THE WESTERN RITE OF THE CORONATION OF AN EMPEROR AT ROME
The Western coronation rite came into existence on the foundation of
the Neo-Roman or Holy Roman Empire by Charlemagne. The rite by which he
was crowned was evidently regarded as the equivalent to that used at
Constantinople, for the contemporary accounts claim that the ceremony was
carried out ‘more antiquorum.’
The two earliest accounts of the coronation of Charlemagne agree closely
but give only scanty details. The _Chronicle of Moissac_[37] describes
the event thus. ‘Now on the most holy day of the Nativity of the Lord,
when the king arose from prayer at Mass before the tomb of the blessed
apostle Peter, Leo the Pope with the counsel of all the bishops and
priests and the Senate of the Franks and also of the Romans, set a golden
crown on his head, in the presence also of the Roman people, who cried:
“To Charles the Augustus crowned of God, great and pacific Emperor of
the Romans, life and victory.” And after the Laudes had been chanted by
the people, he was also adored by the Pope after the manner of the former
princes.’
Very much the same is the account given by the _Liber Pontificalis_[38].
‘After these things, the day of the Nativity of our Lord Jesus Christ
arriving, they were all again gathered together in the aforesaid basilica
of the blessed Apostle Peter. And then the venerable and beneficent
pontiff with his own hands crowned him with a most precious crown. Then
all the faithful Romans, seeing the great care and love he had towards
the holy Roman Church and its Vicar, unanimously with loud voice cried
out, by the will of God and the blessed Peter, key-bearer of the kingdom
of the heavens, “To Charles, the most pious Augustus crowned of God,
great and pacific Emperor of the Romans, life and victory.” Before the
sacred tomb of the blessed Apostle Peter, invoking many saints[39],
thrice was it said; and he was constituted by all Emperor of the Romans.
In the same place the most holy priest and pontiff anointed with holy
oil Charles, his most noble son, as king, on that same day of the
Nativity of our Lord Jesus Christ.’
The forms by which Charlemagne was crowned have not survived and we
have only such short descriptions as these as to what took place, and a
comparison in other cases of such descriptions with the rites actually
used warns us how precarious it is to rely too much on the accounts even
of eyewitnesses.
In the two accounts given above it will be noticed that the _Chronicle of
Moissac_ seems to desire to keep up the old fiction of a constitutional
election when it speaks of the coronation as taking place ‘with the
counsel of all the bishops and priests, and the Senate of the Franks and
also of the Romans’; and also some sort of recognition by the people
seems to be implied by the statement of the _Liber Pontificalis_ that
Charlemagne ‘was constituted by all Emperor of the Romans.’
Einhard[40], in his _Life of Charles_, expressly states that Charles had
no idea beforehand of the intention of the Pope to crown him as Emperor,
and that if he had known he would not have entered St Peter’s on that
eventful Christmas Day. But the words of the _Chronicle of Moissac_
certainly imply that it was a prearranged thing, and if Charlemagne was
really taken by surprise, it was probably the method of the coronation,
at the hands of the Pope, which constituted the surprise. The occurrence
of the Laudes need not present any difficulties to the view that the
whole affair was unexpected, for as we have seen they were a familiar
part of great public functions, and it is possible that the people were
led on such occasions by official cantors, as we know was the practice at
Constantinople.
But the most important question connected with Charlemagne’s coronation
is, Was Charles anointed? There is no reference whatever to any anointing
in the contemporary accounts of the _Chronicle of Moissac_ and the _Liber
Pontificalis_, nor yet in other almost contemporary matter such as the
verses of the _Poeta Saxo_[41], or the _Chronicle of Regino_[42]. To this
must be added the fact, inconclusive in itself, that there is no mention
of any unction in the earliest extant Order of the Western imperial rite,
that of the Gemunden Codex. On the other hand it is expressly stated by a
contemporary eastern historian, Theophanes, that Charlemagne was anointed
‘from head to foot[43],’ and this statement is repeated by a later Greek
writer of the twelfth century, Constantine Manasses, who adds, ‘after the
manner of the Jews[44].’
If Charlemagne was not anointed but only crowned by the Pope, then his
coronation was strictly in accordance with the rite of Constantinople,
for it is probable that there was no unction in the Eastern rite at this
date, and thus the Western rite on its first introduction into the West
would be similar in its outstanding feature to the Eastern rite.
