[1] As the name of the fish, "ling" is found in other Teut.
languages; cf. Dutch and Ger. _Leng_, Norw. _langa_, &c. It is
generally connected in origin with "long," from the length of its
body. As the name of the common heather, _Calluna vulgaris_ (see
HEATH) the word is Scandinavian; cf. Dutch and Dan. _lyng_, Swed.
_ljung_.
LINGARD, JOHN (1771-1851), English historian, was born on the 5th of
February 1771 at Winchester, where his father, of an ancient
Lincolnshire peasant stock, had established himself as a carpenter. The
boy's talents attracted attention, and in 1782 he was sent to the
English college at Douai, where he continued until shortly after the
declaration of war by England (1793). He then lived as tutor in the
family of Lord Stourton, but in October 1794 he settled along with seven
other former members of the old Douai college at Crook Hall near Durham,
where on the completion of his theological course he became
vice-president of the reorganized seminary. In 1795 he was ordained
priest, and soon afterwards undertook the charge of the chairs of
natural and moral philosophy. In 1808 he accompanied the community of
Crook Hall to the new college at Ushaw, Durham, but in 1811, after
declining the presidency of the college at Maynooth, he withdrew to the
secluded mission at Hornby in Lancashire, where for the rest of his life
he devoted himself to literary pursuits. In 1817 he visited Rome, where
he made researches in the Vatican Library. In 1821 Pope Pius VII.
created him doctor of divinity and of canon and civil law; and in 1825
Leo XII. is said to have made him cardinal _in petto_. He died at Hornby
on the 17th of July 1851.
Lingard wrote _The Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church_ (1806), of
which a third and greatly enlarged addition appeared in 1845 under the
title _The History and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church;
containing an account of its origin, government, doctrines, worship,
revenues, and clerical and monastic institutions_; but the work with
which his name is chiefly associated is _A History of England, from
the first invasion by the Romans to the commencement of the reign of
William III._, which appeared originally in 8 vols. at intervals
between 1819 and 1830. Three successive subsequent editions had the
benefit of extensive revision by the author; a fifth edition in 10
vols. 8vo appeared in 1849, and a sixth, with life of the author by
Tierney prefixed to vol. x., in 1854-1855. Soon after its appearance
it was translated into French, German and Italian. It is a work of
ability and research; and, though Cardinal Wiseman's claim for its
author that he was "the only impartial historian of our country" may
be disregarded, the book remains interesting as representing the view
taken of certain events in English history by a devout, but able and
learned, Roman Catholic in the earlier part of the 19th century.
LINGAYAT (from _linga_, the emblem of Siva), the name of a peculiar sect
of Siva worshippers in southern India, who call themselves _Vira-Saivas_
(see HINDUISM). They carry on the person a stone _linga_ (phallus) in a
silver casket. The founder of the sect is said to have been Basava, a
Brahman prime minister of a Jain king in the 12th century. The Lingayats
are specially numerous in the Kanarese country, and to them the Kanarese
language owes its cultivation as literature. Their priests are called
Jangamas. In 1901 the total number of Lingayats in all India was
returned as more than 2½ millions, mostly in Mysore and the adjoining
districts of Bombay, Madras and Hyderabad.
LINGAYEN, a town and the capital of the province of Pangasinán, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, about 110 m. N. by W. of Manila, on the S. shore of
the Gulf of Lingayen, and on a low and fertile island in the delta of
the Agno river. Pop. (1903) 21,529. It has good government buildings, a
fine church and plaza, the provincial high school and a girls' school
conducted by Spanish Dominican friars. The climate is cool and healthy.
The chief industries are the cultivation of rice (the most important
crop of the surrounding country), fishing and the making of nipa-wine
from the juice of the nipa palm, which grows abundantly in the
neighbouring swamps. The principal language is Pangasinán; Ilocano is
also spoken.
LINGEN, RALPH ROBERT WHEELER LINGEN, BARON (1819-1905), English civil
servant, was born in February 1819 at Birmingham, where his father, who
came of an old Hertfordshire family, with Royalist traditions, was in
business. He became a scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1837; won
the Ireland (1838) and Hertford (1839) scholarships; and after taking a
first-class in _Literae Humaniores_ (1840), was elected a fellow of
Balliol (1841). He subsequently won the Chancellor's Latin Essay (1843)
and the Eldon Law scholarship (1846). After taking his degree in 1840,
he became a student of Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the bar in 1847;
but instead of practising as a barrister, he accepted an appointment in
the Education Office, and after a short period was chosen in 1849 to
succeed Sir J. Kay Shuttleworth as its secretary or chief permanent
official. He retained this position till 1869. The Education Office of
that day had to administer a somewhat chaotic system of government
grants to local schools, and Lingen was conspicuous for his fearless
discrimination and rigid economy, qualities which characterized his
whole career. When Robert Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) became, as
vice-president of the council, his parliamentary chief, Lingen worked
congenially with him in producing the Revised Code of 1862 which
incorporated "payment by results"; but the education department
encountered adverse criticism, and in 1864 the vote of censure in
parliament which caused Lowe's resignation, founded (but erroneously) on
an alleged "editing" of the school inspectors' reports, was inspired by
a certain antagonism to Lingen's as well as to Lowe's methods. Shortly
before the introduction of Forster's Education Act of 1870, he was
transferred to the post of permanent secretary of the treasury. In this
office, which he held till 1885, he proved a most efficient guardian of
the public purse, and he was a tower of strength to successive
chancellors of the exchequer. It used to be said that the best
recommendation for a secretary of the treasury was to be able to say
"No" so disagreeably that nobody would court a repetition. Lingen was at
all events a most successful resister of importunate claims, and his
undoubted talents as a financier were most prominently displayed in the
direction of parsimony. In 1885 he retired. He had been made a C.B. in
1869 and a K.C.B. in 1878, and on his retirement he was created Baron
Lingen. In 1889 he was made one of the first aldermen of the new London
County Council, but he resigned in 1892. He died on the 22nd of July
1905. He had married in 1852, but left no issue.
LINGEN, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover, on the Ems canal, 43
m. N.N.W. of Münster by rail. Pop. 7500. It has iron foundries,
machinery factories, railway workshops and a considerable trade in
cattle, and among its other industries are weaving and malting and the
manufacture of cloth. Lingen was the seat of a university from 1685 to
1819.
