, limbs, and the trunks of the two trees, just as
you see them in the unfinished places we have pointed out. The reader
should need very little more help than this to fit him to go out to
nature and begin a landscape.
Almost any element you may see can be begun in this manner. (I use
the word element to cover either one object or a group of objects; we
say of some picture that it has four elements: a foreground, a pine
tree, a clump of trees and distant hills.) For example, without the
line representing the limb below Herkomer’s outline for the unfinished
branch might almost stand for a cloud—its outline would then simply
be a little less toothed. Its upper part might also stand for a group
of distant trees. Now, this branch, no less than the trunks, has its
big proportions; it is almost twice as long as it is high, and no
amount of pretty drawing of details would ever represent _that_ branch
if you should start out with a form twice as high as it is wide.
Always look out for these dimensions at first. The branch also has a
_direction_—the direction of its axis—which is downward to our left,
and no amount of pretty drawing of its details would ever represent
_this_ branch if it were represented with a horizontal axis. (The axis
of the lowest branch is at a still greater angle; this downward tip is
characteristic of the lower branches of the pine, larch, elm, beech,
willow, etc.) Now, a cloud has its■
{53} [Illustration: STUDY FOR A FIGURE IN A PAINTING.
By Michael Munkacsy.
This shows the placing of the parts of the figure so that it shows
_action_, though there is no finish.]
{54} [Illustration: STUDIES FROM A MODEL FOR FIGURES IN A PAINTING.
By Léon Bonnat.
These studies show the placing of the parts of the figures so that they
express _action_, though there is no finish.]
■{55} axis, a group of trees, and you must not draw a stratus cloud
which lies horizontal as though it were a cirrus or a cumulus cloud
blown upward by a contrary wind. In the placing of an element, then,
it is not the margin of the outline we think of, but the positions of
objects, their general bulk, and the direction of their axes.
In the figure studies we reproduce by Bonnat and Munkacsy, you can
plainly see that the action of the figures is graphically portrayed
without any attempt at detail, simply by “placing” the parts of the
figure in the right place. A good beginning in the case of figure
drawing should always show the action; that is to say, show that the
man is stooping over, leaning back, standing upright or sitting down,
long before the drawing shows that his coat is black or has four
buttons on it, or that he has finger nails on his fingers.
It is nearly always the practice with artists to place objects in this
way with a pencil line, even if the subsequent drawing is to be in pen
or wash. Let your lines be light, and then you can erase them after
your ink lines are put over them. Do not be afraid of feeling your way
with lines; put down several until you get the right one. Do not expect
to get your work right at first. If you get in a branch of a tree and
think it is correct, leave it till the tree is complete; but if in the
end you see it is too large for the rest of the tree, rub it out and
make it smaller. Every artist has to do this many times if his subject
is at all complicated.
{56} [Illustration: Example of French Art School studies from plates
published under the direction of Bargue and Gérôme, showing the method
of placing a figure before drawing the final outline or shading; also
showing lines on the jaw, in the trunk and leg that are not contour
lines.]
{57} CHAPTER VI.
VALUE OF A LINE — WHAT THE ARTIST SEES — LINES, NOT CONTOUR LINES,
USED TO REPRESENT ORGANIC PARTS — “PLACING” ELEMENTS A MENTAL
TRAINING — MORE IMPORTANT TO THE PRINTER-DRAFTSMAN THAN INTRICATE
DETAIL — PLACING-LINES TO BE MADE CAREFULLY — SYNTHESIS OF THE HUMAN
ARM REPRESENTED WITH A FEW LINES — THE DELIGHT OF AN ARTIST IN
SYNTHETIC STUDIES — JAPANESE MASTERS OF SYNTHETIC DRAWING — GRASSET’S
SILHOUETTE — THINK OF YOUR OBJECTS, WHEN PLACING THEM, AS
SILHOUETTES — REDUCING CONTOUR LINES TO GEOMETRIC FIGURES — HERKOMER’S
PINE TREES MAPPED OUT INTO POLYGONS — THIS METHOD NOT TO BE CARRIED TO
EXCESS — CHARACTERISTICS OF OBJECTS TO BE LOOKED FOR — NATURE’S FORMS
SOON RECOGNIZED IN SIMPLE POLYGONS.
It is difficult for the amateur to realize the value of a line as
fully as the art student realizes it. We give an illustration of the
first laying in or placing of a figure, as done in the Parisian art
schools. The student who works for months and months in this manner
sees a meaning in an artist’s lines that the casual observer misses.