Of course the use of an unction at the consecration of a king had long
been the central feature of the Western rite of the consecration of a
_King_. But it must be borne in mind that Charlemagne was here being
crowned as Roman Emperor, and that he had been anointed as King of the
Franks on the occasion long ago of his father Pippin’s anointing as
Frankish King at the hands of Pope Stephen. Moreover it is added in
the _Liber Pontificalis_ that after the coronation of Charlemagne as
Emperor, the Pope anointed his son Charles as King. Duchesne finds here
the explanation of the statement of Theophanes that Charlemagne was
anointed, and thinks that he has confused the two events which took place
on the same occasion, the coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor, and the
anointing of the younger Charles as King.
It may be noticed, before we leave Charlemagne, that at the coronation
of his grandson Louis the Pious in 813 as associate in the Empire,
he himself crowned Louis with his own hands, thus following exactly
the Eastern precedent in such a case. It may be that here we have the
explanation of the alleged dissatisfaction and surprise of Charlemagne
at his coronation on Christmas Day, 800. He may have intended to crown
himself instead of being crowned by the Pope.
I
The earliest Roman forms used at the coronation of an Emperor are found
in the Gemunden Codex, and constitute Martène’s Ordo III[45]. This rite
is very early, being of the ninth century, and it is possible that with
some such forms as these Charlemagne himself was crowned.
The rite begins with a short prayer for the Emperor: _Exaudi Domine
preces nostras et famulum tuum illum_, etc., and then follows at once
the prayer _Prospice Omnipotens Deus serenis obtutibus hunc gloriosum
famulum tuum illum_, etc., at the end of which the Emperor is crowned
with a golden crown with the words, _Per eum cui est honor et gloria per
infinita saecula saeculorum. Amen._ Next follows the _Traditio Gladii_,
with the form _Accipe gladium per manus episcoporum licet indignas, vice
tamen et auctoritate sanctorum Apostolorum consecratas tibi regaliter
impositum, nostraeque benedictionis officio in defensione sanctae
ecclesiae divinitus ordinatum; et esto memor de quo Psalmista prophetavit
dicens: Accingere gladio super femur tuum potentissime, ut in hoc per
eundem vim aequitatis exerceas_.
The Laudes[46] are then chanted.
CANTORS. _Exaudi Christe._
R. _Domino nostro illi a Deo decreto summo Pontifici et universali Papae
vitam._
C. _Exaudi Christe._
R. _Exaudi Christe._
C. _Salvator mundi._
R. _Tu illum adiuva._
C. _Exaudi Christe._
R. _Domino nostro illi Augusto, a Deo coronato magno et pacifico
imperatori vitam._
C. _Sancta Maria_ (thrice).
R. _Tu illum adiuva._
C. _Exaudi Christe._
R. _Tuisque praecellentissimis filiis regibus vitam._
C. _Sancte Petre_ (thrice).
R. _Tu illos adiuva._
C. _Exaudi Christe._
R. _Exercitui Francorum, Romanorum, et Teutonicorum vitam et victoriam._
C. _Sancte Theodore_ (thrice).
R. _Tu illos adiuva._
C. _Christus vincit, Christus regnat, Christus imperat._ (Twice, and _R._
the same.)
C. _Rex regum, Christus vincit, Christus regnat._ (_R._ the same.)
Here follow a series of acclamations.
_Rex noster Christus vincit, Christus regnat. Spes nostra Christus
vincit. Gloria nostra Christus vincit. Misericordia nostra Christus
vincit. Auxilium nostrum Christus vincit. Fortitudo nostra Christus
vincit. Victoria nostra Christus vincit. Liberatio et redemptio nostra
Christus vincit. Victoria nostra Christus vincit. Arma nostra Christus
vincit. Murus noster inexpugnabilis Christus vincit. Defensio nostra et
exaltatio Christus vincit. Lux, via, et vita nostra Christus vincit. Ipsi
soli imperium, gloria, et potestas per immortalia saecula, Amen. Ipsi
soli virtus, fortitudo, et victoria per omnia saecula saeculorum, Amen.
Ipsi soli honor, laus, et iubilatio per infinita saecula saeculorum,
Amen._
In conjunction with this rite Martène gives another very close to it
but differing in some respects. The form at the crowning is different,
_Accipe coronam a Domino Deo tibi praedestinatam. Habeas, teneas,
possideas, ac filiis tuis post te in futurum ad honorem, Deo auxiliante,
derelinquas._ Then follows at once the prayer _Deus Pater aeternae
gloriae_. The Collect is given of the Mass, _Deus regnorum_. It is to be
noted that the earliest Milanese rite[47] of the coronation of a king,
of the ninth century, is almost identical with this rite of the Gemunden
Codex.
