FOOTNOTE:

[1] The Span. _lilac_, Fr. _lilac_, mod. lilas, are adapted from

Arab. _lilak_, Pers. _lilak_, variant of _milak_, of a blue color,

_mil_, blue, the indigo-plant.

LILBURNE, JOHN (c. 1614-1657), English political agitator, was the

younger son of a gentleman of good family in the county of Durham. At

the age of twelve he was apprenticed to a clothier in London, but he

appears to have early addicted himself to the "contention, novelties,

opposition of government, and violent and bitter expressions" for which

he afterwards became so conspicuous as to provoke the saying of Harry

Marten (the regicide) that, "if the world was emptied of all but John

Lilburn, Lilburn would quarrel with John, and John with Lilburn." He

appears at one time to have been law-clerk to William Prynne. In

February 1638, for the part he had taken in importing and circulating

_The Litany_ and other publications of John Bastwick and Prynne,

offensive to the bishops, he was sentenced by the Star Chamber to be

publicly whipped from the Fleet prison to Palace Yard, Westminster,

there to stand for two hours in the pillory, and afterwards to be kept

in gaol until a fine of £500 had been paid. He devoted his enforced

leisure to his favourite form of literary activity, and did not regain

his liberty until November 1640, one of the earliest recorded speeches

of Oliver Cromwell being made in support of his petition to the House of

Commons (Nov. 9, 1640). In 1641 he received an indemnity of £3000. He

now entered the army, and in 1642 was taken prisoner at Brentford and

tried for his life; sentence would no doubt have been executed had not

the parliament by threatening reprisals forced his exchange. He soon

rose to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, but in April 1645, having become

dissatisfied with the predominance of Presbyterianism, and refusing to

take the covenant, he resigned his commission, presenting at the same

time to the Commons a petition for considerable arrears of pay. His

violent language in Westminster Hall about the speaker and other public

men led in the following July to his arrest and committal to Newgate,

whence he was discharged, however, without trial, by order of the House,

in October. In January 1647 he was committed to the Tower for

accusations against Cromwell, but was again set at liberty in time to

become a disappointed spectator of the failure of the "Levellers" or

ultrademocratic party in the army at the Ware rendezvous in the

following November. The scene produced a deep impression on his mind,

and in February 1649 he along with other petitioners presented to the

House of Commons a paper entitled _The Serious Apprehensions of a part

of the People on behalf of the Commonwealth_, which he followed up with

a pamphlet, _England's New Chains Discovered_, criticizing Ireton, and

another exposing the conduct of Cromwell, Ireton and other leaders of

the army since June 1647 (_The Hunting of the Foxes from Newmarket and

Triploe Heath to Whitehall by Five Small Beagles_, the "beagles" being

Lilburne, Richard Overton, William Walwyn, Prince and another). Finally,

the _Second Part of England's New Chains Discovered_, a violent outburst

against "the dominion of a council of state, and a constitution of a new

and unexperienced nature," became the subject of discussion in the

House, and led anew to the imprisonment of its author in the Tower on

the 11th of April. His trial in the following October, on a charge of

seditious and scandalous practices against the state, resulted in his

unanimous acquittal, followed by his release in November. In 1650 he was

advocating the release of trade from the restrictions of chartered

companies and monopolists.

In January 1652, for printing and publishing a petition against Sir

Arthur Hesilrige and the Haberdashers' Hall for what he conceived to

have been an injury done to his uncle George Lilburne in 1649, he was

sentenced to pay fines amounting to £7000, and to be banished the

Commonwealth, with prohibition of return under the pain of death. In

June 1653 he nevertheless came back from the Low Countries, where he had

busied himself in pamphleteering and such other agitation as was

possible, and was immediately arrested; the trial, which was protracted

from the 13th of July to the 20th of August, issued in his acquittal, to

the great joy of London, but it was nevertheless thought proper to keep

him in captivity for "the peace of the nation." He was detained

successively in the Tower, in Jersey, in Guernsey and in Dover Castle.

At Dover he came under Quaker influence, and signified his readiness at

last to be done with "carnal sword fightings and fleshly bustlings and

contests"; and in 1655, on giving security for his good behaviour, he

was set free. He now settled at Eltham in Kent, frequently preaching at

Quaker meetings in the neighbourhood during the brief remainder of his

troubled life. He died on the 29th of August 1657.

His brother, Colonel Robert Lilburne, was among those who signed the

death-warrant of Charles I. In 1656 he was M.P. for the East Riding of

Yorkshire, and at the restoration was sentenced to lifelong

imprisonment.

See D. Masson, _Life of Milton_ (iv. 120); Clement Walker (_History of

Independency_, ii. 247); W. Godwin (_Commonwealth_, iii. 163-177), and

Robert Bisset (_Omitted Chapters of the History of England_, 191-251).

LILIACEAE, in botany, a natural order of Monocotyledons belonging to the

series Liliiflorae, and generally regarded as representing the typical

order of Monocotyledons. The plants are generally perennial herbs

growing from a bulb or rhizome, sometimes shrubby as in butcher's broom

(_Ruscus_) or tree-like as in species of _Dracaena, Yucca_ or _Aloe_.

The flowers are with few exceptions hermaphrodite, and regular with

parts in threes (fig. 5), the perianth which is generally petaloid

occupying the two outer whorls, followed by two whorls of stamens, with

a superior ovary of three carpels in the centre of the flower; the ovary

is generally three-chambered and contains an indefinite number of

anatropous ovules on axile placentas (see fig. 2). The fruit is a

capsule splitting along the septa (septicidal) (fig. 1), or between them

(loculicidal), or a berry (fig. 6, 3); the seeds contain a small embryo

in a copious fleshy or cartilaginous endosperm. Liliaceae is one of the

larger orders of flowering plants containing about 2500 species in 200

genera; it is of world-wide distribution. The plants show great

diversity in vegetative structure, which together with the character and

mode of dehiscence of the fruit afford a basis for the subdivision of

the order into tribes, eleven of which are recognized. The following are

the most important tribes.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Fruit or Capsule of Meadow Saffron (_Colchicum

autumnale_) dehiscing along the septa.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Same cut across showing the three chambers with

the seeds attached along the middle line--axile placentation.]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Corm of Meadow Saffron (_Colchicum autumnale_).

a, Old corm shrivelling; b, young corm produced laterally from the old

one.]

_Melanthoideae._--The plants have a rhizome or corm, and the fruit is

a capsule. It contains 36 genera, many of which are north temperate

and three are represented in Britain, viz. _Tofieldia_, an arctic and

alpine genus of small herbs with a slender scape springing from a tuft

of narrow ensiform leaves and bearing a raceme of small green flowers;

_Narthecium_ (bog-asphodel), herbs with a habit similar to

_Tofieldia_, but with larger golden-yellow flowers; and _Colchicum_, a

genus with about 30 species including the meadow saffron or autumn

crocus (_C. autumnale_). _Colchicum_ illustrates the corm-development

which is rare in Liliaceae though common in the allied order

Iridaceae; a corm is formed by swelling at the base of the axis (figs.

3, 4) and persists after the flowers and leaves, bearing next season's

plant as a lateral shoot in the axil of a scale-leaf at its base.

_Gloriosa_, well known in cultivation, climbs by means of its

tendril-like leaf-tips; it has handsome flowers with decurved

orange-red or yellow petals; it is a native of tropical Asia and

Africa. _Veratrum_ is an alpine genus of the north temperate zone.

_Asphodeloideae._--The plants generally have a rhizome bearing radical

leaves, as in asphodel, rarely a stem with a tuft of leaves as in

_Aloe_, very rarely a tuber (_Eriospermum_) or bulb (_Bowiea_). The

flowers are borne in a terminal raceme, the anthers open introrsely

and the fruit is a capsule, very rarely, as in _Dianella_, a berry. It

contains 64 genera. _Asphodelus_ (asphodel) is a Mediterranean genus;

_Simethis_, a slender herb with grassy radical leaves, is a native of

west and southern Europe extending into south Ireland. _Anthericum_

and _Chlorophytum_, herbs with radical often grass-like leaves and

scapes bearing a more or less branched inflorescence of small

generally white flowers, are widely spread in the tropics. Other

genera are _Funkia_, native of China and Japan, cultivated in the open

air in Britain; _Hemerocallis_, a small genus of central Europe and

temperate Asia--_H. flava_ is known in gardens as the day lily;

_Phormium_, a New Zealand genus to which belongs New Zealand flax, _P.

tenax_, a useful fibre-plant; _Kniphofia_, South and East Africa,

several species of which are cultivated; and _Aloe_. A small group of

Australian genera closely approach the order Juncaceae in having small

crowded flowers with a scarious or membranous perianth; they include

_Xanthorrhoea_ (grass-tree or black-boy) and _Kingia_, arborescent

plants with an erect woody stem crowned with a tuft of long stiff

narrow leaves, from the centre of which rises a tall dense

flower-spike or a number of stalked flower-heads; this group has been

included in Juncaceae, from which it is doubtfully distinguished only

by the absence of the long twisted stigmas which characterize the true

rushes.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Corm of _Colchicum autumnale_ in autumn when

the plant is in flower.

k, Present corm.

h, h, Brown scales covering it.

w, Its roots.

st, Its withered flowering stem.

k´, Younger corm produced from k.

wh, Roots from k´, which grows at expense of k.

s, s´, s´´, Sheathing leaves.

l´, l´´, Foliage leaves.

b, b´, Flowers.

k´´, Young corm produced from

k´, in autumn, which in succeeding autumn will produce flowers.]

_Allioideae._--The plants grow from a bulb or short rhizome; the

inflorescence is an apparent umbel formed of several shortened

monochasial cymes and subtended by a pair of large bracts. It contains

22 genera, the largest of which _Allium_ has about 250 species--7 are

British; _Agapanthus_ or African lily is a well-known garden plant; in

_Gagea_, a genus of small bulbous herbs found in most parts of Europe,

the inflorescence is reduced to a few flowers or a single flower; _G.

lutea_ is a local and rare British plant.