Here, for example, all the lines on the arm represent swellings which
are not merely temporary but are organic, belonging to every arm. So
also with the cross lines on the abdomen; they are not as one might
expect, chance lines, but divide the trunk into organic parts. Any
model taking this pose would show some such lines, or rather the body
would divide itself into {58} some such parts which would produce the
wrinkles which these lines represent; no matter whether he were older
or younger, stouter or thinner, the markings would be in about the same
place. When we come to the analyzation of the human face this fact
of representing parts of the body by lines that are not outlines—i.
e., not contour lines—will be still clearer to you. Now, the point
we want to make is that the method of “placing” objects, recommended
in the last chapter, is not a mere process of procedure in drawing,
but is quite as important a mental training as the making of the
most intricate outline—in fact, for the printer-draftsman it is more
important than the latter. If you wish to make a poster design, it is
better that you should know how to place “the elements” of a branch
of oak or ivy than that you should draw the venation of the leaves or
the delicate modeling of the stems, because if printed in flat tones
it is the big characteristics—showing the difference between an ivy
leaf and an oak leaf—that you need to secure. Therefore, in all your
preliminary sketching do not work carelessly just because you are
finally going to rub out your placing lines; but rather try to see how
much likeness to the object you can get by the most economical means,
in your very placing of the object. In the man’s arm, for example, even
the inexperienced draftsman, who might not see the correctness of the
drawing in the man’s trunk, can realize that we have here the swelling
of the deltoid, the curve of the biceps, the extreme width at the
elbow, and the inside lines which mark bones and muscles at the elbow;
all of which represent the synthesis of _the_ human arm, though perhaps
not the similitude {59} of any _one_ arm. Were you, with an artist
companion, looking over a collection of drawings by the masters you
would be surprised at his delight in many drawings that were carried
little further than this study of an arm. The Japanese are celebrated
for their synthetic drawing; they have the ability to make a spot of
green that is not a lily leaf in all its intricate detail, but which
has all the characteristics of a lily leaf which distinguish it from
every other kind of leaf, stand for a perfect lily leaf.
If you will turn to the Grasset design on page 39 you will realize
that his wisteria is by no means a complete floral drawing, but simply
gives the characteristics of the wisteria in its silhouette. Here you
see we revert to the subject of our second chapter, and recommend
that in placing your objects you think of them as silhouettes. This
wisteria design suggests another help for the beginner. The flower
itself in its entirety takes the form in nature of a cone, which in
silhouette is a triangle; the entire branch of the ornament on page
48 takes the form of a triangle; and since geometrical forms are more
easily analyzed than natural forms, it might be well for you to train
yourself to notice if an object takes the general form of a quadrangle
or a rectangle, a triangle or a polygon. The branches of trees can
frequently be mapped out into triangles or polygons with not more than
five or six sides, that are very easy to recognize.
We have made a tracing of the pine trees by Mr. Herkomer, in which we
have mapped out the branches into polygons, A, B and C (page 60). The
lines D E and F G are added to suggest how the tree trunks are■
{60} [Illustration: DIAGRAM NO. 1.]
{61} [Illustration: DIAGRAM NO. 2.
NO. 4—Study of Pine Tree, by Hubert Herkomer, with lines added showing
rectangles _w x y z_, containing the whole group; polygons 1 to 14,
containing branches, lines going through axes of trunk _e d_, and
_f g_, and _p_, plumb-line to which _f g_ is compared—that is, its
angle obtained—as shown in diagram NO. 1.]
■{62} first put in as axes, F G being compared with the plumb-line P.
W, X, Y and Z suggest a quadrangle, into which the whole tree could
first be placed.
We wish to say, however, that we do not consider it advisable to reduce
freehand drawings to geometrical forms to too great an extent. The art
student in Paris does not think of his model as a combination of cubes
and cylinders, but as a human figure; nor when he leaves the atelier
does he consider a tree as a combination of cylinders and cones, but
as an oak tree, or a maple or a pine; and whether his drawing is a
moment’s jotting in a sketch-book, or a week’s study on canvas, he
tries to get as much of the characteristics of the pine tree or the
oak, in the moment or in the week, as his perception will allow.
You would be surprised, if you practiced this method for a few months,
to see how much meaning these first polygons will have to you. If you
will map out an elm tree, for example, and then turn to our diagram No.