The county of Lingen, of which this town was the capital, was united in
the middle ages with the county of Treklenburg. In 1508, however, it was
separated from this and was divided into an upper and a lower county,
but the two were united in 1541. A little, later Lingen was sold to the
emperor Charles V., from whom it passed to his son, Philip II. of Spain,
who ceded it in 1507 to Maurice, prince of Orange. After the death of
the English king, William III., in 1702, it passed to Frederick I., king
of Prussia, and in 1815 the lower county was transferred to Hanover,
only to be united again with Prussia in 1866.
See Möller, _Geschichte der vormaligen Grafschaft Lingen_ (Lingen,
1874); Herrmann, _Die Erwerbung der Stadt und Grafschaft Lingen durch
die Krone Preussen_ (Lingen, 1902); and Schriever, _Geschichte des
Kreiges Lingen_ (Lingen, 1905).
LINGUET, SIMON NICHOLAS HENRI (1736-1794), French journalist and
advocate, was born on the 14th of July 1736, at Reims, whither his
father, the assistant principal in the Collège de Beauvais of Paris, had
recently been exiled by _lettre de cachet_ for engaging in the Jansenist
controversy. He attended the Collège de Beauvais and won the three
highest prizes there in 1751. He accompanied the count palatine of
Zweibrücken to Poland, and on his return to Paris he devoted himself to
writing. He published partial French translations of Calderon and Lope
de Vega, and wrote parodies for the _Opéra Comique_ and pamphlets in
favour of the Jesuits. Received at first in the ranks of the
_philosophes_, he soon went over to their opponents, possibly more from
contempt than from conviction, the immediate occasion for his change
being a quarrel with d'Alembert in 1762. Thenceforth he violently
attacked whatever was considered modern and enlightened, and while he
delighted society with his numerous sensational pamphlets, he aroused
the fear and hatred of his opponents by his stinging wit. He was
admitted to the bar in 1764, and soon became one of the most famous
pleaders of his century. But in spite of his brilliant ability and his
record of having lost but two cases, the bitter attacks which he
directed against his fellow advocates, especially against Gerbier
(1725-1788), caused his dismissal from the bar in 1775. He then turned
to journalism and began the _Journal de politique et de littérature_,
which he employed for two years in literary, philosophical and legal
criticisms. But a sarcastic article on the French Academy compelled him
to turn over the Journal to La Harpe and seek refuge abroad. Linguet,
however, continued his career of free lance, now attacking and now
supporting the government, in the _Annales politiques, civiles et
littéraires_, published from 1777 to 1792, first at London, then at
Brussels and finally at Paris. Attempting to return to France in 1780 he
was arrested for a caustic attack on the duc de Duras (1715-1789), an
academician and marshal of France, and imprisoned nearly two years in
the Bastille. He then went to London, and thence to Brussels, where, for
his support of the reforms of Joseph II., he was ennobled and granted an
honorarium of one thousand ducats. In 1786 he was permitted by Vergennes
to return to France as an Austrian counsellor of state, and to sue the
duc d'Aiguillon (1730-1798), the former minister of Louis XV., for fees
due him for legal services rendered some fifteen years earlier. He
obtained judgment to the amount of 24,000 livres. Linguet received the
support of Marie Antoinette; his fame at the time surpassed that of his
rival Beaumarchais, and almost excelled that of Voltaire. Shortly
afterwards he visited the emperor at Vienna to plead the case of Van der
Noot and the rebels of Brabant. During the early years of the Revolution
he issued several pamphlets against Mirabeau, who returned his ill-will
with interest, calling him "the ignorant and bombastic M. Linguet,
advocate of Neros, sultans and viziers." On his return to Paris in 1791
he defended the rights of San Domingo before the National Assembly. His
last work was a defence of Louis XVI. He retired to Marnes near Ville
d'Avray to escape the Terror, but was sought out and summarily condemned
to death "for having flattered the despots of Vienna and London." He was
guillotined at Paris on the 27th of June 1794.
Linguet was a prolific writer in many fields. Examples of his
attempted historical writing are _Histoire du siècle d'Alexandre le
Grand_ (Amsterdam, 1762), and _Histoire impartiale des Jésuites_
(Madrid, 1768), the latter condemned to be burned. His opposition to
the _philosophes_ had its strongest expressions in _Fanatisme des
philosophes_ (Geneva and Paris, 1764) and _Histoire des révolutions
de l'empire romain_ (Paris, 1766-1768). His _Théorie des lois
civiles_ (London, 1767) is a vigorous defence of absolutism and attack
on the politics of Montesquieu. His best legal treatise is _Mémoire
pour le comte de Morangies_ (Paris, 1772); Linguet's imprisonment in
the Bastille afforded him the opportunity of writing his _Mémoires sur
la Bastille_, first published in London in 1789; it has been
translated into English (Dublin, 1783, and Edinburgh, 1884-1887), and
is the best of his works though untrustworthy.
See A. Devérité, _Notice pour servir à l'histoire de la vie et des
écrits de S. N. H. Linguet_ (Liége, 1782); Gardoz, _Essai historique
sur la vie et les ouvrages de Linguet_ (Lyon, 1808); J. F. Barrière,
_Mémoire de Linguet et de Latude_ (Paris, 1884); Ch. Monselet, _Les
Oubliés et les dédaignés_ (Paris, 1885), pp. 1-41; H. Monin "Notice
sur Linguet," in the 1889 edition of _Mémoires sur la Bastille_; J.
Cruppi, _Un avocat journaliste au 18^e siècle, Linguet_ (Paris,
1895); A. Philipp. _Linguet, ein Nationalökonom des XVIII Jahrhunderts
in seinen rechtlichen, socialen und volkswirtschaftlichen
Anschauungen_ (Zürich, 1896); A. Lichtenberger, _Le Socialisme
utopique_ (1898), pp. 77-131.