II
What may be regarded as a second recension of the Roman rite is the Order
of the Coronation of an Emperor given in Hittorp’s Ordo Romanus[48].
This is of the tenth or eleventh century. It differs considerably from
the last recension, and is more fixed and definite in character, but is
still definitely Roman.
First the Emperor takes the oath as follows: _In nomine Christi promitto,
spondeo, atque polliceor ego N. imperator coram Deo et beato Petro
apostolo, me protectorem ac defensorem esse huius ecclesiae sanctae
Romanae in omnibus utilitatibus in quantum divino fultus fuero adiutorio,
secundum scire meum ac posse._
As he enters St Peter’s the Cardinal Bishop of Albano meets him at the
silver door, and recites the prayer, _Deus in cuius manu corda sunt
regum_, a new form. Inside the church the Cardinal Bishop of Porto
says the prayer _Deus inenarrabilis auctor mundi_, another new form,
and after the Litany has been said, before the Confessio of St Peter,
the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia anoints the Emperor on the right arm and
between the shoulders with the oil of catechumens, using the form _Domine
Deus Omnipotens cuius est omnis potestas_—again another new form, which
however is found in the rite by which Pope John VIII crowned Louis II of
France at Troyes in 877. The Pope then crowns the Emperor, using one of
three forms which are given, _Accipe signum gloriae in nomine Patris_,
etc., or (alia) _Accipe coronam a Domino Deo praedestinatam_, or (alia)
with the prayer _Deus Pater aeternae gloriae_.
III
A third recension of the Roman rite may be seen in a group of orders of
the twelfth century, that of the Pontifical of Apamea[49], the Order of
the Pontifical of Arles[50], and Ordo III of Waitz[51]. It must be borne
in mind that the rite was in a continual process of developement in all
lands, and therefore however convenient it may be to trace its history
by means of recensions, yet these ‘recensions’ must be to some extent
arbitrary, and indeed even in a group chosen to illustrate any given
recension the documents vary to some extent from each other.
The second of the orders mentioned above was that by which the Emperor
Frederick I was crowned in 1155.
The Emperor first takes the oath on the Gospels in the church of St
Mary in Turri to defend the Roman Church; thither he is attended by two
archbishops or bishops of his own realm, and thence he proceeds to St
Peter’s, where he is met at the entrance by the Bishop of Albano, who
says the prayer _Deus in cuius manu_. Inside the church the Bishop of
Porto says the prayer _Deus inenarrabilis auctor mundi_. The Emperor
then goes up into the choir, and the Litany is said, he lying prostrate
the while before the altar of St Peter. The Litany over, he is anointed
by the Bishop of Ostia on the right arm and between the shoulders,
before the altar of St Maurice. The three orders do not quite agree in
the prayers of consecration. In the two orders of Martène the prayer
of anointing is _Domine Deus cuius est omnis potestas_, or _Deus Dei
Filius_, this latter perhaps a non-Roman form, and here first found in
the Roman rite. In the Ordo of Waitz the consecration prayer is _Deus
qui es iustorum gloria_, the unction being made at the words _Accende,
quaesumus, cor eius ad amorem gratiae tuae per hoc unctionis oleum, unde
unxisti sacerdotes_, etc., followed by _Domine Deus omnipotens cuius
est_, etc. Then the Pope sets the crown on his head, with the form (M.
VIII and W.) _Accipe signum gloriae_, W. also adding the prayer _Coronet
te Deus_.
M. VI is more developed here. After the anointing the Pope gives the
Emperor the sword at the altar of St Peter, _Accipe gladium imperialem
ad vindictam quidem malorum_, etc., and kisses him; he then girds the
sword on him with the words _Accingere gladio tuo super femur_, etc.,
and kisses him; and the Emperor brandishes it and then returns it to its
sheath. Then the sceptre is delivered with the words _Accipe sceptrum
regni, virgam videlicet virtutis_; and finally the Pope crowns him,
saying: _Accipe signum gloriae_, and once more kisses him. The Teutons
then chant the _Laudes_ in their own tongue, and Mass is celebrated.
The rite is still simple at this period, but two developements in the
ceremonial have taken place. The Emperor from this time forward takes
the oath in the church of St Mary in Turri; and is no longer anointed
before the Confessio of St Peter, but in the chapel of St Maurice, no
one henceforth being anointed before the Confessio but the Pope at his
consecration[52].