2, you will instantly recognize that the forms A, B, C, could never be
intended for an elm. This negative recognition would be followed by
positive recognition, and you would guess at least, if you were not
sure, that, in a sketch of a sea coast, certain polygons put more on
one side of a line than on the other, which represented a tree trunk,
were meant for the branches of a pine!
{63} CHAPTER VII.
ORIGINAL “PLACING” AND FINISHED DRAWING COMPARED — SIZE OF THE
FRAME DOES NOT AFFECT THE PROPORTIONS IF THE SAME DIMENSIONS ARE
RETAINED — BLOCKING IN SHADOWS BY OUTLINE BEFORE SHADING — ALL PRACTICE
IN DRAWING LINES WILL BE HELPFUL — LINES USED FOR CONTOUR BOTH OF
OBJECTS AND OF SHADOWS — FINDING THE DIRECTION OF SHADOWS — WHY
PLASTER CASTS ARE USED AS STUDIES — JAPANESE ART ENTIRELY WITHOUT
LIGHT AND SHADE OF THE SORT MOST USUAL IN OCCIDENTAL MODELING — NOTING
VALUES — MERE SHADING NOT THE END OF DRAWING.
In order that there may be no doubt about the method of placing
elements, as suggested in the last chapter, we have made skeletons (2
and 4) of the Grasset and the Herkomer cuts, on which we have marked,
so that there can be no misunderstanding, the lines given in our
diagrams 2 and 3. In the Grasset diagram, No. 3, A B C D correspond to
_a b c d_ in skeleton diagram No. 4, while the dotted forms, E and F,
No. 3, correspond to _e_ and _f_, No. 4.
In the Herkomer, No. 2, _w x y z_ is the rectangle W X Y Z of diagram
No. 1; 1 2 3 4 5 correspond to A, 6 7 8 9 10 to B, 11 12 13 14 to C;
while the _d e_ and _f g_ equal D E, F G; _p_ is our plumb-line, P.
It must be distinctly understood that any number of objects may
be contained in a rectangle; let a child scribble upon this page,
anywhere, a dozen or more■
{64} [Illustration: DIAGRAM NO. 3.]
[Illustration: DIAGRAM NO. 4.]
■{65} forms, no matter how irregular, and a perpendicular through the
extreme right-hand form, one through the left, and a horizontal through
the top and the bottom form, and we have a rectangle which has given
dimensions. It may be twice as high as wide, or three times as wide as
high, no matter, let either of those _proportions_ be preserved, and
a rectangle _of the same proportions_, drawn upon a visiting card or
covering the wall of a barn twenty feet high, will give you the right
proportions for your group. And then, if you will find inside of the
rectangle, one or a dozen polygons, like A, B, C, No. 1, and _f_, No.
4, you will be able to “place” the most irregular objects.
We give with this chapter also, two illustrations showing the manner
in which shading is done in the art schools, but the main thing I wish
you to note about the illustrations is, not the shaded drawing, but the
drawing where the shadow is blocked in, Fig. A. Now, this is important
to bear in mind: A line is used, not only for drawing the outside
outline or _contour_ of objects, but for drawing the outline of shadows
_upon_ and within them; therefore, every bit of practice you may have
in drawing lines of any kind will be helpful to you when blocking in
the shapes of shadows that bring out the form of an object. It is just
as imperative, for example, that you compare the inside _margin of the
shadows_ upon the wrist (as indicated in Fig. A) with the plumb-line,
so as to see their direction, as it is that you compare the trunk of
the Herkomer tree with the plumb-line, that you may get its direction.
(In obtaining the direction of small shadows the artist very frequently
uses his pencil, held vertical, as a plumb-line.)
{66} [Illustration: FIG. A.]
Examples of French Art School studies, from plates published under the
direction of Bargue and Gérôme, showing method of blocking in a cast,
both its outline and its shading.
{67} [Illustration: FIG. B.
Method of shading in simple tones, with very little reflected light or
half-tones. (See Fig. A.)]
{68} [Illustration: Portraits, drawn in crayon, by Fantin-La-Tour, from
his painting in the Salon of 1879. An example of the rendering of
“values” in black and white.]
{69}
We give another illustration that we trust will interest you, the very
beautiful drawing by Fantin-La-Tour. Our object in giving this is
twofold: first, to show you the drawing of the cast. We have said that
the Bargue-Gérôme studies show how students learn to work in Paris. The
truth is that nearly all over the world art students learn to draw from
white plaster casts on which the shadows are very distinct. The eye is
thus trained to see _form_, as we call it. And it will not be difficult
for you to look from the cast drawing in the La-Tour to the head of
the standing girl, and see how the form of her face is brought out by
shading in the same manner as in the cast.