_Lilioideae._--Bulbous plants with a terminal racemose inflorescence;

the anthers open introrsely and the capsule is loculicidal. It

contains 28 genera, several being represented in Britain. The typical

genus _Lilium_ and _Fritillaria_ are widely distributed in the

temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; _F. meleagris_, snake's

head, is found in moist meadows in some of the southern and central

English counties; _Tulipa_ contains more than 50 species in Europe and

temperate Asia, and is specially abundant in the dry districts of

central Asia; _Lloydia_, a small slender alpine plant, widely

distributed in the northern hemisphere, occurs on Snowdon in Wales;

_Scilla_ (squill) is a large genus, chiefly in Europe and Asia--_S.

nutans_ is the bluebell or wild hyacinth; _Ornithogalum_ (Europe,

Africa and west Asia) is closely allied to _Scilla_--_O. umbellatum_,

star of Bethlehem, is naturalized in Britain; _Hyacinthus_ and

_Muscari_ are chiefly Mediterranean; _M. racemosum_, grape hyacinth,

occurs in sandy pastures in the eastern counties of England. To this

group belong a number of tropical and especially South African genera

such as _Albuca_, _Urginea_, _Drimia_, _Lachenalia_ and others.

_Dracaenoideae._--The plants generally have an erect stem with a crown

of leaves which are often leathery; the anthers open introrsely and

the fruit is a berry or capsule. It contains 9 genera, several of

which, such as _Yucca_ (fig. 5), _Dracaena_ and _Cordyline_ include

arborescent species in which the stem increases in thickness

continually by a centrifugal formation of new tissue; an extreme case

is afforded by _Dracaena Draco_, the dragon-tree of Teneriffe. _Yucca_

and several allied genera are natives of the dry country of the

southern and western United States and of Central America. _Dracaena_

and the allied genus _Cordyline_ occur in the warmer regions of the

Old World. There is a close relation between the pollination of many

yuccas and the life of a moth (_Pronuba yuccasella_); the flowers are

open and scented at night when the female moth becomes active, first

collecting a load of pollen and then depositing her eggs, generally in

a different flower from that which has supplied the pollen. The eggs

are deposited in the ovary-wall, usually just below an ovule; after

each deposition the moth runs to the top of the pistil and thrusts

some pollen into the opening of the stigma. Development of larva and

seed go on together, a few of the seeds serving as food for the

insect, which when mature eats through the pericarp and drops to the

ground, remaining dormant in its cocoon until the next season of

flowering when it emerges as a moth.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Yucca gloriosa._ Plant much reduced. 1,

Floral diagram. 2, Flower.]

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Twig of Butcher's Broom, _Ruscus aculeatus_,

slightly enlarged. 1, Male flower, 2, female flower, both enlarged; 3,

berry, slightly reduced.]

[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by

permission of Gustav Fischer.

FIG. 7.--Rhizome of _Polygonatum multiflorum_.

a, Bud of next year's aerial shoot.

b, Scar of this year's, and c, d, e, scars of three preceding years'

aerial shoots.

w, Roots.]

_Asparagoideae._--Plants growing from a rhizome; fruit a berry.

_Asparagus_ contains about 100 species in the dryer warmer parts of

the Old World; it has a short creeping rhizome, from which springs a

slender, herbaceous or woody, often very much branched, erect or

climbing stem, the ultimate branches of which are flattened or

needle-like leaf-like structures (_cladodes_), the true leaves being

reduced to scales or, in the climbers, forming short, hard more or

less recurved spines. _Ruscus aculeatus_ (fig. 6) is butcher's broom,

an evergreen shrub with flattened leaf-like cladodes, native in the

southerly portion of England and Wales; the small flowers are

unisexual and borne on the face of the cladode; the male contains

three stamens, the filaments of which are united to form a short

stout column on which are seated the diverging cells of the anthers;

in the female the ovary is enveloped by a fleshy staminal tube on

which are borne three barren anthers. _Polygonatum_ and _Maianthemum_

are allied genera with a herbaceous leafy stem and, in the former

axillary flowers, in the latter flowers in a terminal raceme; both

occur rarely in woods in Britain; _P. multiflorum_ is the well-known

Solomon's seal of gardens (fig. 7), so called from the seal-like scars

on the rhizome of stems of previous seasons, the hanging flowers of

which contain no honey, but are visited by bees for the pollen.

_Convallaria_ is lily of the valley; _Aspidistra_, native of the

Himalayas, China and Japan, is a well-known pot plant; its flowers

depart from the normal arrangement of the order in having the parts in

fours (tetramerous). Paris, including the British Herb _Paris_ (_P.

quadrifolia_), has solitary tetra- to poly-merous flowers terminating

the short annual shoot which bears a whorl of four or more leaves

below the flower; in this and in some species of the nearly allied

genus _Trillium_ (chiefly temperate North America) the flowers have a

fetid smell, which together with the dark purple of the ovary and

stigmas and frequently also of the stamens and petals, attracts

carrion-loving flies, which alight on the stigma and then climb the

anthers and become dusted with pollen; the pollen is then carried to

the stigmas of another flower.

_Luzuriagoideae_ are shrubs or undershrubs with erect or climbing

branches and fruit a berry. _Lapageria_, a native of Chile, is a

favourite greenhouse climber with fine bell-shaped flowers.

_Smilacoideae_ are climbing shrubs with broad net-veined leaves and

small dioecious flowers in umbels springing from the leaf-axils; the

fruit is a berry. They climb by means of tendrils, which are stipular

structures arising from the leaf-sheath. _Smilax_ is a characteristic

tropical genus containing about 200 species; the dried roots of some

species are the drug sarsaparilla.

The two tribes _Ophiopogonoideae_ and _Aletroideae_ are often included

in a distinct order, Haemodoraceae. The plants have a short rhizome

and narrow or lanceolate basal leaves; and they are characterized by

the ovary being often half-inferior. They contain a few genera chiefly

old world tropical and subtropical. The leaves of species of

_Sansevieria_ yield a valuable fibre.

Liliaceae may be regarded as the typical order of the series

Liliiflorae. It resembles Juncaceae in the general plan of the flower,

which, however, has become much more elaborate and varied in the form

and colour of its perianth in association with transmission of pollen by

insect agency; a link between the two orders is found in the group of

Australian genera referred to above under Asphodeloideae. The tribe

Ophiopogonoideae, with its tendency to an inferior ovary, suggests an

affinity with the Amaryllidaceae which resemble Liliaceae in habit and

in the horizontal plan of the flower, but have an inferior ovary. The

tribe Smilacoideae, shrubby climbers with net-veined leaves and small

unisexual flowers, bears much the same relationship to the order as a

whole as does the order Dioscoreaceae, which have a similar habit, but

flowers with an inferior ovary, to the Amaryllidaceae.

LILIENCRON, DETLEV VON (1844-1909), German poet and novelist, was born

at Kiel on the 3rd of June 1844. He entered the army and took part in

the campaigns of 1866 and 1870-71, in both of which he was wounded. He

retired with the rank of captain and spent some time in America,

afterwards settling at Kellinghusen in Holstein, where he remained till

1887. After some time at Munich, he settled in Altona and then at

Altrahistedt, near Hamburg. He died in July 1909. He first attracted

attention by the volume of poems, _Adjutantenritte und andere Gedichte_

(1883), which was followed by several unsuccessful dramas, a volume of

short stories, _Eine Sommerschlacht_ (1886), and a novel _Breide

Hummelsbüttel_ (1887). Other collections of short stories appeared under

the titles _Unter flatternden Fahnen_ (1888). _Der Mäcen_ (1889), _Krieg

und Frieden_ (1891); of lyric poetry in 1889, 1890 (_Der Heidegänger

und andere Gedichte_), 1893, and 1903 (_Bunte Beute_). Interesting, too,

is the humorous epic _Poggfred_ (1896; 2nd ed. 1904). Liliencron is one

of the most eminent of recent German lyric poets; his _Adjutantenritte_,

with its fresh original note, broke with the well-worn literary

conventions which had been handed down from the middle of the century.

Liliencron's work is, however, somewhat unequal, and he lacks the

sustained power which makes the successful prose writer.

Liliencron's _Sämtliche Werke_ have been published in 14 vols.

(1904-1905); his _Gedichte_ having been previously collected in four

volumes under the titles _Kampf und Spiele, Kämpfe und Ziele, Nebel

und Sonne_ and _Bunte Beute_ (1897-1903). See O. J. Bierbaum, _D. von

Liliencron_ (1892); H. Greinz, _Liliencron, eine literarhistorische

Würdigung_ (1896); F. Oppenheimer, _D. von Liliencron_ (1898).

LILITH (Heb. _lilâtu_, "night"; hence "night-monster"), a female demon

of Jewish folk-lore, equivalent to the English vampire. The personality

and name are derived from a Babylonian-Assyrian demon Lilit or Lilu.

Lilith was believed to have a special power for evil over children. The

superstition was extended to a cult surviving among some Jews even as

late as the 7th century A.D. In the Rabbinical literature Lilith becomes

the first wife of Adam, but flies away from him and becomes a demon.

LILLE, a city of northern France, capital of the department of Nord, 154

m. N. by E. of Paris on the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 196,624. Lille

is situated in a low fertile plain on the right bank of the Deûle in a

rich agricultural and industrial region of which it is the centre. It is

a first-class fortress and headquarters of the I. army corps, and has an

enceinte and a pentagonal citadel, one of Vauban's finest works,

situated to the west of the town, from which it is divided by the Deûle.

The modern fortifications comprise over twenty detached forts and

batteries, the perimeter of the defences being about 20 m. Before 1858

the town, fortified by Vauban about 1668, occupied an elliptical area of

about 2500 yds. by 1300, with the church of Notre-Dame de la Treille in

the centre, but the ramparts on the south side have been demolished and

the ditches filled up, their place being now occupied by the great

Boulevard de la Liberté, which extends in a straight line from the goods

station of the railway to the citadel. At the S.E. end of this boulevard

are grouped the majority of the numerous educational establishments of

the city. The new enceinte encloses the old communes of Esquermes,

Wazemmes and Moulins-Lille, the area of the town being thus more than

doubled. In the new quarters fine boulevards and handsome squares, such

as the Place de la République, have been laid out in pleasant contrast

with the sombre aspect of the old town. The district of St André to the

north, the only elegant part of the old town, is the residence of the

aristocracy. Outside the enceinte populous suburbs surround the city on

every side. The demolition of the fortifications on the north and east

of the city, which is continued in those directions by the great suburbs

of La Madeleine, St Maurice and Fives, must accelerate its expansion

towards Roubaix and Tourcoing. At the demolition of the southern

fortifications, the Paris gate, a triumphal arch erected in 1682 in

honour of Louis XIV., after the conquest of Flanders, was preserved. On

the east the Ghent and Roubaix gates, built in the Renaissance style,

with bricks of different colours, date from 1617 and 1622, the time of

the Spanish domination. On the same side the Noble-Tour is a relic of

the medieval ramparts. The present enceinte is pierced by numerous

gates, including water gates for the canal of the Deûle and for the

Arbonnoise, which extends into a marsh in the south-west corner of the

town. The citadel, which contains the barracks and arsenal, is

surrounded by public gardens. The more interesting buildings are in the

old town, where, in the Grande Place and Rue Faidherbe, its animation is

concentrated. St Maurice, a church in the late Gothic style, dates in

its oldest portions from the 15th century, and was restored in 1872; Ste

Cathérine belongs to the 15th, 16th and 18th centuries, St André to the

first years of the 18th century, and Ste Madeleine to the last half of

the 17th century; all possess valuable pictures, but St Maurice alone,

with nave and double aisles, and elegant modern spire, is

architecturally notable. Notre-Dame de la Treille, begun in 1855, in the

style of the 15th century, possesses an ancient statue of the Virgin

which is the object of a well-known pilgrimage. Of the civil buildings

the Bourse (17th century) built round a courtyard in which stands a

bronze statue of Napoleon I., the Hôtel d'Aigremont, the Hôtel Gentil

and other houses are in the Flemish style; the Hôtel de Ville, dating in

the main from the middle of the 19th century, preserves a portion of a

palace built by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in the 15th century.