LINK. (1) (Of Scandinavian origin; cf. Swed. _länk_, Dan. _laenke_;
cognate with "flank," and Ger. _Gelenk_, joint), one of the loops of
which a chain is composed; used as a measure of length in surveying,
being (1/100)th part of a "chain." In Gunter's chain, a "link" = 7.92
in.; the chain used by American engineers consists of 100 links of a
foot each in length (for "link work" and "link motions" see MECHANICS: §
_Applied_, and STEAM ENGINE). The term is also applied to anything used
for connecting or binding together, metaphorically or absolutely. (2)
(O. Eng. _hlinc_, possibly from the root which appears in "to lean"), a
bank or ridge of rising ground; in Scots dialect, in the plural, applied
to the ground bordering on the sea-shore, characterized by sand and
coarse grass; hence a course for playing golf. (3) A torch made of pitch
or tow formerly carried in the streets to light passengers, by men or
boys called "link-boys" who plied for hire with them. Iron link-stands
supporting a ring in which the link might be placed may still be seen at
the doorways of old London houses. The word is of doubtful origin. It
has been referred to a Med. Lat. _lichinus_, which occurs in the form
_linchinus_ (see Du Cange, _Glossarium_); this, according to a
15th-century glossary, meant a wick or match. It is an adaptation of Gr.
[Greek: luchnos], lamp. Another suggestion connects it with a supposed
derivation of "linstock," from "lint." _The New English Dictionary_
thinks the likeliest suggestion is to identify the word with the "link"
of a chain. The tow and pitch may have been manufactured in lengths, and
then cut into sections or "links."
LINKÖPING, a city of Sweden, the seat of a bishop, and chief town of the
district (_län_) of Östergötland. Pop. (1900) 14,552. It is situated in
a fertile plain 142 m. by rail S.W. of Stockholm, and communicates with
Lake Roxen (½ m. to the north) and the Göta and Kinda canals by means of
the navigable Stångå. The cathedral (1150-1499), a Romanesque building
with a beautiful south portal and a Gothic choir, is, next to the
cathedral of Upsala, the largest church in Sweden. It contains an
altarpiece by Martin Heemskerck (d. 1574), which is said to have been
bought by John II. for twelve hundred measures of wheat. In the church
of St Lars are some paintings by Per Horberg (1746-1816), the Swedish
peasant artist. Other buildings of note are the massive episcopal palace
(1470-1500), afterwards a royal palace, and the old gymnasium founded by
Gustavus Adolphus in 1627, which contains the valuable library of old
books and manuscripts belonging to the diocese and state college, and
collection of coins and antiquities. There is also the Östergötland
Museum, with an art collection. The town has manufactures of tobacco,
cloth and hosiery. It is the headquarters of the second army division.
Linköping early became a place of mark, and was already a bishop's see
in 1082. It was at a council held in the town in 1153 that the payment
of Peter's pence was agreed to at the instigation of Nicholas
Breakspeare, afterwards Adrian IV. The coronation of Birger Jarlsson
Valdemar took place in the cathedral in 1251; and in the reign of
Gustavus Vasa several important diets were held in the town. At
Stångåbro (Stångå Bridge), close by, an obelisk (1898) commemorates the
battle of Stångåbro (1598), when Duke Charles (Protestant) defeated the
Roman Catholic Sigismund. A circle of stones in the Iron Market of
Linköping marks the spot where Sigismund's adherents were beheaded in
1600.
LINLEY, THOMAS (1732-1795), English musician, was born at Wells,
Somerset, and studied music at Bath, where he settled as a
singing-master and conductor of the concerts. From 1774 he was engaged
in the management at Drury Lane theatre, London, composing or compiling
the music of many of the pieces produced there, besides songs and
madrigals, which rank high among English compositions. He died in London
on the 19th of November 1795. His eldest son THOMAS (1756-1778) was a
remarkable violinist, and also a composer, who assisted his father; and
he became a warm friend of Mozart. His works, with some of his father's,
were published in two volumes, and these contain some lovely madrigals
and songs. Another son, WILLIAM (1771-1835), who held a writership at
Madras, was devoted to literature and music and composed glees and
songs. Three daughters were similarly gifted, and were remarkable both
for singing and beauty; the eldest of them ELIZABETH ANN (1754-1792),
married Richard Brinsley Sheridan in 1773, and thus linked the fortunes
of her family with his career.
LINLITHGOW, JOHN ADRIAN LOUIS HOPE, 1ST MARQUESS OF (1860-1908), British
administrator, was the son of the 6th earl of Hopetoun. The Hope family
traced their descent to John de Hope, who accompanied James V.'s queen
Madeleine of Valois from France to Scotland in 1537, and of whose
great-grandchildren Sir Thomas Hope (d. 1646), lord advocate of
Scotland, was ancestor of the earls of Hopetoun, while Henry Hope
settled in Amsterdam, and was the ancestor of the famous Dutch bankers
of that name, and of the later Hopes of Bedgebury, Kent. Sir Thomas's
son, Sir James Hope of Hopetoun (1614-1661), Scottish lord of session,
was grandfather of Charles, 1st earl of Hopetoun in the Scots peerage
(1681-1742), who was created earl in 1703; and his grandson, the 3rd
earl, was in 1809 made a baron of the United Kingdom. John, the 4th earl
(1765-1823), brother of the 3rd earl, was a distinguished soldier, who
for his services in the Peninsular War was created Baron Niddry in 1814
before succeeding to the earldom. The marquessate of Linlithgow was
bestowed on the 7th earl of Hopetoun in 1902, in recognition of his
success as first governor (1900-1902) of the commonwealth of Australia;
he died on the 1st of March 1908, being succeeded as 2nd marquess by his
eldest son (b. 1887).
An earldom of Linlithgow was in existence from 1600 to 1716, this
being held by the Livingstones, a Scottish family descended from Sir
William Livingstone. Sir William obtained the barony of Callendar in
1346, and his descendant, Sir Alexander Livingstone (d. c. 1450), and
other members of this family were specially prominent during the
minority of King James II. Alexander Livingstone, 7th Lord Livingstone
(d. 1623), the eldest son of William, the 6th lord (d. c. 1580), a
supporter of Mary, queen of Scots, was a leading Scottish noble during
the reign of James VI. and was created earl of Linlithgow in 1600.
Alexander's grandson, George, 3rd earl of Linlithgow (1616-1690), and
the latter's son, George, the 4th earl (c. 1652-1695), were both
engaged against the Covenanters during the reign of Charles II. When
the 4th earl died without sons in August 1695 the earldom passed to
his nephew, James Livingstone, 4th earl of Callendar. James, who then
became the 5th earl of Linlithgow, joined the Stuart rising in 1715;
in 1716 he was attainted, being thus deprived of all his honours, and
he died without sons in Rome in April 1723.