In publishing a drawing of this kind in a book for printers we do not
recommend it as an example of drawing for the press (though it would
be an excellent guide for lithography), but it is full of interest in
that it exemplifies what artists consider artistic draftsmanship. It is
evident that the author of it has studied in an art school and that he
gets his effects, not by chance, but by deliberation. He is sensitive
to the different degrees of darks upon the several objects. No matter
how plainly he may see the shadow upon the cast, he knows that, in
order to represent it as a light object, such shadows must _not_ be
black. So there is a vast difference between its dark tones and the
dark tones of the block on which it stands. Also in drawing the human
face he concentrates his darks about the eyes, nose and mouth; the
rest of the face is shaded with great delicacy, for he knows that if
he puts darks elsewhere he will get the undesirable effect of an old
face. The printer is not expected to carry his art as far as this, but
we must say {70} frankly that his degree of success depends entirely
upon the extent of his knowledge of the truths herein stated. One need
not go to an art school to see that a cast is white, and that its
shadows are not as black as the shadows upon a bronze; but unless he
trains his eye by observation to see this difference in other things,
no tricks of pen-technic will help him when he comes to draw a white
horse, or a white collar. He does not have to study portraiture in an
art school in order to make a drawing in pen and ink, for his paper,
from a photograph; but unless he will train himself to observe so that
he realizes that in a young face the greatest darks are limited to the
eyes, nose, and mouth, he will be likely to make his pen-portrait look
more like an old person than a young person, even though in executing
the same he imitates the most perfect pen-technic.
Now, as the placing of the shadows in the seated girl’s face is not the
same, it is a little difficult for you to realize that it contains the
same kind of drawing as the blocked-in cast hand and head.
But the eye becomes trained from drawing casts to see the most delicate
modeling of shadows, and the seated girl’s face is really a complex
style of drawing, of which the cast head and hand are simple specimens.
I mean by “complex style of drawing” a method of getting effects by
imitating the light and shade upon objects, as opposed to mere outline
style or silhouette style.
Now, therefore, this illustration should indicate to you that it is
well to draw from casts, as art students do, if you wish to make
finished pictures in black and white.
In the foregoing statements I have been careful in {71} my language.
I do not say students _all_ over the world learn to draw in light and
shade, for there is a great deal of wonderful Japanese art that is done
entirely without knowledge of light and shade of the sort most usual in
Occidental modeling. Nor do I say that you _must_ draw from casts to
learn to see light and shade, because during the middle ages many great
artists learned to draw from life and not from casts. The cast is a
comparatively modern art-school accessory.
Another reason for giving this La-Tour drawing is that it brings us a
step farther into the consideration of values; we notice that in it
the cast appears to be white, the girls’ faces and hands lighter than
their gowns, and one girl’s hair lighter than the other’s. Now, when an
artist makes a difference between the degrees of the color of objects,
we say he notes their values.
Bear this in mind, then, that mere shading is not the end of drawing.
You can go a step farther and indicate the color value of a shadow, of
which more hereafter.
{72} [Illustration: STUDY OF A HEAD, IN CRAYON OR PENCIL, BY
DAGNAN-BOUVERET.
Showing method of sketching the outline of a hat.]
{73} CHAPTER VIII.
STUDY BY DAGNAN-BOUVERET — A HAT IN OUTLINE NOT MEANT FOR AN OUTLINE
DRAWING — CONNECTING LINK BETWEEN OUTLINE AND SHADED DRAWING — MORE
ABOUT ART-SCHOOL METHODS — METHOD OF DRAWING BASED UPON CAST
DRAWING — THE BIG SHADOWS VERSUS MINOR SHADOWS — DO NOT DRAW INDIVIDUAL
HAIRS — HAIR AND MUSTACHE TO BE CONSIDERED AS A MASS, NOT AS SEPARATE
HAIRS — EFFECT TO BE OBTAINED BY MASSES OF SHADOWS — TRAIN THE EYE
TO BECOME SENSITIVE TO GRADUATIONS OF LIGHT AND SHADE — LIGHT AND
DARK IN THE HEAD INTENDED TO SHOW SHAPE OF THE SKULL, NOT TO INDICATE
PARTI-COLORED HAIR — DRAWING FROM PASTEBOARD BOXES GOOD TRAINING IN
LEARNING TO SEE LIGHT AND SHADE — CONTRASTING A FINISHED DRAWING
(GAILLARD) WITH A ROUGH SKETCH — EQUAL ART IN EACH WHEN BOTH ARE
WELL DONE — A NEWSPAPER CUT IN WHICH LIGHT AND SHADE ARE INDICATED
BY VARIATION OF THICKNESS IN LINE — BROAD DRAWING RECOMMENDED TO
PRINTERS — THE NASO-LABIAL LINE — RÉSUMÉ.