The prefecture, the Palais des Beaux-Arts, the law-courts, the school of

arts and crafts, and the Lycée Faidherbe are imposing modern buildings.

In the middle of the Grande Place stands a column, erected in 1848,

commemorating the defence of the town in 1792 (see below), and there are

also statues to Generals L. L. C. Faidherbe and F. O. de Négrier, and

busts of Louis Pasteur and the popular poet and singer A. Desrousseaux.

The Palais des Beaux-Arts contains a museum and picture galleries, among

the richest in France, as well as a unique collection of original

designs of the great masters bequeathed to Lille by J. B. Wicar, and

including a celebrated wax model of a girl's head usually attributed to

some Italian artist of the 16th century. The city also possesses a

commercial and colonial museum, an industrial museum, a fine collection

of departmental and municipal archives, the museum of the Institute of

Natural Sciences and a library containing many valuable manuscripts,

housed at the Hôtel de Ville. The large military hospital, once a Jesuit

college, is one of several similar institutions.

Lille is the seat of a prefect and has tribunals of first instance and

of commerce, a board of trade arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a

branch of the Bank of France. It is the centre of an académie

(educational division) and has a university with faculties of laws,

letters, science and medicine and pharmacy, together with a Catholic

institute comprising faculties of theology, law, medicine and pharmacy,

letters, science, a technical school, and a department of social and

political science. Secondary education is given at the Lycée Faidherbe,

and the Lycée Fénelon (for girls), a higher school of commerce, a

national technical school and other establishments; to these must be

added schools of music and fine arts, and the Industrial and Pasteur

Institutes.

The industries, which are carried on in the new quarters of the town and

in the suburbs, are of great variety and importance. In the first rank

comes the spinning of flax and the weaving of cloth, table-linen,

damask, ticking and flax velvet. The spinning of flax thread for sewing

and lace-making is specially connected with Lille. The manufacture of

woollen fabrics and cotton-spinning and the making of cotton-twist of

fine quality are also carried on. There are important printing

establishments, state factories for the manufacture of tobacco and the

refining of saltpetre and very numerous breweries, while chemical, oil,

white lead and sugar-works, distilleries, bleaching-grounds, dye-works,

machinery and boiler works and cabinet-making occupy many thousands of

workmen. Plant for sugar-works and distilleries, military stores,

steam-engines, locomotives, and bridges of all kinds are produced by the

company of Fives-Lille. Lille is one of the most important junctions of

the Northern railway, and the Deûle canal affords communication with

neighbouring ports and with Belgium. Trade is chiefly in the raw

material and machinery for its industries, in the products thereof, and

in the wheat and other agricultural products of the surrounding

district.

Lille (l'Île) is said to date its origin from the time of Count Baldwin

IV. of Flanders, who in 1030 surrounded with walls a little town which

had arisen around the castle of Buc. In the first half of the 13th

century, the town, which had developed rapidly, obtained communal

privileges. Destroyed by Philip Augustus in 1213, it was rebuilt by

Joanna of Constantinople, countess of Flanders, but besieged and retaken

by Philip the Fair in 1297. After having taken part with the Flemings

against the king of France, it was ceded to the latter in 1312. In 1369

Charles V., king of France, gave it to Louis de Male, who transmitted

his rights to his daughter Margaret, wife of Philip the Bold, duke of

Burgundy. Under the Burgundian rule Lille enjoyed great prosperity; its

merchants were at the head of the London Hansa. Philip the Good made it

his residence, and within its walls held the first chapters of the order

of the Golden Fleece. With the rest of Flanders it passed from the dukes

of Burgundy to Austria and then to Spain. After the death of Philip IV.

of Spain, Louis XIV. reclaimed the territory and besieged Lille in 1667.

He forced it to capitulate, but preserved all its laws, customs,

privileges and liberties. In 1708, after an heroic resistance, it

surrendered to Prince Eugène and the duke of Marlborough. The treaty of

Utrecht restored it to France. In 1792 the Austrians bombarded it for

nine days and nights without intermission, but had ultimately to raise

the siege.

See É. Vanhende, _Lille et ses institutions communales de 620 à 1804_

(Lille, 1888).

LILLEBONNE, a town of France in the department of Seine-Inférieure, 3½

m. N. of the Seine and 24 m. E. of Havre by the Western railway. Pop.

(1906) 5370. It lies in the valley of the Bolbec at the foot of wooded

hills. The church of Notre-Dame, partly modern, preserves a Gothic

portal of the 16th century and a graceful tower of the same period. The

park contains a fine cylindrical donjon and other remains of a castle

founded by William the Conqueror and rebuilt in the 13th century. The

principal industries are cotton-spinning and the manufacture of calico

and candles.

Lillebonne under the Romans, _Juliobona_, was the capital of the

Caletes, or inhabitants of the Pays de Caux, in the time of Caesar, by

whom it was destroyed. It was afterwards rebuilt by Augustus, and before

it was again ruined by the barbarian invasions it had become an

important centre whence Roman roads branched out in all directions. The

remains of ancient baths and of a theatre capable of holding 3000

persons have been brought to light. Many Roman and Gallic relics,

notably a bronze statue of a woman and two fine mosaics, have been found

and transported to the museum at Rouen. In the middle ages the

fortifications of the town were constructed out of materials supplied by

the theatre. The town recovered some of its old importance under William

the Conqueror.

LILLIBULLERO, or LILLIBURLERO, the name of a song popular at the end of

the 17th century, especially among the army and supporters of William

III. in the war in Ireland during the revolution of 1688. The tune

appears to have been much older, and was sung to an Irish nursery song

at the beginning of the 17th century, and the attribution of Henry

Purcell is based on the very slight ground that it was published in

_Music's Handmaid_, 1689, as "A new Irish Tune" by Henry Purcell. It was

also a marching tune familiar to soldiers. The doggerel verses have

generally been assigned to Thomas Wharton, and deal with the

administration of Talbot, earl of Tyrconnel, appointed by James as his

lieutenant in Ireland in 1687. The refrain of the song _lilliburllero

bullen a la_ gave the title of the song. Macaulay says of the song "The

verses and the tune caught the fancy of the nation. From one end of

England to the other all classes were singing this idle rhyme." Though

Wharton claimed he had "sung a king out of three kingdoms" and Burnet

says "perhaps never had so slight a thing so great an effect" the

success of the song was "the effect, and not the cause of that excited

state of public feeling which produced the revolution" (Macaulay, _Hist.

of Eng._ chap. ix.).

LILLO, GEORGE (1693-1739), English dramatist, son of a Dutch jeweller,

was born in London on the 4th of February 1693. He was brought up to his

father's trade and was for many years a partner in the business. His

first piece, _Silvia, or the Country Burial_, was a ballad opera

produced at Lincoln's Inn Fields in November 1730. On the 22nd of June

1731 his domestic tragedy, _The Merchant_, renamed later _The London

Merchant, or the History of George Barnwell_, was produced by Theophilus

Cibber and his company at Drury Lane. The piece is written in prose,

which is not free from passages which are really blank verse, and is

founded on "An excellent ballad of George Barnwell, an apprentice of

London who ... thrice robbed his master, and murdered his uncle in

Ludlow." In breaking through the tradition that the characters of every

tragedy must necessarily be drawn from people of high rank and fortune

he went back to the Elizabethan domestic drama of passion of which the

_Yorkshire Tragedy_ is a type. The obtrusively moral purpose of this

play places it in the same literary category as the novels of

Richardson. Scoffing critics called it, with reason, a "Newgate

tragedy," but it proved extremely popular on the stage. It was regularly

acted for many years at holiday seasons for the moral benefit of the

apprentices. The last act contained a scene, generally omitted on the

London stage, in which the gallows actually figured. In 1734 Lillo

celebrated the marriage of the Princess Anne with William IV. of Orange

in _Britannia and Batavia_, a masque. A second tragedy, _The Christian

Hero_, was produced at Drury Lane on the 13th of January 1735. It is

based on the story of Scanderbeg, the Albanian chieftain, a life of whom

is printed with the play. Thomas Whincop (d. 1730) wrote a piece on the

same subject, printed posthumously in 1747. Both Lillo and William

Havard, who also wrote a dramatic version of the story, were accused of

plagiarizing Whincop's _Scanderbeg_. Another murder-drama, _Fatal

Curiosity_, in which an old couple murder an unknown guest, who proves

to be their own son, was based on a tragedy at Bohelland Farm near

Penryn in 1618. It was produced by Henry Fielding at the Little Theatre

in the Haymarket in 1736, but with small success. In the next year

Fielding tacked it on to his own _Historical Register for 1736_, and it

was received more kindly. It was revised by George Colman the elder in

1782, by Henry Mackenzie in 1784, &c. Lillo also wrote an adaptation of

the Shakespearean play of _Pericles, Prince of Tyre_, with the title

_Marina_ (Covent Garden, August 1st, 1738); and a tragedy, _Elmerick, or

Justice Triumphant_ (produced posthumously, Drury Lane, February 23rd,

1740). The statement made in the prologue to this play that Lillo died

in poverty seems unfounded. His death took place on the 3rd of September

1739. He left an unfinished version of _Arden of Feversham_, which was

completed by Dr John Hoadly and produced in 1759. Lillo's reputation

proved short-lived. He has nevertheless a certain cosmopolitan

importance, for the influence of _George Barnwell_ can be traced in the

sentimental drama of both France and Germany.