The earldom of Callendar, which was thus united with that of
Linlithgow, was bestowed in 1641 upon James Livingstone, the third son
of the 1st earl of Linlithgow. Having seen military service in Germany
and the Netherlands, James was created Lord Livingstone of Almond in
1633 by Charles I., and eight years later the king wished to make him
lord high treasurer of Scotland. Before this, however, Almond had
acted with the Covenanters, and during the short war between England
and Scotland in 1640 he served under General Alexander Leslie,
afterwards earl of Leven. But the trust reposed in him by the
Covenanters did not prevent him in 1640 from signing the "band of
Cumbernauld," an association for defence against Argyll, or from being
in some way mixed up with the "Incident," a plot for the seizure of
the Covenanting leaders, Hamilton and Argyll. In 1641 Almond became an
earl, and, having declined the offer of a high position in the army
raised by Charles I., he led a division of the Scottish forces into
England in 1644 and helped Leven to capture Newcastle. In 1645
Callendar, who often imagined himself slighted, left the army, and in
1647 he was one of the promoters of the "engagement" for the release
of the king. In 1648, when the Scots marched into England, he served
as lieutenant-general under the duke of Hamilton, but the duke found
him as difficult to work with as Leven had done previously, and his
advice was mainly responsible for the defeat at Preston. After this
battle he escaped to Holland. In 1650 he was allowed to return to
Scotland, but in 1654 his estates were seized and he was imprisoned;
he came into prominence once more at the Restoration. Callendar died
on March 1674, leaving no children, and, according to a special
remainder, he was succeeded in the earldom by his nephew Alexander (d.
1685), the second son of the 2nd earl of Linlithgow; and he again was
succeeded by his nephew Alexander (d. 1692), the second son of the 3rd
earl of Linlithgow. The 3rd earl's son, James, the 4th earl, then
became 5th earl of Linlithgow (see _supra_).
LINLITHGOW, a royal, municipal and police burgh and county town of
Linlithgowshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 4279. It lies in a valley on the
south side of a loch, 17½ m. W. of Edinburgh by the North British
railway. It long preserved an antique and picturesque appearance, with
gardens running down to the lake, or climbing the lower slopes of the
rising ground, but in the 19th century much of it was rebuilt. About 4
m. S. by W. lies the old village of Torphichen (pop. 540), where the
Knights of St John of Jerusalem had their chief Scottish preceptory. The
parish kirk is built on the site of the nave of the church of the
establishment, but the ruins of the transept and of part of the choir
still exist. Linlithgow belongs to the Falkirk district group of
parliamentary burghs with Falkirk, Airdrie, Hamilton and Lanark. The
industries include shoe-making, tanning and currying, manufactures of
paper, glue and soap, and distilling. An old tower-like structure near
the railway station is traditionally regarded as a mansion of the
Knights Templar. Other public buildings are the first town house
(erected in 1668 and restored in 1848 after a fire); the town hall,
built in 1888; the county buildings and the burgh school, dating from
the pre-Reformation period. There are some fine fountains. The Cross
Well in front of the town house, a striking piece of grotesque work
carved in stone, originally built in the reign of James V., was rebuilt
in 1807. Another fountain is surmounted by the figure of St Michael, the
patron-saint of the burgh. Linlithgow Palace is perhaps the finest ruin
of its kind in Scotland. Heavy but effective, the sombre walls rise
above the green knolls of the promontory which divides the lake into two
nearly equal portions. In plan it is almost square (168 ft. by 174 ft.),
enclosing a court (91 ft. by 88 ft.), in the centre of which stands the
ruined fountain of which an exquisite copy was erected in front of
Holyrood Palace by the Prince Consort. At each corner there is a tower
with an internal spiral staircase, that of the north-west angle being
crowned by a little octagonal turret known as "Queen Margaret's Bower,"
from the tradition that it was there that the consort of James IV.
watched and waited for his return from Flodden. The west side, whose
massive masonry, hardly broken by a single window, is supposed to date
in part from the time of James III., who later took refuge in one of its
vaults from his disloyal nobles; but the larger part of the south and
east side belongs to the period of James V., about 1535; and the north
side was rebuilt in 1619-1620 by James VI. Of James V.'s portion,
architecturally the richest, the main apartments are the Lyon chamber or
parliament hall and the chapel royal. The grand entrance, approached by
a drawbridge, was on the east side; above the gateway are still some
weather-worn remains of rich allegorical designs. The palace was reduced
to ruins by General Hawley's dragoons, who set fire to it in 1746.
Government grants have stayed further dilapidation. A few yards to the
south of the palace is the church of St Michael, a Gothic (Scottish
Decorated) building (180 ft. long internally excluding the apse, by 62
ft. in breadth excluding the transepts), probably founded by David I. in
1242, but mainly built by George Crichton, bishop of Dunkeld
(1528-1536). The central west front steeple was till 1821 topped by a
crown like that of St Giles', Edinburgh. The chief features of the
church are the embattled and pinnacled tower, with the fine doorway
below, the nave, the north porch and the flamboyant window in the south
transept. The church contains some fine stained glass, including a
window to the memory of Sir Charles Wyville Thomson (1830-1882), the
naturalist, who was born in the parish.
Linlithgow (wrongly identified with the Roman _Lindum_) was made a royal
burgh by David I. Edward I. encamped here the night before the battle of
Falkirk (1298), wintered here in 1301, and next year built "a pele
[castle] mekill and strong," which in 1313 was captured by the Scots
through the assistance of William Bunnock, or Binning, and his hay-cart.
In 1369 the customs of Linlithgow yielded more than those of any other
town in Scotland, except Edinburgh; and the burgh was taken with Lanark
to supply the place of Berwick and Roxburgh in the court of the Four
Burghs (1368). Robert II. granted it a charter of immunities in 1384.
The palace became a favourite residence of the kings of Scotland, and
often formed part of the marriage settlement of their consorts (Mary of
Guelders, 1449; Margaret of Denmark, 1468; Margaret of England, 1503).
James V. was born within its walls in 1512, and his daughter Mary on the
7th of December 1542. In 1570 the Regent Moray was assassinated in the
High Street by James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh. The university of
Edinburgh took refuge at Linlithgow from the plague in 1645-1646; in the
same year the national parliament, which had often sat in the palace,
was held there for the last time. In 1661 the Covenant was publicly
burned here, and in 1745 Prince Charles Edward passed through the town.