In our illustration by Dagnan-Bouveret we find most interesting
indications of how an artist works; and this head may serve as a
connecting link between the chapter on outline and the one on shading.
The hat is a beautiful piece of outline drawing, which, however, was
not meant for an outline drawing. It is simply to serve as the placing
of the hat, which would afterward be shaded as are the face and
mustache. The eyes, {74} nose and mustache were first outlined in this
way, and you will recognize, I think, that this is the same kind of
drawing as that of which we treated in our first chapters, though, of
course, the hat is not all in one plane.
But before you can thoroughly appreciate the drawing of the face it is
necessary that I should explain a little further the study of drawing
as it is taught in the art schools. This I will do with the help of the
Lœwe-Marchand cut. In this, we see the method pursued in almost all art
schools the world over: a method based upon cast drawing. It is found
from experience that students learn to see form more prominently from
a plaster cast, which is white, than from natural objects; and it is
found that the best results are got if the students are taught to see
the big shadows of an object rather than the multitude of minor shadows
which may be seen upon close scrutiny. So the student is told not to
look for these minor shadows, but to half close his eyes, and stand a
good distance away from the object—say three times its height—and look
for the form that he sees when the object becomes to his half-closed
eyes nothing more than a mass with a light and a dark side. You can
imagine that after a person has learned to get the effect of a hand and
a foot, as in the illustration in Chapters VII and X, by merely noting
the shape of the one big shadow, that it is not difficult for him to go
farther and put in the minor shadows by opening his eyes and examining
the object more closely; and that when he has learned to do this for
several months, or perchance several years, in the antique class, and
then for as long, or longer, in the life class, that he has become■
{75} [Illustration: CHARCOAL DRAWING.
Portrait of M. X., by Lœwe-Marchand.
This drawing was doubtless made on a sheet of charcoal paper, possibly
gray in color, and was then photographed for the direct process; and
then, in order to indicate the gray paper, the photo-engraver tinted
the zinc plate with a Ben Day film, which gives the stipple result. The
cross lines in the corner indicate that after the artist made his study
he wished to enlarge it upon a canvas preliminary to painting, which
was done by covering the drawing with squares and adding a diagonal
to the same. These squares and diagonals were repeated on a larger
scale on the canvas and the drawing enlarged freehand by placing the
different points of the original in the corresponding triangles on
the canvas. This method of enlarging drawings has been used for five
thousand years.]
■{76} so sensitive to seeing shadows that it is not difficult for
him to discern them upon anything and everything. Now, that is the
secret of the beautiful drawing of the mustache in the Dagnan-Bouveret
drawing. The beginner draws the hairs of the mustache, and tries to get
his effect in that way; but you cannot by drawing the pelt of a fox
on a barn door get the effect of one with a real live body underneath
it. The result in this drawing is due entirely to Dagnan-Bouveret’s
sensitiveness to light and shade. The lines, which the casual observer
would take to be the hairs of the mustache, are really the shadows
thrown by the groups of hairs as they part here and there. It is true
that if he were etching this head or drawing it with a fine pen, he
might in finishing it put in a few hairs, and even Albrecht Dürer would
sometimes get a good effect by drawing the hairs of the mustache or
the curls on a head. But in nearly all modern work, the hair, mustache
or beard is considered as a mass receiving light and shade, and is so
treated, there being no great difference between the golden hair of a
child and the white hair of an old woman.
In the beautiful study by Gaillard we see the shape of the skull under
the woman’s hair, and there is a very great difference between the part
that is in shadow around her ears and the part that is light on the
top of her head. This does not mean that the hair was gray on top, and
black around the ears, but it means that the light struck the hair on
top, while it did not strike it on the sides.
Now, if you can give yourself the time to study from the cast, or even
from simple pasteboard boxes, so that your eye will become sensitive to
these graduations from■
{77} [Illustration: STUDY FOR THE PORTRAIT OF MME. R.
By C. F. Gaillard.]