See _Lillo's Dramatic Works with Memoirs of the Author by Thomas

Davies_ (reprint by Lowndes, 1810); Cibber's _Lives of the Poets_, v.;

Genest, _Some Account of the English Stage_; Alois Brandl, "Zu Lillo's

Kaufmann in London," in _Vierteljahrschrift für Literaturgeschichte_

(Weimar, 1890, vol. iii.); Leopold Hoffmann, _George Lillo_ (Marburg,

1888); Paul von Hofmann-Wellenhof, _Shakspere's Pericles und George

Lillo's Marina_ (Vienna, 1885). There is a novel founded on Lillo's

play, _Barnwell_ (1807), by T. S. Surr, and in "George de Barnwell"

(_Novels by Eminent Hands_) Thackeray parodies Bulwer-Lytton's _Eugene

Aram_.

LILLY, WILLIAM (1602-1681), English astrologer, was born in 1602 at

Diseworth in Leicestershire, his family having been settled as yeomen in

the place for "many ages." He received a tolerably good classical

education at the school of Ashby-de-la-Zouche, but he naïvely tells us

what may perhaps have some significance in reference to his after

career, that his master "never taught logic." In his eighteenth year,

his father having fallen into great poverty, he went to London and was

employed in attendance on an old citizen and his wife. His master, at

his death in 1627, left him an annuity of £20; and, Lilly having soon

afterwards married the widow, she, dying in 1633, left him property to

the value of about £1000. He now began to dabble in astrology, reading

all the books on the subject he could fall in with, and occasionally

trying his hand at unravelling mysteries by means of his art. The years

1642 and 1643 were devoted to a careful revision of all his previous

reading, and in particular having lighted on Valentine Naibod's

_Commentary on Alchabitius_, he "seriously studied him and found him to

be the profoundest author he ever met with." About the same time he

tells us that he "did carefully take notice of every grand action

betwixt king and parliament, and did first then incline to believe that

as all sublunary affairs depend on superior causes, so there was a

possibility of discovering them by the configurations of the superior

bodies." And, having thereupon "made some essays," he "found

encouragement to proceed further, and ultimately framed to himself that

method which he ever afterwards followed." He then began to issue his

prophetical almanacs and other works, which met with serious attention

from some of the most prominent members of the Long Parliament. If we

may believe himself, Lilly lived on friendly and almost intimate terms

with Bulstrode Whitlock, Lenthall the speaker, Sir Philip Stapleton,

Elias Ashmole and others. Even Selden seems to have given him some

countenance, and probably the chief difference between him and the mass

of the community at the time was that, while others believed in the

general truth of astrology, he ventured to specify the future events to

which its calculations pointed. Even from his own account of himself,

however, it is evident that he did not trust implicitly to the

indications given by the aspects of the heavens, but like more vulgar

fortune-tellers kept his eyes and ears open for any information which

might make his predictions safe. It appears that he had correspondents

both at home and in foreign parts to keep him conversant with the

probable current of affairs. Not a few of his exploits indicate rather

the quality of a clever police detective than of a profound astrologer.

After the Restoration he very quickly fell into disrepute. His sympathy

with the parliament, which his predictions had generally shown, was not

calculated to bring him into royal favour. He came under the lash of

Butler, who, making allowance for some satiric exaggeration, has given

in the character of Sidrophel a probably not very incorrect picture of

the man; and, having by this time amassed a tolerable fortune, he bought

a small estate at Hersham in Surrey, to which he retired, and where he

diverted the exercise of his peculiar talents to the practice of

medicine. He died in 1681.

Lilly's life of himself, published after his death, is still worth

looking into as a remarkable record of credulity. So lately as 1852 a

prominent London publisher put forth a new edition of Lilly's

_Introduction to Astrology_, "with numerous emendations adapted to the

improved state of the science."

LILOAN, a town of the province of Cebú, Philippine Islands, on the E.

coast, 10 m. N.E. of Cebú, the capital of the province. Pop. (1903),

after the annexation of Compostela, 15,626. There are seventeen villages

or _barrios_ in the town, and eight of them had in 1903 a population

exceeding 1000. The language is Visayan. Fishing is the principal

industry. Liloan has one of the principal coal beds on the island; and

rice, Indian corn, sugar-cane and coffee are cultivated. Coconuts and

other tropical fruits are important products.

LILY, _Lilium_, the typical genus of the botanical order Liliaceae,

embracing nearly eighty species, all confined to the northern

hemisphere, and widely distributed throughout the north temperate zone.

The earliest in cultivation were described in 1597 by Gerard (_Herball_,

p. 146), who figures eight kinds of true lilies, which include _L.

album_ (_L. candidum_) and a variety, _bizantinum_, two umbellate forms

of the type _L. bulbiferum_, named _L. aureum_ and _L. cruentum

latifolium_, and three with pendulous flowers, apparently forms of the

martagon lily. Parkinson, in his _Paradisus_ (1629), described five

varieties of martagon, six of umbellate kinds--two white ones, and _L.

pomponium_, _L. chalcedonicum_, _L. carniolicum_ and _L.

pyrenaicum_--together with one American, _L. canadense_, which had been

introduced in 1629. For the ancient and medieval history of the lily,

see M. de Cannart d'Hamale's _Monographie historique et littéraire des

lis_ (Malines, 1870). Since that period many new species have been

added. The latest authorities for description and classification of the

genus are J. G. Baker ("Revision of the Genera and Species of Tulipeae,"

_Journ. of Linn. Soc._ xiv. p. 211, 1874), and J. H. Elwes (_Monograph

of the Genus_ Lilium, 1880), who first tested all the species under

cultivation, and has published every one beautifully figured by W. H.

Fitch, and some hybrids. With respect to the production of hybrids, the

genus is remarkable for its power of resisting the influence of foreign

pollen, for the seedlings of any species, when crossed, generally

resemble that which bears them. A good account of the new species and

principal varieties discovered since 1880, with much information on the

cultivation of lilies and the diseases to which they are subject, will

be found in the report of the Conference on Lilies, in the _Journal of

the Royal Horticultural Society_, 1901. The new species include a number

discovered in central and western China by Dr Augustine Henry and other

collectors; also several from Japan and California.

The structure of the flower represents the simple type of

monocotyledons, consisting of two whorls of petals, of three free parts

each, six free stamens, and a consolidated pistil of three carpels,

ripening into a three-valved capsule containing many winged seeds. In

form, the flower assumes three types: trumpet-shaped, with a more or

less elongated tube, e.g. _L. longiflorum_ and _L. candidum_; an open

form with spreading perianth leaves, e.g. _L. auratum_; or assuming a

pendulous habit, with the tips strongly reflexed, e.g. the martagon

type. All have scaly bulbs, which in three west American species, as _L.

Humboldti_, are remarkable for being somewhat intermediate between a

bulb and a creeping rhizome. _L. bulbiferum_ and its allies produce

aerial reproductive bulbils in the axils of the leaves. The bulbs of

several species are eaten, such as of _L. avenaceum_ in Kamchatka, of

_L. Martagon_ by the Cossacks, and of _L. tigrinum_, the "tiger lily,"

in China and Japan. Medicinal uses were ascribed to the species, but

none appear to have any marked properties in this respect.

[Illustration: Madonna or White Lily (_Lilium candidum_). About ¼ nat.

size.]

The white lily, _L. candidum_, the [Greek: leirion] of the Greeks, was

one of the commonest garden flowers of antiquity, appearing in the

poets from Homer downwards side by side with the rose and the violet.

According to Hehn, roses and lilies entered Greece from the east by

way of Phrygia, Thrace and Macedonia (_Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere_,

3rd ed., p. 217). The word [Greek: leirion] itself, from which

_lilium_ is derived by assimilation of consonants, appears to be

Eranian (Ibid. p. 527), and according to ancient etymologists

(Lagarde, _Ges. Abh._ p. 227) the town of Susa was connected with the

Persian name of the lily _sûsan_ (Gr. [Greek: souson], Heb.

_shôshan_). Mythologically the white lily, _Rosa Junonis_, was fabled

to have sprung from the milk of Hera. As the plant of purity it was

contrasted with the rose of Aphrodite. The word [Greek: krinon], on

the other hand, included red and purple lilies, Plin. _H.N._ xxi. 5

(11, 12), the red lily being best known in Syria and Judaea

(Phaselis). This perhaps is the "red lily of Constantinople" of

Gerard, _L. chalcedonicum_. The lily of the Old Testament (shôshan)

may be conjectured to be a red lily from the simile in Cant. v. 13,

unless the allusion is to the fragrance rather than the colour of the

lips, in which case the white lily must be thought of. The "lilies of

the field," Matt. vi. 28, are [Greek: krina], and the comparison of

their beauty with royal robes suggests their identification with the

red Syrian lily of Pliny. Lilies, however, are not a conspicuous

feature in the flora of Palestine, and the red anemone (_Anemone

coronaria_), with which all the hill-sides of Galilee are dotted in

the spring, is perhaps more likely to have suggested the figure. For

the lily in the pharmacopoeia of the ancients see Adams's _Paul.

Aegineta_, iii. 196. It was used in unguents and against the bites of

snakes, &c. In the middle ages the flower continued to be common and

was taken as the symbol of heavenly purity. The three golden lilies of

France are said to have been originally three lance-heads.

Lily of the valley, _Convallaria majalis_, belongs to a different

tribe (_Asparagoideae_) of the same order. It grows wild in woods in

some parts of England, and in Europe, northern Asia and the Alleghany

Mountains of North America. The leaves and flower-scapes spring from

an underground creeping stem. The small pendulous bell-shaped flowers

contain no honey but are visited by bees for the pollen.

The word "lily" is loosely used in connexion with many plants which

are not really liliums at all, but belong to genera which are quite

distinct botanically. Thus, the Lent lily is _Narcissus

Pseudo-narcissus_; the African lily is _Agapanthus umbellatus_; the

Belladonna lily is _Amaryllis Belladonna_ (q.v.); the Jacobaea lily is

_Sprekelia formosissima_; the Mariposa lily is _Calochortus_; the lily

of the Incas is _Alstroemeria pelegrina_; St Bernard's lily is

_Anthericum Liliago_; St Bruno's lily is _Anthericum_ (or _Paradisia_)

_Liliastrum_; the water lily is _Nymphaea alba_; the Arum lily is

_Richardia africana_; and there are many others.

[Illustration: Lily of the Valley (_Convallaria majalis_). About ¼

nat. size.]

The true lilies are so numerous and varied that no general cultural

instructions will be alike suitable to all. Some species, as _L.