NOTE
The account given by Robert of Clary[53] of the coronation of the first
Latin Emperor of Constantinople, Baldwin of Flanders, in 1204, shews it
to have been a purely Western ceremony.
The Emperor accompanied by the clergy and nobles went in procession from
the imperial palace to the church of St Sophia. Here he was arrayed
in his royal vesture in a chamber specially prepared for him. He was
anointed kneeling before the altar, and was then crowned by all the
bishops. There is no mention of any other investiture, though the sword,
sceptre, and orb are all referred to. Finally he was enthroned holding
the sceptre in his right hand and the orb in his left, and Mass was
celebrated.
The account given by Robert is very meagre, but the rite described is
clearly Western, and apparently one very similar to the third recension
of the Roman rite.
IV
The end of the twelfth century is marked by a further developement in
the rite contained in the _Liber Censuum_ of Cardinal Cenci[54]. This
particular rite was probably used at the coronation of Henry VI and the
Empress Constantia by Pope Celestine III in 1191[55].
The Emperor and Empress go in procession to St Mary in Turri, the choir
singing _Ecce mitto angelum_, and there the Emperor takes the oath to
defend the Roman Church. The oath has become longer and the Emperor
swears fealty to the Pope and to his successors and that he will be a
defender of the Roman Church[56], and kisses the Pope’s foot. The Pope
gives him the Peace, and the procession sets out to St Peter’s, singing
_Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel_. At the silver door of St Peter’s the
Bishop of Albano meets the Emperor and recites the prayer _Deus in cuius
manu sunt corda regum_. As the Pope enters the Responsory _Petre amas
me_ is sung. Then under the Rota the Pope puts to the Emperor a series
of questions concerning his faith and duty, and while the Pope retires
to vest, the Bishop of Porto recites the prayer _Deus inenarrabilis
auctor mundi_. Next the Emperor is vested in the chapel of St Gregory
with amice, alb and girdle, and is led to the Pope, who ‘facit eum
clericum,’ and he is thereupon vested with tunic, dalmatic, pluviale,
mitre, buskins, and sandals. The Bishop of Ostia then proceeds to the
silver door, where the Empress has been waiting, and recites the prayer
_Omnipotens aeterne Deus fons et origo bonitatis_, and she is then led
to St Gregory’s altar to await the Pope’s procession. The Pope proceeds
to the Confessio of St Peter and Mass is begun. After the Kyrie the
Litany is said by the archdeacon, the Emperor and Empress lying prostrate
the while. The Emperor is then anointed (apparently before the altar
of St Maurice)[57] by the Bishop of Ostia with the oil of exorcism on
the right arm and between the shoulders with the prayer _Dominus Deus
Omnipotens cuius est omnis potestas_, followed by the prayer (once an
alternative) _Deus Dei Filius_. The benediction of the Empress follows,
_Deus qui solus habes immortalitatem_, and she is anointed on the breast
with the form _Spiritus Sancti gratia humilitatis nostrae officio
copiosa descendat_, etc. The Pope, the anointing over, descends to
the altar of St Maurice, on which the crowns have been deposited, and
delivers a ring to the Emperor with the form _Accipe anulum signaculum
videlicet sanctae fidei_, etc., followed by a short prayer, _Deus cuius
est omnis potestas_, a much shortened form of the prayer already used
at the anointing; next the sword is girt on with the form _Accipe hunc
gladium cum dei benedictione tibi collatum_, and the prayer _Deus qui
providentia_; and he crowns the Emperor with the form _Accipe signum
gloriae_, etc. The Empress is then crowned with the form _Accipe coronam
regalis excellentiae_, etc. The Pope delivers the sceptre to the Emperor
with the form _Accipe sceptrum regiae potestatis, virgam scilicet rectam
regni, virgam virtutis_, etc., followed by the prayer _Omnium Domine fons
bonorum_. Then at the altar of St Peter the _Gloria in excelsis_ is sung,
and the special collect _Deus regnorum omnium_ follows. The _Laudes_ are
now sung and then the Mass proceeds, the Emperor offering bread, candles,
and gold; and the Emperor offering wine, the Empress the water for the
chalice. Both communicate, and on leaving St Peter’s the Emperor swears,
at three different places, to maintain the rights and privileges of the
Roman people.