In 1859 the burgh was deprived by the House of Lords of its claim to
levy bridge toll and custom from the railway company.
LINLITHGOWSHIRE, or WEST LOTHIAN, a south-eastern county of Scotland,
bounded N. by the Firth of Forth, E. and S.E. by Edinburghshire, S.W. by
Lanarkshire and N.W. by Stirlingshire. It has an area of 76,861 acres,
or 120 sq. m., and a coast line of 17 m. The surface rises very
gradually from the Firth to the hilly district in the south. A few miles
from the Forth a valley stretches from east to west. Between the county
town and Bathgate are several hills, the chief being Knock (1017 ft.),
Cairnpapple, or Cairnnaple (1000), Cocklerue (said to be a corruption of
Cuckold-le-Roi, 912), Riccarton Hills (832) terminating eastwards in
Binny Craig, a striking eminence similar to those of Stirling and
Edinburgh, Torphichen Hills (777) and Bowden (749). In the coast
district a few bold rocks are found, such as Dalmeny, Dundas (well
wooded and with a precipitous front), the Binns and a rounded eminence
of 559 ft. named Glower-o'er-'em or Bonnytoun, bearing on its summit a
monument to General Adrian Hope, who fell in the Indian Mutiny. The
river Almond, rising in Lanarkshire and pursuing a north-easterly
direction, enters the Firth at Cramond after a course of 24 m., during a
great part of which it forms the boundary between West and Mid Lothian.
Its right-hand tributary, Breich Water, constitutes another portion of
the line dividing the same counties. The Avon, rising in the detached
portion of Dumbartonshire, flows eastwards across south Stirlingshire
and then, following in the main a northerly direction, passes the county
town on the west and reaches the Firth about midway between Grangemouth
and Bo'ness, having served as the boundary of Stirlingshire, during
rather more than the latter half of its course. The only loch is
Linlithgow Lake (102 acres), immediately adjoining the county town on
the north, a favourite resort of curlers and skaters. It is 10 ft. deep
at the east end and 48 ft. at the west. Eels, perch and braise (a
species of roach) are abundant.
_Geology._--The rocks of Linlithgowshire belong almost without
exception to the Carboniferous system. At the base is the Calciferous
Sandstone series, most of which lies between the Bathgate Hills and
the eastern boundary of the county. In this series are the Queensferry
limestone, the equivalent of the Burdiehouse limestone of Edinburgh,
and the Binny sandstone group with shales and clays and the Houston
coal bed. At more than one horizon in this series oil shales are
found. The Bathgate Hills are formed of basaltic lavas and tuffs--an
interbedded volcanic group possibly 2000 ft. thick in the Calciferous
Sandstone and Carboniferous Limestone series. A peculiar serpentinous
variety of the prevailing rock is quarried at Blackburn for oven
floors; it is known as "lakestone." Binns Hill is the site of one of
the volcanic cones of the period. The Carboniferous Limestone series
consists of an upper and lower limestone group--including the
Petershill, Index, Dykeneuk and Craigenbuck limestones--and a middle
group of shales, ironstones and coals; the Smithy, Easter Main, Foul,
Red and Splint coals belong to this horizon. Above the Carboniferous
Limestone the Millstone grit series crops in a belt which may be
traced from the mouth of the Avon southwards to Whitburn. This is
followed by the true coal-measures with the Boghead or Torbanehill
coal, the Colinburn, Main, Ball, Mill and Upper Cannel or Shotts gas
coals of Armadale, Torbanehill and Fauldhouse.
_Climate and Agriculture._--The average rainfall for the year is 29.9
in., and the average temperature 47.5° F. (January 38° F.; July 59.5°
F.). More than three-fourths of the county, the agriculture of which
is highly developed, is under cultivation. The best land is found
along the coast, as at Carriden and Dalmeny. The farming is mostly
arable, permanent pasture being practically stationary (at about
22,000 acres). Oats is the principal grain crop, but barley and wheat
are also cultivated. Farms between 100 and 300 acres are the most
common. Turnips and potatoes are the leading green crops. Much land
has been reclaimed; the parish of Livingston, for example, which in
the beginning of the 18th century was covered with heath and juniper,
is now under rotation. In Torphichen and Bathgate, however, patches of
peat moss and swamp occur, and in the south there are extensive moors
at Fauldhouse and Polkemmet. Live stock does not count for so much in
West Lothian as in other Scottish counties, though a considerable
number of cattle are fattened and dairy farming is followed
successfully, the fresh butter and milk finding a market in Edinburgh.
There is some sheep-farming, and horses and pigs are reared. The
wooded land occurs principally in the parks and "policies" surrounding
the many noblemen's mansions and private estates.
_Other Industries._--The shale-oil trade flourishes at Bathgate,
Broxburn, Armadale, Uphall, Winchburgh, Philpstoun and Dalmeny. There
are important iron-works with blast furnaces at Bo'ness, Kinneil,
Whitburn and Bathgate, and coal is also largely mined at these places.
Coal-mining is supposed to have been followed since Roman times, and
the earliest document extant regarding coalpits in Scotland is a
charter granted about the end of the 12th century to William Oldbridge
of Carriden. Fire-clay is extensively worked in connexion with the
coal, and ironstone employs many hands. Limestone, freestone and
whinstone are all quarried. Binny freestone was used for the Royal
Institution and the National Gallery in Edinburgh, and many important
buildings in Glasgow. Some fishing is carried on from Queensferry, and
Bo'ness is the principal port.
_Communications._--The North British Railway Company's line from
Edinburgh to Glasgow runs across the north of the county, it controls
the approaches to the Forth Bridge, and serves the rich mineral
district around Airdrie and Coatbridge in Lanarkshire via Bathgate.
The Caledonian Railway Company's line from Glasgow to Edinburgh
touches the extreme south of the shire. The Union Canal, constructed
in 1818-1822 to connect Edinburgh with the Forth and Clyde Canal near
Camelon in Stirlingshire, crosses the county, roughly following the
N.B.R. line to Falkirk. The Union Canal, which is 31 m. long and
belongs to the North British railway, is carried across the Almond and
Avon on aqueducts designed by Thomas Telford, and near Falkirk is
conveyed through a tunnel 2100 ft. long.