Martagon_, _candidum_, _chalcedonicum_, _Szovitzianum_ (or

_colchicum_), _bulbiferum_, _croceum_, _Henryi_, _pomponium_--the

"Turk's cap lily," and others, will grow in almost any good garden

soil, and succeed admirably in loam of a rather heavy character, and

dislike too much peat. But a compost of peat, loam and leaf-soil suits

_L. auratum_, _Brownii_, _concolor_, _elegans_, _giganteum_,

_japonicum_, _longiflorum_, _monadelphum_, _pardalinum_, _speciosum_,

and the tiger lily (_L. tigrinum_) well, and a larger proportion of

peat is indispensable for the beautiful American _L. superbum_ and

_canadense_. The margin of rhododendron beds, where there are

sheltered recesses amongst the plants, suits many of the more delicate

species well, partial shade and shelter of some kind being essential.

The bulbs should be planted from 6 to 10 in. (according to size) below

the surface, which should at once be mulched over with half-decayed

leaves or coconut fibre to keep out frost.

The noble _L. auratum_, with its large white flowers, having a yellow

band and numerous red or purple spots, is a magnificent plant when

grown to perfection; and so are the varieties called _rubro-vittatum_

and _cruentum_, which have the central band crimson instead of yellow;

and the broad-petalled _platyphyllum_, and its almost pure white

sub-variety called _virginale_. Of _L. speciosum_ (well known to most

gardeners as _lancifolium_), the true typical form and the red-spotted

and white varieties are grand plants for late summer blooming in the

conservatory. The tiger lily, _L. tigrinum_, and its varieties

_Fortunei_, _splendidum_ and _flore-pleno_, are amongst the best

species for the flower garden; _L. Thunbergianum_ and its many

varieties being also good border flowers. The pretty _L. Leichtlinii_

and _L. colchicum_ (or _Szovitsianum_) with drooping yellow flowers

and the scarlet drooping-flowered _L. tenuifolium_ make up, with those

already mentioned, a series of the finest hardy flowers of the summer

garden. The Indian _L. giganteum_ is perfectly distinct in character,

having broad heart-shaped leaves, and a noble stem 10 to 14 ft. high,

bearing a dozen or more large deflexed, funnel-shaped, white,

purple-stained flowers; _L. cordifolium_ (China and Japan) is similar

in character, but dwarfer in habit.

For pot culture, the soil should consist of three parts turfy loam to

one of leaf-mould and thoroughly rotted manure, adding enough pure

grit to keep the compost porous. If leaf-mould is not at hand, turfy

peat may be substituted for it. The plants should be potted in

October. The pots should be plunged in a cold frame and protected from

frost, and about May may be removed to a sheltered and moderately

shady place out-doors to remain till they flower, when they may be

removed to the greenhouse. This treatment suits the gorgeous _L.

auratum_, the splendid varieties of _L. speciosum_ (_lancifolium_) and

also the chaste-flowering trumpet-tubed _L. longiflorum_ and its

varieties. Thousands of bulbs of such lilies as _longiflorum_ and

_speciosum_ are now retarded in refrigerators and taken out in batches

for greenhouse work as required.

_Diseases._--Lilies are, under certain conditions favourable to the

development of the disease, liable to the attacks of three parasitic

fungi. The most destructive is _Botrytis cinerea_ which forms

orange-brown or buff specks on the stems, pedicels, leaves and

flower-buds, which increase in size and become covered with a delicate

grey mould, completely destroying or disfiguring the parts attacked.

The spores formed on the delicate grey mould are carried during the

summer from one plant to another, thus spreading the disease, and also

germinate in the soil where the fungus may remain passive during the

winter producing a new crop of spores next spring, or sometimes

attacking the scales of the bulbs forming small black hard bodies

embedded in the flesh. For prevention, the surface soil covering bulbs

should be removed every autumn and replaced by soil mixed with kainit;

manure for mulching should also be mixed with kainit, which acts as a

steriliser. If the fungus appears on the foliage spray with potassium

sulphide solution (2 oz. in 3 gallons of water). _Uromyces

Erythronii_, a rust, sometimes causes considerable injury to the

foliage of species of _Lilium_ and other bulbous plants, forming large

discoloured blotches on the leaves. The diseased stems should be

removed and burned before the leaves fall; as the bulb is not attacked

the plant will start growth next season free from disease. _Rhizopus

necans_ is sometimes the cause of extensive destruction of bulbs. The

fungus attacks injured roots and afterwards passes into the bulb which

becomes brown and finally rots. The fungus hibernates in the soil and

enters through broken or injured roots, hence care should be taken

when removing the bulbs that the roots are injured as little as

possible. An excellent packing material for dormant buds is coarsely

crushed wood-charcoal to which has been added a sprinkling of flowers

of sulphur. This prevents infection from outside and also destroys any

spores or fungus mycelium that may have been packed away along with

the bulbs.

When cultivated in greenhouses liliums are subject to attack from

aphides (green fly) in the early stages of growth. These pests can be

kept in check by syringing with nicotine, soft-soap and quassia

solutions, or by "vaporising" two or three evenings in succession,

afterwards syringing the plants with clear tepid water.

LILYE, or LILY, WILLIAM (c. 1468-1522), English scholar, was born at

Odiham in Hampshire. He entered the university of Oxford in 1486, and

after graduating in arts went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. On his

return he put in at Rhodes, which was still occupied by the knights of

St John, under whose protection many Greeks had taken refuge after the

capture of Constantinople by the Turks. He then went on to Italy, where

he attended the lectures of Sulpitius Verulanus and Pomponius Laetus at

Rome, and of Egnatius at Venice. After his return he settled in London

(where he became intimate with Thomas More) as a private teacher of

grammar, and is believed to have been the first who taught Greek in that

city. In 1510 Colet, dean of St Paul's, who was then founding the school

which afterwards became famous, appointed Lilye the first high master.

He died of the plague on the 25th of February 1522.

Lilye is famous not only as one of the pioneers of Greek learning, but

as one of the joint-authors of a book, familiar to many generations of

students during the 19th century, the old Eton Latin grammar. The

_Brevissima Institutio_, a sketch by Colet, corrected by Erasmus and

worked upon by Lilye, contains two portions, the author of which is

indisputably Lilye. These are the lines on the genders of nouns,

beginning _Propria quae maribus_, and those on the conjugation of

verbs beginning _As in praesenti_. The _Carmen de Moribus_ bears

Lilye's name in the early editions; but Hearne asserts that it was

written by Leland, who was one of his scholars, and that Lilye only

adapted it. Besides the _Brevissima Institutio_, Lilye wrote a variety

of Latin pieces both in prose and Verse. Some of the latter are

printed along with the Latin verses of Sir Thomas More in

_Progymnasmata Thomae Mori et Gulielmi Lylii Sodalium_ (1518). Another

volume of Latin verse (_Antibossicon ad Gulielmum Hormannum_, 1521) is

directed against a rival schoolmaster and grammarian, Robert

Whittington, who had "under the feigned name of Bossus, much provoked

Lilye with scoffs and biting verses."

See the sketch of Lilye's life by his son George, canon of St Paul's,

written for Paulus Jovius, who was collecting for his history the

lives of the learned men of Great Britain; and the article by J. H.

Lupton, formerly sur-master of St Paul's School, in the _Dictionary of

National Biography_.

LIMA, a city and the county-seat of Allen county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the

Ottawa river, about 70 m. S.S.W. of Toledo, Pop. (1890) 15,981; (1900)

21,723, of whom 1457 were foreign-born and 731 were negroes; (1910

census) 30,508. It is served by the Pennsylvania (Pittsburgh, Ft. Wayne

& Chicago division), the Erie, the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the

Lake Erie & Western, the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton railways, and by six

interurban electric lines. Immediately N. of the city is a state asylum

for the insane. Lima has a Carnegie library, a city hospital and a

public park of 100 acres. Among the principal buildings are the county

court house, a masonic temple, an Elks' home and a soldiers' and

sailors' memorial building. Lima College was conducted here from 1893 to

1908. Lima is situated in the centre of the great north-western

oil-field (Trenton limestone of the Ordovician system) of Ohio, which

was first developed in 1885; the product of the Lima district was

20,575,138 barrels in 1896, 15,877,730 barrels in 1902 and 6,748,676

barrels in 1908. The city is a headquarters of the Standard Oil Company,

and the refining of petroleum is one of the principal industries. The

total value of the factory product in 1905 was $8,155,586, an increase

of 31.1% over that in 1900. Lima contains railway shops of the

Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton and the Lake Erie & Western railways. The

city has a large wholesale and jobbing trade. The municipality owns and

operates the water-works. Lima was laid out in 1831, and was first

organized as a city under a general state law in 1842.

LIMA, a coast department of central Peru, bounded N. by Ancachs, E. by

Junin and Huancavelica, S. by Ica and W. by the Pacific Ocean. Pop.

(1906 estimate) 250,000; area 13,314 sq. m. The eastern boundary follows

the crests of the Western Cordillera, which gives to the department the

western slopes of this chain with the drainage basins of the rivers

Huaura, Chancay, Chillon, Rimac, Lurin, Mala and Cañete. Although the

department forms part of the rainless region, these rivers, fed from the

snows of the high Andes, provide water for the irrigation of large areas

devoted to the raising of cotton, sugar, sorghum, Indian corn, alfalfa,

potatoes, grapes and olives. The sugar estates of the Cañete are among

the best in Peru and are served by a narrow gauge railway terminating at

the small port of Cerro Azul. Indian corn is grown in Chancay and other

northern valleys, and is chiefly used, together with alfalfa and barley,

in fattening swine for lard. The mineral resources are not important,

though gold washings in the Cañete valley have been worked since early

colonial times. One of the most important industrial establishments in

the republic is the smelting works at Casapalca, on the Oroya railway,

in the Rimac valley, which receives ores from neighbouring mines of the

district of Huarochiri. The department is crossed from S.W. to N.E. by

the Oroya railway, and several short lines run from the city of Lima to

neighbouring towns. Besides Lima (q.v.) the principal towns are Huacho,

Cañete (port), Canta, Yauyos, Chorrillos, Miraflores and Barranco--the

last three being summer resorts for the people of the capital, with

variable populations of 15,000, 6000 and 5000 respectively. About 15 m.

S. of Lima, near the mouth of the Lurin, are the celebrated ruins of

Pachacamac, which are believed to antedate the occupation of this region

by the Incas.