■{78} light to dark, you will soon realize that, while in your drawing
for printing you may never in a hundred years’ practice draw anything
so delicate as the Gaillard, yet in your simplest drawings you may put
in practice the theory upon which it is made. For example, if you are
drawing an old woman’s head, even if you only use four or five lines
to represent her hair, you will not press upon your pen when you are
doing her hair on the top, but you will press upon it when you come
within the region of the ears; and that pressure, though it will not
represent hairs, nor the actual value of the shadow, will yet give
_the difference_ between the light on the top of the head and the
shadow behind the ears, and this will suggest to the educated eye the
roundness of the cranium.
Now we reproduce also the rough Watts drawing. Let us contrast these
two drawings. The one is almost as finished as it can be, the other
slight; yet I want you to realize why I recommend this slight drawing
to printers and tell you that it is artistic. It is so because in the
very heavy lines that you see in the ear, beard and coat there is
knowledge of modeling. The artist knew his business just as Gaillard
did, and every time he put down a blotty line it was meant to represent
the presence of a shadow. This face is from a photograph; hundreds of
delicate tones have been left out; and the white hair of the beard
is modeled with nothing but thin and heavy lines while the shadows
of the photograph were delicate gray tints! A clever penman drawing
from a photograph uses darks which the uneducated eye will take to be
arbitrary blackening of the drawing, but which an artist knows are the
result of intelligent observation.
{79} [Illustration: GEORGE FREDERICK WATTS, R. A.
An English newspaper cut from _Tid-Bits_, artist unknown. An excellent
example of newspaper work. Note that the skull-cap is not represented
partly gray and partly black because the artist meant to indicate a cap
that was one color in front and another in the back, but he meant to
show the rounding of the cranium, just as Gaillard did in varying the
tones in the hair of the old woman.]
{80}
Now, in the Gaillard drawing you see a very delicate line running
diagonally from the wing of the nose almost to the corner of the lips.
This is called the naso-labial line, and is found in every old face. I
say again, that though you work for one hundred years as a printer you
would probably never draw a delicate line like this. But if you should
make studies in pencil and realize that this line is typical of old
age, you would be able to put it in such a drawing as the Watts (the
artist has used two lines to represent it), where, you will notice, it
comes down about as far on the lower lip as in the Gaillard, and you
would realize why it was left out in the Dagnan-Bouveret and Marchand
younger subjects.
This chapter should be exceedingly interesting to you as indicating two
things—one discouraging and the other encouraging. First, that when
students of art have the opportunity to work so beautifully, as in the
Bargue-Gérôme studies, and afterward from life, as in the Gaillard,
they needs must see more than you do, and you must not expect to equal
them if you, a busy printer, can only practice a few evenings a week.
Therefore you should not attempt subtile renderings like the Gaillard,
but should confine yourself to simple means. On the other hand, when I
tell you that this is about all the study there is gone through with
in an art school (I say about all, for besides blocking-in, students
learn a good deal about values; this we shall treat of in a succeeding
chapter), it should be interesting to you to realize that if you will
simply train yourself to see light and shade like the plinth in the
foot studies given in Chapter XII by drawing a pasteboard box, and
then afterward draw from life, so as to see that hair is darker {81}
in shaded portions than in light ones, and that in an old person
the naso-labial line is marked and shows darker than the cheeks,
you will, when copying a photograph for your paper, no matter how
roughly you work, be able to indicate the shadows in the hair and the
dark naso-labial line, as in the Watts portrait. This, I say, should
encourage you, and it is the only way for you to learn to draw.
{82} CHAPTER IX.
HEAD BY KNAUS ANALYZED — DRAWN IN THE MANNER OF THE DAGNAN-BOUVERET
AND CONTAINING LINES LIKE THE WATTS — THE NASO-LABIAL LINE USED TO
DELINEATE OLD AGE — THE SHADOW OF THE NOSTRIL — THE WING OF THE
NOSE — THE NOSTRIL USUALLY THE DARKEST SHADOW LINE IN A FACE.
Let us resume the subject of Chapter VIII. We give a fine drawing of
an old man’s head by Knaus, and we will ask you to look at it and see
if you cannot realize two things about it—first, that no matter how
many lines there may be upon the hat, which make it look battered and
different in texture from a new silk hat, it was first drawn as was
the Dagnan-Bouveret given in the last chapter; secondly, do you notice
the oblique naso-labial line, which we spoke of in connection with the
Gaillard and Watts? and do you realize one of two things from this
also, that, either this line in the original drawing ran up to the wing
of the nose but was lost in the several engravings, or else the artist
wished to indicate that his model was not a very old man, and he did
not make the line very strong in that place? If so, you have learned
some important principles that will help you in drawing, for you will
be able to sketch any hat you wish to draw by the same process that the
best artists employ. Again, you will be able to use proper judgment in
introducing the lines into a face. If, for example, you were copying,
in pen-and-ink, chalk-plate or wood engraving,■
{83} [Illustration: OLD MAN’S HEAD.