_Population and Administration._--In 1891 the population amounted to
52,808, and in 1901 to 65,708, showing an increase of 24.43% in the
decennial period, the highest of any Scottish county for that decade,
and a density of 547 persons to the sq. m. In 1901 five persons spoke
Gaelic only, and 575 Gaelic and English. The chief towns, with
populations in 1901, are Bathgate (7549), Borrowstounness (9306),
Broxburn (7099) and Linlithgow (4279). The shire returns one member to
parliament. Linlithgowshire is part of the sheriffdom of the Lothians
and Peebles, and a resident sheriff-substitute sits at Linlithgow and
Bathgate. The county is under school-board jurisdiction, and there are
academies at Linlithgow, Bathgate and Bo'ness. The local authorities
entrust the bulk of the "residue" grant to the County Secondary
Education Committee, which subsidizes elementary technical classes
(cookery, laundry and dairy) and science and art and technological
classes, including their equipment.
_History._--Traces of the Pictish inhabitants still exist. Near
Inveravon is an accumulation of shells--mostly oysters, which have long
ceased to be found so far up the Forth--considered by geologists to be a
natural bed, but pronounced by antiquaries to be a kitchen midden. Stone
cists have been discovered at Carlowrie, Dalmeny, Newliston and
elsewhere; on Cairnnaple is a circular structure of remote but unknown
date; and at Kipps is a cromlech that was once surrounded by stones. The
wall of Antoninus lies for several miles in the shire. The discovery of
a fine legionary tablet at Bridgeness in 1868 is held by some to be
conclusive evidence that the great rampart terminated at that point and
not at Carriden. Roman camps can be distinguished at several spots. On
the hill of Bowden is an earthwork, which J. Stuart Glennie and others
connect with the struggle of the ancient Britons against the Saxons of
Northumbria. The historical associations of the county mainly cluster
round the town of Linlithgow (q.v.). Kingscavil (pop. 629) disputes with
Stonehouse in Lanarkshire the honour of being the birthplace of Patrick
Hamilton, the martyr (1504-1528).
See Sir R. Sibbald, _History of the Sheriffdoms of Linlithgow and
Stirlingshire_ (Edinburgh, 1710); G. Waldie, _Walks along the Northern
Roman Wall_ (Linlithgow, 1883); R. J. H. Cunningham, _Geology of the
Lothians_ (Edinburgh, 1838).
LINNAEUS, the name usually given to CARL VON LINNÉ (1707-1778), Swedish
botanist, who was born on the 13th of May, O.S. (May 23, N.S.) 1707 at
Råshult, in the province of Småland, Sweden, and was the eldest child of
Nils Linnaeus the comminister, afterwards pastor, of the parish, and
Christina Brodersonia, the daughter of the previous incumbent. In 1717
he was sent to the primary school at Wexiö, and in 1724 he passed to the
gymnasium. His interests were centred on botany, and his progress in the
studies considered necessary for admission to holy orders, for which he
was intended, was so slight that in 1726 his father was recommended to
apprentice him to a tailor or shoemaker. He was saved from this fate
through Dr Rothman, a physician in the town, who expressed the belief
that he would yet distinguish himself in medicine and natural history,
and who further instructed him in physiology. In 1727 he entered the
university of Lund, but removed in the following year to that of Upsala.
There, through lack of means, he had a hard struggle until, in 1729, he
made the acquaintance of Dr Olaf Celsius (1670-1756), professor of
theology, at that time working at his _Hierobotanicon_, which saw the
light nearly twenty years later. Celsius, impressed with Linnaeus's
knowledge and botanical collections, and finding him necessitous,
offered him board and lodging.
During this period, he came upon a critique which ultimately led to the
establishment of his artificial system of plant classification. This was
a review of Sébastien Vaillant's _Sermo de Structura Florum_ (Leiden,
1718), a thin quarto in French and Latin; it set him upon examining the
stamens and pistils of flowers, and, becoming convinced of the paramount
importance of these organs, he formed the idea of basing a system of
arrangement upon them. Another work by Wallin, [Greek: Gamos phytôn],
_sive Nuptiae Arborum Dissertatio_ (Upsala, 1729), having fallen into
his hands, he drew up a short treatise on the sexes of plants, which was
placed in the hands of the younger Olaf Rudbeck (1660-1740), the
professor of botany in the university. In the following year Rudbeck,
whose advanced age compelled him to lecture by deputy, appointed
Linnaeus his adjunctus; in the spring of 1730, therefore, the latter
began his lectures. The academic garden was entirely remodelled under
his auspices, and furnished with many rare species. In the preceding
year he had solicited appointment to the vacant post of gardener, which
was refused him on the ground of his capacity for better things.
In 1732 he undertook to explore Lapland, at the cost of the Academy of
Sciences of Upsala; he traversed upwards of 4600 m., and the cost of the
journey is given at 530 copper dollars, or about £25 sterling. His own
account was published in English by Sir J. E. Smith, under the title
_Lachesis Lapponica_, in 1811; the scientific results were published in
his _Flora Lapponica_ (Amsterdam, 1737). In 1733 Linnaeus was engaged at
Upsala in teaching the methods of assaying ores, but was prevented from
delivering lectures on botany for academic reasons. At this juncture the
governor of Dalecarlia invited him to travel through his province, as he
had done through Lapland. Whilst on this journey, he lectured at Fahlun
to large audiences; and J. Browallius (1707-1755), the chaplain there,
afterwards bishop of Åbo, strongly urged him to go abroad and take his
degree of M.D. at a foreign university, by which means he could
afterwards settle where he pleased. Accordingly he left Sweden in 1735.
Travelling by Lübeck and Hamburg, he proceeded to Harderwijk, where he
went through the requisite examinations, and defended his thesis on the
cause of intermittent fever. His scanty funds were now nearly spent, but
he passed on through Haarlem to Leiden; there he called on Jan Fredrik
Gronovius (1600-1762), who, returning the visit, was shown the _Systema
naturae_ in MS., and was so greatly astonished at it that he sent it to
press at his own expense. This famous system, which, artificial as it
was, substituted order for confusion, largely made its way on account of
the lucid and admirable laws, and comments on them, which were issued
almost at the same time (see BOTANY). H. Boerhaave, whom Linnaeus saw
after waiting eight days for admission, recommended him to J. Burman
(1707-1780), the professor of botany at Amsterdam, with whom he stayed a
twelvemonth. While there he issued his _Fundamenta Botanica_, an
unassuming small octavo, which exercised immense influence. For some
time also he lived with the wealthy banker, G. Clifford (1685-1750), who
had a magnificent garden at Hartecamp, near Haarlem.