LIMA, the principal city and the capital of Peru and of the department

and province of Lima, on the left bank of the river Rimac, 7½ m. above

its mouth and the same distance E. by N. of its seaport Callao, in 12°

2´ 34´´ S., 77° 7´ 36´´ W. Pop. (1906 estimate) 140,000, of whom a large

proportion is of negro descent, and a considerable number of foreign

birth. The city is about 480 ft. above sea-level, and stands on an arid

plain, which rises gently toward the S., and occupies an angle between

the Cerros de San Jeronimo (2493 ft.) and San Cristobal (1411 ft.) on

the N. and a short range of low hills, called the Cerros de San

Bartolomé, on the E. The surrounding region is arid, like all this part

of the Pacific coast, but through irrigation large areas have been

brought under cultivation, especially along the watercourses. The Rimac

has its source about 105 m. N.E. of Lima and is fed by the melting snows

of the higher Andes. It is an insignificant stream in winter and a

raging torrent in summer. Its tributaries are all of the same character,

except the Rio Surco, which rises near Chorrillos and flowing northward

joins the Rimac a few miles above the city. These, with the Rio Lurin,

which enters the Pacific a short distance S. of Chorrillos, provide

water for irrigating the districts near Lima. The climate varies

somewhat from that of the arid coast in general, in having a winter of

four months characterized by cloudy skies, dense fogs and sometimes a

drizzling rain. The air in this season is raw and chilly. For the rest

of the year the sky is clear and the air dry. The mean temperature for

the year is 66° F., the winter minimum being 59° and the summer maximum

78°.

The older part of Lima was laid out and built with mathematical

regularity, the streets crossing each other at right angles and

enclosing square areas, called _manzanas_, of nearly uniform size. Later

extensions, however, did not follow this plan strictly, and there is

some variation from the straight line in the streets and also in the

size and shape of the manzanas. The streets are roughly paved with

cobble stones and lighted with gas or electricity. A broad boulevard of

modern construction partly encircles the city, occupying the site of the

old brick walls (18 to 20 ft. high, 10 to 12 ft. thick at the base and 9

ft. at the top) which were constructed in 1585 by a Fleming named Pedro

Ramon, and were razed by Henry Meiggs during the administration of

President Balta. The water-supply is derived from the Rimac and

filtered, and the drainage, once carried on the surface, now passes into

a system of subterranean sewers. The streets and suburbs of Lima are

served by tramways, mostly worked by electric traction. The suburban

lines include two to Callao, one to Magdalena, and one to Miraflores and

Chorrillos. On the north side of the river is the suburb or district of

San Lazaro, shut in by the encircling hills and occupied in great part

by the poorer classes. The principal squares are the Plaza Mayor, Plaza

Bolívar (formerly P. de la Inquisicion and P. de la Independencia),

Plaza de la Exposicion, and Plaza del Acho, on the north side of the

river, the site of the bull-ring. The public gardens, connected with the

Exposition palace on the S. side of the city, and the Paseo Colon are

popular among the Limeños as pleasure resorts. The long Paseo Colon,

with its parallel drives and paths, is ornamented with trees, shrubbery

and statues, notably the Columbus statue, a group in marble designed by

the sculptor Salvatore Revelli. It is the favourite fashionable resort.

A part of the old wagon road from Lima to Callao, which was paved and

improved with walks and trees by viceroy O'Higgins, is also much

frequented. The avenue (3 m. long) leading from the city to Magdalena

was beautified by the planting of four rows of palms during the Pierola

administration. Among other public resorts are the Botanical garden, the

Grau and Bolognesi avenues (parts of the Boulevard), the Acho avenue on

the right bank of the Rimac, and the celebrated avenue of the Descalzos,

on the N. side of the river, bordered with statuary. The noteworthy

monuments of the city are the bronze equestrian statue of Bolívar in the

plaza of that name, the Columbus statue already mentioned, the Bolognesi

statue in the small square of that name, and the San Martin statue in

the Plaza de la Exposicion. The 22nd of May monument, a marble shaft

crowned by a golden bronze figure of Victory, stands where the Callao

road crosses the Boulevard. Most conspicuous among the public buildings

of Lima is the cathedral, whose twin towers and broad façade look down

upon the Plaza Mayor. Its foundation stone was laid in 1535 but the

cathedral was not consecrated until 1625. The great earthquake of 1746

reduced it to a mass of ruins, but it was reconstructed by 1758,

practically, as it now stands. It has double aisles and ten

richly-decorated chapels, in one of which rest the remains of Francisco

Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru. Also facing the same square are the

archiepiscopal and government palaces; the latter formerly the palace of

the viceroys. The interesting _casa_ of the Inquisition, whose tribunals

rivalled those of Madrid in cruelty, faces upon Plaza Bolívar, as also

the old University of San Marcos, which dates from 1551 and has

faculties of theology, law, medicine, philosophy and literature,

mathematics, and administrative and political economy. The churches and

convents of Lima are richly endowed as a rule, and some of the churches

represent a very large expenditure of money. The convent of San

Francisco, near the Plaza Mayor, is the largest monastic establishment

in Lima and contains some very fine carvings. Its church is the finest

in the city after the cathedral. Other noteworthy churches are those of

the convents of Santo Domingo, La Merced and San Augustine. There are a

number of conventual establishments (for both sexes), which, with their

chapels, and with the smaller churches, retreats, sanctuaries, &c., make

up a total of 66 institutions devoted to religious observances. An

attractive, and perhaps the most popular public building in Lima is the

Exposition palace on the plaza and in the public gardens of the same

name, on the south side of the city. It dates from 1872; its halls are

used for important public assemblies, and its upper floor is occupied by

the National Historical Institute, its museum and the gallery of

historical paintings. Other noteworthy edifices and institutions are the

National Library, the Lima Geographical Society, founded in 1888; the

Mint, which dates from 1565 and is considered to be one of the best in

South America; the great bull-ring of the Plaza del Acho, which dates

from 1768 and can seat 8000 spectators; the Concepcion market; a modern

penitentiary; and various charitable institutions. In addition to the

old university on the Plaza Bolívar, which has been modernized and

greatly improved, Lima has a school of engineers and mines (founded

1876), the old college of San Carlos, a normal school (founded 1905), a

school of agriculture (situated outside the city limits and founded in

1902), two schools for girls under the direction of religious sisters,

an episcopal seminary called the Seminario Conciliar de Santo Toribio,

and a school of arts and trades in which elementary technical

instruction is given. Under the old régime, primary instruction was

almost wholly neglected, but the 20th century brought about important

changes in this respect. In addition to the primary schools, the

government maintains free night schools for workmen.

The residences of the city are for the most part of one storey and have

mud walls supported by a wooden framework which enclose open spaces,

called _patios_, around which the living rooms are ranged. The better

class of dwellings have two floors and are sometimes built of brick. A

projecting, lattice-enclosed window for the use of women is a prominent

feature of the larger houses and gives a picturesque effect to the

streets.

Manufacturing has had some considerable development since the closing

years of the 19th century; the most important manufactories are

established outside the city limits; they produce cotton and woollen

textiles, the products of the sugar estates, chocolate, cocaine, cigars

and cigarettes, beer, artificial liquors, cotton-seed oil, hats,

macaroni, matches, paper, soap and candles. The commercial interests of

the city are important, a large part of the interior being supplied from

this point. With its port Callao the city is connected by two steam

railways, one of which was built as early as 1848; one railway runs

northward to Ancon, and another, the famous Oroya line, runs inland 130

m., crossing the Western Cordillera at an elevation of 15,645 ft. above

sea-level, with branches to Cerro de Pasco and Huari. The export trade

properly belongs to Callao, though often credited to Lima. The Limeños

are an intelligent, hospitable, pleasure-loving people, and the many

attractive features of their city make it a favourite place of residence

for foreigners.

Lima was founded on the 18th of January 1535 by Francisco Pizarro, who

named it Ciudad de los Reyes (City of the Kings) in honour of the

emperor Charles V. and Doña Juana his mother, or, according to some

authorities, in commemoration of the Feast of the Epiphany (6th January)

when its site is said to have been selected. The name soon after gave

place to that of Lima, a Spanish corruption of the Quichua word Rimac.

In 1541 Lima was made an episcopal see, which in 1545 was raised to a

metropolitan see. Under Spanish rule, Lima was the principal city of

South America, and for a time was the entrepôt for all the Pacific coast

colonies south of Panama. It became very prosperous during this period,

though often visited by destructive earthquakes, the most disastrous of

which was that of the 28th of October 1746, when the cathedral and the

greater part of the city were reduced to ruins, many lives were lost,

and the port of Callao was destroyed. Lima was not materially affected

by the military operations of the war of independence until 1821, when a

small army of Argentines and Chileans under General San Martin invested

the city, and took possession of it on the 12th of July upon the

withdrawal of the Spanish forces. San Martin was proclaimed the

protector of Peru as a free state on the 28th of July, but resigned that

office on the 20th of September 1822 to avoid a fratricidal struggle

with Bolívar. In March 1828 Lima was again visited by a destructive

earthquake, and in 1854-1855 an epidemic of yellow fever carried off a

great number of its inhabitants. In November 1864, when a hostile

Spanish fleet was on the coast, a congress of South American

plenipotentiaries was held here to concert measures of mutual defence.

Lima has been the principal sufferer in the many revolutions and

disorders which have convulsed Peru under the republic, and many of them

originated in the city itself. During the earlier part of this period

the capital twice fell into the hands of foreigners, once in 1836 when

the Bolivian general Santa Cruz made himself the chief of a

Bolivian-Peruvian confederation, and again in 1837 when an invading

force of Chileans and Peruvian refugees landed at Ancon and defeated the

Peruvian forces under President Orbegoso. The city prospered greatly

under the two administrations of President Ramon Castilla, who gave Peru

its first taste of peace and good government, and under those of

Presidents Balta and Pardo, during which many important public

improvements were made. The greatest calamity in the history of Lima was

its occupation by a Chilean army under the command of General Baquedano

after the bloody defeat of the Peruvians at Miraflores on the 15th of

January 1881. Chorrillos and Miraflores with their handsome country

residences had already been sacked and burned and their helpless

residents murdered. Lima escaped this fate, thanks to the intervention

of foreign powers, but during the two years and nine months of this

occupation the Chileans systematically pillaged the public edifices,

turned the old university of San Marcos into barracks, destroyed the

public library, and carried away the valuable contents of the Exposition

palace, the models and apparatus of the medical school and other

educational institutions, and many of the monuments and art treasures

with which the city had been enriched. A forced contribution of

$1,000,000 a month was imposed upon the population in addition to the

revenues of the custom house. When the Chilean garrison under Captain

Lynch was withdrawn on the 22nd of October 1883, it took 3000 wagons to

carry away the plunder which had not already been shipped. Of the

government palace and other public buildings nothing remained but the

bare walls. The buoyant character of the people, and the sympathy and

assistance generously offered by many civilized nations, contributed to

a remarkably speedy recovery from so great a misfortune. Under the

direction of its keeper, Don Ricardo Palma, 8315 volumes of the public

library were recovered, to which were added valuable contributions from

other countries. The portraits of the Spanish viceroys were also

recovered, except five, and are now in the portrait gallery of the

Exposition palace. The poverty of the country after the war made

recovery difficult, but years of peace have assisted it.