Crayon Drawing by Ludwig Knaus.]
■{84} from some half-obliterated etching or from some faded
daguerreotype, an old man’s head like the Knaus, you would have the
knowledge back of you that would permit you to draw in the naso-labial
with proper accentuation. If you knew the original was a centenarian
you would most certainly continue the line up to the wing of the
nose and draw it continuously without a break; or if he were but a
sexagenarian of whom the biographical dictionaries said “he carried his
years lightly,” you might purposely break this line as in the Knaus.
So far, so good. And now for some other lines in the face. At the
base of the nose we have the shadow of the nostril, and the curved
portion of the nose around it called the wing of the nose; these
are nearly always introduced into drawings. In the Knaus they are
very happily drawn. Revert to the illustrations of the last chapter,
and see if you can find them. In the Marchand and Gaillard they are
represented by modeling rather than lines, but they are outlined in the
Dagnan-Bouveret and the Watts, the former being in pencil. We notice
that one of these objects is grayer than the other; which is it? It
is the naso-labial line, and the shadow of the nostril is much the
darker. The same effect is got in the Watts by using a fine line for
the naso-labial line and a thicker line, or a blot, for the nostril.
If, therefore, you were drawing the Gaillard in line, can you not
realize that you would approximate the effect of our half-tone by
making the outline of the wing of the nose the lightest of your lines,
the naso-labial line darker, and the shadow of the nostril the darkest
of the three? This order can {85} usually be followed in drawing
an old person, and in almost every case (young or old) the nostril
shadow is the darker of the three lines mentioned. In regard to the
nostril being sometimes a line and sometimes a blot, the difference
lies in the character of the original; with some persons the nostril
is very straight and little of the inside of the nose shows. This was
evidently the case in the Knaus original, so the artist uses a line
and nothing more for the nostril (you will, however, not fail to note
the subtlety of the artist’s touch, which gives us a strongly marked
line for the nostril, but a more delicate line for the wing of the
nose). In the Dagnan-Bouveret, however, the nostril goes up at quite an
angle, exposing much more of the inside of the nose than in the Knaus;
therefore, were you rendering this drawing in pen-and-ink, you could
use a blot in the nostril similar in heaviness to that in the Watts
portrait on page 79.
We should advise you, by the way, in following these chapters, to make
tracings of all our half-tone cuts and render them in pen-line like the
Watts; this will help you immensely to understand an analyzation of
them.
{86} CHAPTER X.
THE ANALYZATION OF THE NASO-LABIAL LINE INDICATES THE FOUNDATION
OF ART STUDY — WHEN THE LINE IS PROPERLY SEEN IT MAY BE DRAWN
WITH ANY MEDIUM — CHOUDIEU HEAD BY BONNARD — ITS SIMILARITY TO
THE WATTS — STRONG MARKING OF THE NASO-LABIAL LINE IN IT — A
SIMILAR ANALYZATION TO THAT GIVEN THE WATTS DRAWING — PORTRAIT
BY TOUSSAINT — HOW IT MIGHT BE RENDERED IN SIMPLE PEN LINES LIKE
THE WATTS — DRAWING BY BONNARD — ITS HEAVY OUTLINE APPROPRIATE
TO PRINTING — THE MEANING OF BLACKS IN A DRAWING — DRAWING BY
BONNAT — EXAMPLE OF DRAWING BY LIGHT AND DARK MASSES — THE EMPLOYMENT
OF WHITES IN SCRATCH-BOARD AND IN WOOD ENGRAVING — BONNARD’S DRAWING OF
CURTAIN — BRUN DRAWING CORRECT IN COLOR VALUES — DIGRESSION IN REGARD
TO FRENCH NAMES — DRAWING OF A FOOT SHOWING ART SCHOOL METHODS.