In 1736 Linnaeus visited England. He was warmly recommended by Boerhaave
to Sir Hans Sloane, who seems to have received him coldly. At Oxford Dr
Thomas Shaw welcomed him cordially; J. J. Dillenius, the professor of
botany, was cold at first, but afterwards changed completely, kept him a
month, and even offered to share the emoluments of the chair with him.
He saw Philip Miller (1691-1771), the _Hortulanorum Princeps_, at
Chelsea Physic Garden, and took some plants thence to Clifford; but
certain other stories which are current about his visit to England are
of very doubtful authenticity.
On his return to the Netherlands he completed the printing of his
_Genera Plantarum_, a volume which must be considered the starting-point
of modern systematic botany. During the same year, 1737, he finished
arranging Clifford's collection of plants, living and dried, described
in the _Hortus Cliffortianus_. During the compilation he used to "amuse"
himself with drawing up the _Critica Botanica_, also printed in the
Netherlands. But this strenuous and unremitting labour told upon him;
the atmosphere of the Low Countries seemed to oppress him beyond
endurance; and, resisting all Clifford's entreaties to remain with him,
he started homewards, yet on the way he remained a year at Leiden, and
published his _Classes Plantarum_ (1738). He then visited Paris, where
he saw Antoine and Bernard de Jussieu, and finally sailed for Sweden
from Rouen. In September 1738 he established himself as a physician in
Stockholm, but, being unknown as a medical man, no one at first cared to
consult him; by degrees, however, he found patients, was appointed naval
physician at Stockholm, with minor appointments, and in June 1730
married Sara Moræa. In 1741 he was appointed to the chair of medicine at
Upsala, but soon exchanged it for that of botany. In the same year,
previous to this exchange, he travelled through Öland and Gothland, by
command of the state, publishing his results in _Oländska och
Gothländska Resa_ (1745). The index to this volume shows the first
employment of specific names in nomenclature.
Henceforward his time was taken up by teaching and the preparation of
other works. In 1745 he issued his _Flora Suecica_ and _Fauna Suecica_,
the latter having occupied his attention during fifteen years;
afterwards, two volumes of observations made during journeys in Sweden,
_Wästgöta Resa_ (Stockholm, 1747), and _Skånska Resa_ (Stockholm, 1751).
In 1748 he brought out his _Hortus Upsaliensis_, showing that he had
added eleven hundred species to those formerly in cultivation in that
garden. In 1750 his _Philosophia Botanica_ was given to the world; it
consists of a commentary on the various axioms he had published in 1735
in his _Fundamenta Botanica_, and was dictated to his pupil P. Löfling
(1720-1756), while the professor was confined to his bed by an attack of
gout. But the most important work of this period was his _Species
Plantarum_ (Stockholm, 1753), in which the specific names are fully set
forth. In the same year he was created knight of the Polar Star, the
first time a scientific man had been raised to that honour in Sweden. In
1755 he was invited by the king of Spain to settle in that country, with
a liberal salary, and full liberty of conscience, but he declined on the
ground that whatever merits he possessed should be devoted to his
country's service, and Löfling was sent instead. He was enabled now to
purchase the estates of Säfja and Hammarby; at the latter he built his
museum of stone, to guard against loss by fire. His lectures at the
university drew men from all parts of the world; the normal number of
students at Upsala was five hundred, but while he occupied the chair of
botany there it rose to fifteen hundred. In 1761 he was granted a patent
of nobility, antedated to 1757, from which time he was styled Carl von
Linné. To his great delight the tea-plant was introduced alive into
Europe in 1763; in the same year his surviving son Carl (1741-1783) was
allowed to assist his father in his professorial duties, and to be
trained as his successor. At the age of sixty his memory began to fail;
an apoplectic attack in 1774 greatly weakened him; two years after he
lost the use of his right side; and he died on the 10th of January 1778
at Upsala, in the cathedral of which he was buried.
With Linnaeus arrangement seems to have been a passion; he delighted
in devising classifications, and not only did he systematize the three
kingdoms of nature, but even drew up a treatise on the _Genera
Morborum_. When he appeared upon the scene, new plants and animals
were in course of daily discovery in increasing numbers, due to the
increase of trading facilities; he devised schemes of arrangement by
which these acquisitions might be sorted provisionally, until their
natural affinities should have become clearer. He made many mistakes;
but the honour due to him for having first enunciated the principles
for defining genera and species, and his uniform use of specific
names, is enduring. His style is terse and laconic; he methodically
treated of each organ in its proper turn, and had a special term for
each, the meaning of which did not vary. The reader cannot doubt the
author's intention; his sentences are business-like and to the point.
The omission of the verb in his descriptions was an innovation, and
gave an abruptness to his language which was foreign to the writing of
his time; but it probably by its succinctness added to the popularity
of his works.
No modern naturalist has impressed his own character with greater
force upon his pupils than did Linnaeus. He imbued them with his own
intense acquisitiveness, reared them in an atmosphere of enthusiasm,
trained them to close and accurate observation, and then despatched
them to various parts of the globe.
His published works amount to more than one hundred and eighty,
including the _Amoenitates Academicae_, for which he provided the
material, revising them also for press; corrections in his handwriting
may be seen in the Banksian and Linnean Society's libraries. Many of
his works were not published during his lifetime; those which were are
enumerated by Dr Richard Pulteney in his _General View of the Writings
of Linnaeus_ (1781). His widow sold his collections and books to Sir
J. E. Smith, the first president of the Linnean Society of London.
When Smith died in 1828, a subscription was raised to purchase the
herbarium and library for the Society, whose property they became. The
manuscripts of many of Linnaeus's publications, and the letters he
received from his contemporaries, also came into the possession of the
Society. (B. D. J.)