The most noticeable thing in this recension is the appearance of the
investiture with the ring, which comes from non-Roman sources and
disappears again in the next recension.
V
In the fourteenth century further developements appear. The order
used at the coronation of Henry VII[58], and the Ordo Romanus XIV of
Mabillon[59], may be taken as representative of this period.
The oath is slightly varied. It is made, as usual, in the church of St
Mary in Turri, where the Emperor is received by the canons as a brother
canon, and the Emperor swears that he will be the protector of the
Roman Church, but does not swear fealty to the Pope and his successors
as in the preceding recension. In St Peter’s the Bishops of Albano and
Porto say their accustomed prayers, and the Litany is said before St
Peter’s altar. Then the Bishop of Ostia, before the altar of St Maurice,
anoints the Emperor on the right arm and between the shoulders with the
prayers _Domine Deus Omnipotens cuius est omnis potestas_ and _Deus Dei
Filius_. After the anointing the Pope kisses the Emperor ‘sicut unum
ex diaconibus’ and Mass is begun at the altar of St Peter, the collect
_Deus regnorum omnium_ being said after the collect for the day. After
the gradual the Pope first sets a mitre on the Emperor’s head, and then
crowns him with the form _Accipe signum gloriae_: the Sceptre and Orb
are then delivered, though no forms of delivery are given, and lastly
the Sword is delivered with the form _Accipe gladium ad vindictam_,
etc., a longer form than hitherto used containing the words ‘per nostras
manus, licet indignas, vice tamen et auctoritate beatorum apostolorum
consecratas imperialiter tibi concessum,’ and girt on with the words
_Accingere gladio tuo super femur_, etc., and the Emperor thereupon
kisses the Pope’s feet. After the gradual the Laudes are sung. At the
offertory the Emperor offers first gold, and then acting as sub-deacon
(more subdiaconi) offers the chalice and water-cruet to the Pope.
The Empress is met at the entrance of St Peter’s and the prayer
_Omnipotens sempiterne Deus fons et origo_, etc., is there said. When the
Empress has been crowned she is brought to the Pope, who, after reciting
the prayer _Deus qui solus habes immortalitatem_, anoints her with the
form _Spiritus Sancti gratia_, this form being longer than in the last
recension. Then he places the mitre on her head ‘ita quod cornua mitrae
sint a dextris et a sinistris,’ and finally crowns her with the form
_Officio nostrae indignitatis in imperatricem solemniter benedicta accipe
coronam imperialis excellentiae_, etc.
After the Communion it is added that the Pope may, if he wish, say the
prayers _Prospice, quaesumus, Domine Omnipotens Deus serenis obtutibus_,
_Benedic, Domine, quaesumus, hunc principem_, or (alia) _Deus Pater
aeternae gloriae_, all of which occur in earlier Roman rites.
VI
The final recension of the Roman rite appears in the Pontifical of
1520[60]. There is very little difference between this and the last
recension. It is mentioned that the Emperor is clad in surplice and
almuce at his reception as a canon at St Mary in Turri. The old
privileges of the Cardinal bishops of Albano, Porto, and Ostia have
passed away, and any Cardinal bishop may officiate in their place. The
order of the investitures is different, first the delivery of the Sword,
which the Emperor thrice brandishes after it has been girt on him;
secondly the Sceptre and Orb, which are delivered, the Orb in his right
hand and the Sceptre in his left, under one form, _Accipe virgam virtutis
atque veritatis_; lastly the Crown, after which the Emperor kisses the
Pope’s feet. The Empress is crowned as before. At the offertory the
Emperor serves the Pope as a sub-deacon. After the Communion the Emperor
kisses the Pope’s cheek and the Empress his hand, and the Pope can
say, if he wish, the three prayers allowed in this place in the last
recension.
[Illustration: The Emperor Charles V in his Coronation robes]
Here we leave the Roman imperial rite at the last stage of its
developement. It may be noted that the Roman Emperor was three times
crowned; first at Aachen, later sometimes at Frankfort, as King of the
Eastern Franks, or after the time of Henry II as King of the Romans[61];
secondly at Milan (or more often as a matter of fact at Monza) as King
of Italy or King of the Lombards; thirdly at Rome by the Pope as Roman
Emperor. Until he had been crowned at Rome he was only Imperator Electus
or Erwählter Kaiser. As a matter of fact no Emperor was crowned at Rome
after the time of Frederick III (1440), though Charles V was crowned as
Emperor at Bologna.