Some of the most valuable hints we have given our readers are those
of Chapters VIII and IX, in connection with the naso-labial line. In
these you will find the foundation of our teaching—that is, we do not
say that a human face must be made by putting in a black line running
obliquely from the nose to the lip, made with such or such a pen,
such or such a crayon, ink, or charcoal, but we point out the line in
_nature_, and say that because it is found in nature, artists put it in
their drawings. When not found in a face, as that of a young person,
then it is left out in a good artist’s drawing of a young face. Whether
he uses pen, wash, {87} or crayon, has very little to do with the
case. There are some methods of using the pen, wash, or crayon, that
are better than others; but, if you are taught to see the naso-labial
line in nature, it is very easy to learn to draw it in one of those
mediums, and having drawn it in one, it is easier to learn to draw it
in other mediums.
We give, with this chapter, the head of Choudieu, in which this line is
marked as conspicuously as in the■
[Illustration: HEAD OF PIERRE RENE CHOUDIEU.
Drawn by Pierre Bonnard (probably from a medallion, and possibly with a
quill pen), for _La Revue Blanche_.]
■Watts. This drawing might have been made with an ordinary pen,
somewhat worn, or (as was probably the case) with a quill pen, or with
a camel’s-hair brush, or with a Japanese brush (which, like the quill
pen, is a delightful instrument with which to draw heavy lines); but
are we not right in surmising that you are better prepared to draw
such a head because we pointed out in {88} the last chapter that the
naso-labial line was a characteristic mark of an old man’s face than
if we had given you directions for using the quill pen or the brush
and said nothing about this line? Of course, we do not mean to suggest
that, were you making a copy from _this_ line drawing, you would be so
careless as to leave out the naso-labial line, but if you were drawing
an old man’s face from a photograph, might you not easily overlook this
line if it had never been pointed out to you? If you agree with this
proposition you will be in thorough sympathy with the spirit in which
this work is written, and when our chapter on expression comes you will
not at all regret that it is not a technical chapter on the use of a
drawing instrument.
Now, let us consider the Choudieu drawing a little more fully, and
in doing so we shall ask you to notice that the words follow almost
verbatim the part of Chapter VIII referring to the Watts head. This
does not mean that we are at a loss for a vocabulary, but it is done
purposely so that we may thus call attention to it, and that you may
realize that we have called your attention to a vital principle;
moreover, that principle may be referred to again and again in almost
every case where an old person’s head is under consideration. We
publish also the Duc d’Aumale drawing, in which you will see the line
is again marked. Now, we publish this drawing mainly in connection
with the highly finished drawings illustrating Chapter VIII, by
Dagnan-Bouveret, Lœwe-Marchand and Gaillard, but you may profitably
note also that were you tracing it, intending to make a line drawing of
it in pen and ink, you would■
{89} [Illustration: THE LATE DUC D’AUMALE.
Drawn in crayon, by T. Toussaint, and engraved by half-tone.]
■{90} represent this muscular indentation with a strong line, as in
the Watts portrait. You will not fail to notice also the line in the
throat corresponding to the one in Bonnard’s Choudieu, now presented
for consideration.
This Bonnard is a slight drawing, but it is recommended to printers
because it is both artistic in treatment and easily printed. It is
artistic because in the heavy lines that you see in the ear and hair
there is a knowledge of modeling. The artist knew his business just as
Gaillard did, and every time he put down a blotty line it was meant to
represent the presence of a shadow. We have no means of determining
whether this was from an actual plaster or bronze medallion, or whether
the artist worked from a photograph and from his imagination rendered
the effect of a modeled relief; but in either case, in the photograph
or in nature, there were thousands of little tones that have been left
out. A clever pen draftsman works in the same manner, using darks which
the uneducated eye will take to be arbitrary blackening of the drawing,
but which an artist knows is the result of the intelligent observation
of the shapes of shadows, and of the most important shadows of a face.
Now, one of the most conspicuous lines in this drawing is the one
running diagonally from the wing of the nose almost to the corner of
the lips. This is called the naso-labial line, and is found in every
old face. I say again, that though you work for one hundred years as
a printer, you would probably never draw as correct a line as this.
But if you should make studies in pencil and realize that this line is
typical of old age, you would be able to put it in such a drawing■
{91} [Illustration: PORTRAIT OF LEON COGNIET.
After the painting by L. Bonnat, drawn, probably, by the painter
himself, upon grained scratch-board with lithographic crayon (?), the
lights scratched out with a penknife.]
■{92} as the Bonnard where, you will notice, it comes down about as
far as the lower lip, as in the Gaillard, and you would realize why it
was left out in the Dagnan-Bouveret and Marchand drawings.