LINNELL, JOHN (1792-1882), English painter, was born in London on the
16th of June 1792. His father being a carver and gilder, Linnell was
early brought into contact with artists, and when he was ten years old
he was drawing and selling his portraits in chalk and pencil. His first
artistic instruction was received from Benjamin West, and he spent a
year in the house of John Varley the water-colour painter, where he had
William Hunt and Mulready as fellow-pupils, and made the acquaintance of
Shelley, Godwin and other men of mark. In 1805 he was admitted a student
of the Royal Academy, where he obtained medals for drawing, modelling
and sculpture. He was also trained as an engraver, and executed a
transcript of Varley's "Burial of Saul." In after life he frequently
occupied himself with the burin, publishing, in 1834, a series of
outlines from Michelangelo's frescoes in the Sistine chapel, and, in
1840, superintending the issue of a selection of plates from the
pictures in Buckingham Palace, one of them, a Titian landscape, being
mezzotinted by himself. At first he supported himself mainly by
miniature painting, and by the execution of larger portraits, such as
the likenesses of Mulready, Whately, Peel and Carlyle. Several of his
portraits he engraved with his own hand in line and mezzotint. He also
painted many subjects like the "St John Preaching," the "Covenant of
Abraham," and the "Journey to Emmaus," in which, while the landscape is
usually prominent the figures are yet of sufficient importance to supply
the title of the work. But it is mainly in connexion with his paintings
of pure landscape that his name is known. His works commonly deal with
some scene of typical uneventful English landscape, which is made
impressive by a gorgeous effect of sunrise or sunset. They are full of
true poetic feeling, and are rich and glowing in colour. Linnell was
able to command very large prices for his pictures, and about 1850 he
purchased a property at Redhill, Surrey, where he resided till his death
on the 20th of January 1882, painting with unabated power till within
the last few years of his life. His leisure was greatly occupied with a
study of the Scriptures in the original, and he published several
pamphlets and larger treatises of Biblical criticism. Linnell was one of
the best friends and kindest patrons of William Blake. He gave him the
two largest commissions he ever received for single series of
designs--£150 for drawings and engravings of _The Inventions to the Book
of Job_, and a like sum for those illustrative of Dante.
LINNET, O. Eng. _Linete_ and _Linet-wige_, whence seems to have been
corrupted the old Scottish "Lintquhit," and the modern northern English
"Lintwhite"--originally a somewhat generalized bird's name, but latterly
specialized for the _Fringilla cannabina_ of Linnaeus, the _Linota
cannabina_ of recent ornithologists. This is a common song-bird,
frequenting almost the whole of Europe south of lat. 64°, and in Asia
extending to Turkestan. It is known as a winter visitant to Egypt and
Abyssinia, and is abundant at all seasons in Barbary, as well as in the
Canaries and Madeira. Though the fondness of this species for the seeds
of flax (_Linum_) and hemp (_Cannabis_) has given it its common name in
so many European languages,[1] it feeds largely, if not chiefly in
Britain on the seeds of plants of the order _Compositae_, especially
those growing on heaths and commons. As these waste places have been
gradually brought under the plough, in England and Scotland
particularly, the haunts and means of subsistence of the linnet have
been curtailed, and hence its numbers have undergone a very visible
diminution throughout Great Britain. According to its sex, or the season
of the year, it is known as the red, grey or brown linnet, and by the
earlier English writers on birds, as well as in many localities at the
present time, these names have been held to distinguish at least two
species; but there is now no question among ornithologists on this
point, though the conditions under which the bright crimson-red
colouring of the breast and crown of the cock's spring and summer
plumage is donned and doffed may still be open to discussion. Its
intensity seems due, however, in some degree at least, to the weathering
of the brown fringes of the feathers which hide the more brilliant hue,
and in the Atlantic islands examples are said to retain their gay tints
all the year round, while throughout Europe there is scarcely a trace of
them visible in autumn and winter; but, beginning to appear in spring,
they reach their greatest brilliancy towards midsummer; they are never
assumed by examples in confinement. The linnet begins to breed in April,
the nest being generally placed in a bush at no great distance from the
ground. It is nearly always a neat structure composed of fine twigs,
roots or bents, and lined with wool or hair. The eggs, often six in
number, are of a very pale blue marked with reddish or purplish brown.
Two broods seem to be common in the course of the season, and towards
the end of summer the birds--the young greatly preponderating in
number--collect in large flocks and move to the sea-coast, whence a
large proportion depart for more southern latitudes. Of these emigrants
some return the following spring, and are recognizable by the more
advanced state of their plumage, the effect presumably of having
wintered in countries enjoying a brighter and hotter sun.
Nearly allied to the foregoing species is the twite, so named from its
ordinary call-note, or mountain-linnet, the _Linota flavirostris_, or
_L. montium_ of ornithologists, which can be distinguished by its yellow
bill, longer tail and reddish-tawny throat. This bird never assumes any
crimson on the crown or breast, but the male has the rump at all times
tinged more or less with that colour. In Great Britain in the
breeding-season it seems to affect exclusively hilly and moorland
districts from Herefordshire northward, in which it partly or wholly
replaces the common linnet, but is very much more local in its
distribution, and, except in the British Islands and some parts of
Scandinavia, it only appears as an irregular visitant in winter. At that
season it may, however, be found in large flocks in the low-lying
countries, and as regards England even on the sea-shore. In Asia it
seems to be represented by a kindred form _L. brevirostris_.
The redpolls form a little group placed by many authorities in the genus
_Linota_, to which they are unquestionably closely allied, and, as
stated elsewhere (see FINCH), the linnets seem to be related to the
birds of the genus _Leucosticte_, the species of which inhabit the
northern parts of North-West America and of Asia. _L. tephrocotis_ is
generally of a chocolate colour, tinged on some parts with pale crimson
or pink, and has the crown of the head silvery-grey. Another species,
_L. arctoa_, was formerly said to have occurred in North America, but
its proper home is in the Kurile Islands or Kamchatka. This has no red
in its plumage. The birds of the genus _Leucosticte_ seem to be more
terrestrial in their habit than those of _Linota_, perhaps from their
having been chiefly observed where trees are scarce; but it is possible
that the mutual relationship of the two groups is more apparent than
real. Allied to _Leucosticte_ is _Montifringilla_, to which belongs the
snow-finch of the Alps, _M. nivalis_, often mistaken by travellers for
the snow-bunting, _Plectrophanes nivalis_. (A. N.)