See Mariano F. Paz Soldan, _Diccionario geográfico-estadistico del

Perú_ (Lima, 1877); Mateo Paz Soldan and M. F. Paz Soldan, _Geografia

del Perú_ (Paris, 1862); Manuel A. Fuentes, _Lima, or Sketches of the

Capital of Peru_ (London, 1866); C. R. Markham, _Cuzo and Lima_

(London, 1856), and _History of Peru_ (Chicago, 1892); Alexandre

Garland, _Peru in 1906_ (Lima, 1907); and C. R. Enock, _Peru_ (London,

1908). For earlier descriptions see works referred to under PERU.

(A. J. L.)

LIMAÇON (from the Lat. _limax_, a slug), a curve invented by Blaise

Pascal and further investigated and named by Gilles Personne de

Roberval. It is generated by the extremities of a rod which is

constrained to move so that its middle point traces out a circle, the

rod always passing through a fixed point on the circumference. The polar

equation is r = a+b cos [theta], where 2a = length of the rod, and b =

diameter of the circle. The curve may be regarded as an epitrochoid (see

EPICYCLOID) in which the rolling and fixed circles have equal radii. It

is the inverse of a central conic for the focus, and the first positive

pedal of a circle for any point. The form of the limaçon depends on the

ratio of the two constants; if a be greater than b, the curve lies

entirely outside the circle; if a equals b, it is known as a cardioid

(q.v.); if a is less than b, the curve has a node within the circle; the

particular case when b = 2a is known as the trisectrix (q.v.). In the

figure (1) is a limaçon, (2) the cardioid, (3) the trisectrix.

[Illustration]

Properties of the limaçon may be deduced from its mechanical

construction; thus the length of a focal chord is constant and the

normals at the extremities of a focal chord intersect on a fixed circle.

The area is (b² + a²/2)[pi], and the length is expressible as an

elliptic integral.

LIMASOL, a seaport of Cyprus, on Akrotiri Bay of the south coast. Pop.

(1901) 8298. Excepting a fort attributed to the close of the 12th

century the town is without antiquities of interest, but in the

neighbourhood are the ancient sites of Amathus and Curium. Limasol has a

considerable trade in wine and carobs. The town was the scene of the

marriage of Richard I., king of England, with Berengaria, in 1191.

LIMB. (1) (In O. Eng. _lim_, cognate with the O. Nor. and Icel. _limr_,

Swed. and Dan. _lem_; probably the word is to be referred to a root

_li_- seen in an obsolete English word "lith," a limb, and in the Ger.

_Glied_), originally any portion or member of the body, but now

restricted in meaning to the external members of the body of an animal

apart from the head and trunk, the legs and arms, or, in a bird, the

wings. It is sometimes used of the lower limbs only, and is synonymous

with "leg." The word is also used of the main branches of a tree, of the

projecting spurs of a range of mountains, of the arms of a cross, &c. As

a translation of the Lat. _membrum_, and with special reference to the

church as the "body of Christ," "limb" was frequently used by

ecclesiastical writers of the 16th and 17th centuries of a person as

being a component part of the church; cf. such expressions as "limb of

Satan," "limb of the law," &c. From the use of _membrum_ in medieval

Latin for an estate dependent on another, the name "limb" is given to an

outlying portion of another, or to the subordinate members of the Cinque

Ports, attached to one of the principal towns; Pevensey was thus a

"limb" of Hastings. (2) An edge or border, frequently used in scientific

language for the boundary of a surface. It is thus used of the edge of

the disk of the sun or moon, of the expanded part of a petal or sepal in

botany, &c. This word is a shortened form of "limbo" or "limbus," Lat.

for an edge, for the theological use of which see LIMBUS.

LIMBACH, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, in the manufacturing district

of Chemnitz, 6 m. N.W. of that city. Pop. (1905) 13,723. It has a public

park and a monument to the composer Pache. Its industries include the

making of worsteds, cloth, silk and sewing-machines, and dyeing and

bleaching.

LIMBER, an homonymous word, having three meanings. (1) A two-wheeled

carriage forming a detachable part of the equipment of all guns on

travelling carriages and having on it a framework to contain ammunition

boxes, and, in most cases, seats for two or three gunners. The French

equivalent is _avant-train_, the Ger. _Protz_ (see ARTILLERY and

ORDNANCE). (2) An adjective meaning pliant or flexible and so used with

reference to a person's mental or bodily qualities, quick, nimble,

adroit. (3) A nautical term for the holes cut in the flooring in a ship

above the keelson, to allow water to drain to the pumps.

The etymology of these words is obscure. According to the _New English

Dictionary_ the origin of (1) is to be found in the Fr. _limonière_, a

derivative of _limon_, the shaft of a vehicle, a meaning which appears

in English from the 15th century but is now obsolete, except

apparently among the miners of the north of England. The earlier

English forms of the word are _lymor_ or _limmer_. Skeat suggests that

(2) is connected with "limp," which he refers to a Teutonic base

_lap_-, meaning to hang down. The _New English Dictionary_ points out

that while "limp" does not occur till the beginning of the 18th

century, "limber" in this sense is found as early as the 16th. In

Thomas Cooper's (1517?-1594) _Thesaurus Linguae Romanae et

Britannicae_ (1565), it appears as the English equivalent of the Latin

_lentus_. A possible derivation connects it with "limb."

LIMBORCH, PHILIPP VAN (1633-1712), Dutch Remonstrant theologian, was

born on the 19th of June 1633, at Amsterdam, where his father was a

lawyer. He received his education at Utrecht, at Leiden, in his native

city, and finally at Utrecht University, which he entered in 1652. In

1657 he became a Remonstrant pastor at Gouda, and in 1667 he was

transferred to Amsterdam, where, in the following year, the office of

professor of theology in the Remonstrant seminary was added to his

pastoral charge. He was a friend of John Locke. He died at Amsterdam on

the 30th of April 1712.

His most important work, _Institutiones theologiae christianae, ad

praxin pietatis et promotionem pacis christianae unice directae_

(Amsterdam, 1686, 5th ed., 1735), is a full and clear exposition of

the system of Simon Episcopius and Stephan Curcellaeus. The fourth

edition (1715) included a posthumous "Relatio historica de origine et

progressu controversiarum in foederato Belgio de praedestinatione."

Limborch also wrote _De veritate religionis Christianae amica collatio

cum erudito Judaeo_ (Gouda, 1687); _Historia Inquisitionis_ (1692), in

four books prefixed to the "Liber Sententiarum Inquisitionis

Tolosanae" (1307-1323); and _Commentarius in Acta Apostolorum et in

Epistolas ad Romanos et ad Hebraeos_ (Rotterdam, 1711). His editorial

labours included the publication of various works of his predecessors,

and of _Epistolae ecclesiasticae praestantium ac eruditorum virorum_

(Amsterdam, 1684), chiefly by Jakobus Arminius, Joannes Uytenbogardus,

Konrad Vorstius (1569-1622), Gerhard Vossius (1577-1649), Hugo

Grotius, Simon Episcopius (his grand-uncle) and Gaspar Barlaeus; they

are of great value for the history of Arminianism. An English

translation of the Theologia was published in 1702 by William Jones

(_A Complete System or Body of Divinity, both Speculative and

Practical, founded on Scripture and Reason_, London, 1702); and a

translation of the _Historia Inquisitionis_, by Samuel Chandler, with

"a large introduction concerning the rise and progress of persecution

and the real and pretended causes of it" prefixed, appeared in 1731.

See Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_.

LIMBURG, one of the many small feudal states into which the duchy of

Lower Lorraine was split up in the second half of the 11th century. The

first count, Walram of Arlon, married Judith the daughter of Frederick

of Luxemburg, duke of Lower Lorraine (d. 1065), who bestowed upon him a

portion of his possessions lying upon both sides of the river Meuse. It

received its name from the strong castle built by Count Walram on the

river Vesdre, where the town of Limburg now stands. Henry, Walram's son

(d. 1119), was turbulent and ambitious. On the death of Godfrey of

Bouillon (1089) he forced the emperor Henry IV. to recognize him as duke

of Lower Lorraine. He was afterwards deposed and imprisoned by Count

Godfrey of Louvain on whom the ducal title had been bestowed by the

emperor Henry V. (1106). For three generations the possession of the

ducal title was disputed between the rival houses of Limburg and

Louvain. At length a reconciliation took place (1155); the name of duke

of Lower Lorraine henceforth disappears, the rulers of the territory on

the Meuse become dukes of Limburg, those of the larger territory to the

west dukes of Brabant. With the death of Duke Walram IV. (1280) the

succession passed to his daughter, Irmingardis, who was married to

Reinald I., count of Guelders. Irmingardis died without issue (1282),

and her cousin, Count Adolph of Berg, laid claim to the duchy. His

rights were disputed by Reinald, who was in possession and was

recognized by the emperor. Too weak to assert his claim by force of arms

Adolph sold his rights (1283) to John, duke of Brabant (q.v.). This led

to a long and desolating war for five years, at the end of which (1288),

finding the power of Brabant superior to his own Reinald in his turn

sold his rights to count Henry III. of Luxemburg. Henry and Reinald,

supported by the archbishop of Cologne and other allies, now raised a

great army. The rival forces met at Woeringen (5th of June 1288) and

John of Brabant (q.v.) gained a complete victory. It proved decisive,

the duchies of Limburg and Brabant passing under the rule of a common

sovereign. The duchy comprised during this period the bailiwicks of

Hervé, Montzen, Baelen, Sprimont and Wallhorn, and the counties of

Rolduc, Daelhem and Falkenberg, to which was added in 1530 the town of

Maastricht. The provisions and privileges of the famous Charter of

Brabant, the _Joyeuse Entrée_ (q.v.), were from the 15th century

extended to Limburg and remained in force until the French Revolution.

By the treaty of Westphalia (1648) the duchy was divided into two

portions, the counties of Daelhem and Falkenberg with the town of

Maastricht being ceded by Spain to the United Provinces, where they

formed what was known as a "Generality-Land." At the peace of Rastatt

(1714) the southern portion passed under the dominion of the Austrian

Habsburgs and formed part of the Austrian Netherlands until the French

conquest in 1794. During the period of French rule (1794-1814) Limburg

was included in the two French departments of Ourthe and Meuse

Inférieure. In 1814 the old name of Limburg was restored to one of the

provinces of the newly created kingdom of the Netherlands, but the new

Limburg comprised besides the ancient duchy, a piece of Gelderland and

the county of Looz. At the revolution of 1830 Limburg, with the

exception of Maastricht, threw in its lot with the Belgians, and during

the nine years that King William refused to recognize the existence of

the kingdom of Belgium the Limburgers sent representatives to the

legislature at Brussels and were treated as Belgians. When in 1839 the

Dutch king suddenly announced his intention of accepting the terms of

the settlement proposed by the treaty of London, as drawn up by

representatives of the great powers in 1831, Belgium found herself

compelled to relinquish portions of Limburg and Luxemburg. The part of

Limburg that lay on the right bank of the Meuse, together with the town

of Maastricht and a number of communes--Weert, Haelen, Kepel, Horst,

&c.--on the left bank of the river, became a sovereign duchy under the

rule of the king of Holland. In exchange for the cession of the rights

of the Germanic confederation over the portion of Luxemburg, which was

annexed by the treaty to Belgium, the duchy of Limburg (excepting the

communes of Maastricht and Venloo) was declared to belong to the

Germanic confederation. This somewhat unsatisfactory condition of

affairs continued until 1866, when at a conference of the great powers,

held in London to consider the Luxemburg question (see LUXEMBURG), it

was agreed that Limburg should be freed from every political tie with

Germany. Limburg became henceforth an integral part of Dutch territory.

See P. S. Ernst, _Histoire du Limbourg_ (7 vols., Liége, 1837-1852);

C. J. Luzac, _De Landen van Overmuze in Zonderheid 1662_ (Leiden,

1888); M. J. de Poully, _Histoire de Maastricht et de ses environs_

(1850); _Diplomaticke bescheiden betreffends de Limburg-Luxemburgsche

aangelegenheden 1866-1867_ (The Hague, 1868); and R. Fruin, _Geschied.

der Staats-Instellingen in Nederland_ (The Hague, 1901). (G. E.)

LIMBURG, or LIMBOURG, the smallest of the nine provinces of Belgium,

occupying the north-east corner of the kingdom. It represents only a

portion of the ancient duchy of Limburg (see above). The part east of

the Meuse was transferred to Holland by the London conference, and a

further portion was attached to the province of Liége including the old

capital now called Dolhain. Much of the province is represented by the

wild heath district called the Campine, recently discovered to form an

extensive coal-field. The operations for working it were only begun in

1906. North-west of Hasselt is Beverloo, where all the Belgian troops go

through a course of instruction annually. Among the towns are Hasselt,

the capital, St Trond and Looz. From the last named is derived the title

of the family known as the dukes of Looz, whose antiquity equals that of

the extinct reigning family of Limburg itself. The title of duc de Looz

is one of the four existing ducal titles in the Netherlands, the other

three being d'Arenberg, Croy and d'Ursel. Limburg contains 603,085 acres

or 942 sq. m. In 1904 the population was 255,359, giving an average of

271 per sq. m.

LIMBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, on

the Lahn, here crossed by a bridge dating from 1315, and on the main

line of railway from Coblenz to Lollar and Cassel, with a branch to

Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1905) 9917. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic

bishop. The small seven-towered cathedral, dedicated to St George the

martyr, is picturesquely situated on a rocky site overhanging the

river. This was founded by Conrad Kurzbold, count of Niederlahngau,

early in the 10th century, and was consecrated in 1235. It was restored

in 1872-1878. Limburg has a castle, a new town hall and a seminary for

the education of priests; its industries include the manufacture of

cloth, tobacco, soap, machinery, pottery and leather. Limburg, which was

a flourishing place during the middle ages, had its own line of counts

until 1414, when it was purchased by the elector of Trier. It passed to

Nassau in 1803. In September 1796 it was the scene of a victory gained

by the Austrians under the archduke Charles over the French.

See Hillebrand, _Limburg an der Lahn unter Pfandherrschaft 1344-1624_

(Wiesbaden, 1899).

LIMBURG, the south-easternmost and smallest province of Holland, bounded

N. by Gelderland, N.W. by North Brabant, S.W. by the Belgian province of

Limburg, and S. by that of Liége, and E. by Germany. Its area is 850 sq.

m., and its population in 1900 was 281,934. It is watered by the Meuse

(Maas) which forms part of its south-western boundary (with Belgium) and

then flows through its northern portion, and by such tributaries as the

Geul and Roer (Ruhr). Its capital is Maastricht, which gives name to one

of the two administrative districts into which it is divided, the other

being Roermond.

LIMBURG CHRONICLE, or FESTI LIMPURGENSES, the name of a German chronicle

written most probably by Tileman Elhen von Wolfhagen after 1402. It is a

source for the history of the Rhineland between 1336 and 1398, but is

perhaps more valuable for the information about German manners and

customs, and the old German folk-songs and stories which it contains. It

has also a certain philological interest.

The chronicle was first published by J. F. Faust in 1617, and has been

edited by A. Wyss for the _Monumenta Germaniae historica. Deutsche

Chroniken_, Band iv. (Hanover, 1883). See A. Wyss, _Die Limburger

Chronik untersucht_ (Marburg, 1875).

LIMBURGITE, in petrology, a dark-coloured volcanic rock resembling

basalt in appearance, but containing normally no felspar. The name is

taken from Limburg (Germany), where they occur in the well-known rock of

the Kaiserstuhl. They consist essentially of olivine and augite with a

brownish glassy ground mass. The augite may be green, but more commonly

is brown or violet; the olivine is usually pale green or colourless, but

is sometimes yellow (hyalosiderite). In the ground mass a second

generation of small eumorphic augites frequently occurs; more rarely

olivine is present also as an ingredient of the matrix. The principal

accessory minerals are titaniferous iron oxides and apatite. Felspar

though sometimes present is never abundant, and nepheline also is

unusual. In some limburgites large phenocysts of dark brown hornblende

and biotite are found, mostly with irregular borders blackened by

resorption; in others there are large crystals of soda orthoclase or

anorthoclase. Hauyne is an ingredient of some of the limburgites of the

Cape Verde Islands. Rocks of this group occur in considerable numbers in

Germany (Rhine district) and in Bohemia, also in Scotland, Auvergne,

Spain, Africa (Kilimanjaro), Brazil, &c. They are associated principally

with basalts, nepheline and leucite basalts and monchiquites. From the

last-named rocks the limburgites are not easily separated as the two

classes bear a very close resemblance in structure and in mineral

composition, though many authorities believe that the ground mass of the

monchiquites is not a glass but crystalline analcite. Limburgites may

occur as flows, as sills or dykes, and are sometimes highly vesicular.

Closely allied to them are the _augitites_, which are distinguished only

by the absence of olivine; examples are known from Bohemia, Auvergne,

the Canary Islands, Ireland, &c.

LIMBUS (Lat. for "edge," "fringe," e.g. of a garment), a theological

term denoting the border of hell, where dwell those who, while not

condemned to torture, yet are deprived of the joy of heaven. The more

common form in English is "limbo," which is used both in the technical

theological sense and derivatively in the sense of "prison," or for the

condition of being lost, deserted, obsolete. In theology there are (1)

the _Limbus Infantum_, and (2) the _Limbus Patrum_.

1. The _Limbus Infantum_ or _Puerorum_ is the abode to which human

beings dying without actual sin, but with their original sin unwashed

away by baptism, were held to be consigned; the category included, not

unbaptized infants merely, but also idiots, cretins and the like. The

word "limbus," in the theological application, occurs first in the

_Summa_ of Thomas Aquinas; for its extensive currency it is perhaps most

indebted to the _Commedia_ of Dante (_Inf._ c. 4). The question as to

the destiny of infants dying unbaptized presented itself to theologians

at a comparatively early period. Generally speaking it may be said that

the Greek fathers inclined to a cheerful and the Latin fathers to a

gloomy view. Thus Gregory of Nazianzus (_Orat._ 40) says "that such

children as die unbaptized without their own fault shall neither be

glorified nor punished by the righteous Judge, as having done no

wickedness, though they die unbaptized, and as rather suffering loss

than being the authors of it." Similar opinions were expressed by

Gregory of Nyssa, Severus of Antioch and others--opinions which it is

almost impossible to distinguish from the Pelagian view that children

dying unbaptized might be admitted to eternal life, though not to the

kingdom of God. In his recoil from Pelagian heresy, Augustine was

compelled to sharpen the antithesis between the state of the saved and

that of the lost, and taught that there are only two alternatives--to be

with Christ or with the devil, to be with Him or against Him. Following

up, as he thought, his master's teaching, Fulgentius declared that it is

to be believed as an indubitable truth that, "not only men who have come

to the use of reason, but infants dying, whether in their mother's womb

or after birth, without baptism in the name of the Father, Son and Holy

Ghost, are punished with everlasting punishment in eternal fire." Later

theologians and schoolmen followed Augustine in rejecting the notion of

any final position intermediate between heaven and hell, but otherwise

inclined to take the mildest possible view of the destiny of the

irresponsible and unbaptized. Thus the proposition of Innocent III. that

"the punishment of original sin is deprivation of the vision of God" is

practically repeated by Aquinas, Scotus, and all the other great

theologians of the scholastic period, the only outstanding exception

being that of Gregory of Rimini, who on this account was afterwards

called "tortor infantum." The first authoritative declaration of the

Latin Church upon this subject was that made by the second council of

Lyons (1274), and confirmed by the council of Florence (1439), with the

concurrence of the representatives of the Greek Church, to the effect

that "the souls of those who die in mortal sin or in original sin only

forthwith descend into hell, but to be punished with unequal

punishments." Perrone remarks (_Prael. Theol._ pt. iii. chap. 6, art. 4)

that the damnation of infants and also the comparative lightness of the

punishment involved in this are thus _de fide_; but nothing is

determined as to the place which they occupy in hell, as to what

constitutes the disparity of their punishment, or as to their condition

after the day of judgment. In the council of Trent there was

considerable difference of opinion as to what was implied in deprivation

of the vision of God, and no definition was attempted, the Dominicans

maintaining the severer view that the "limbus infantum" was a dark

subterranean fireless chamber, while the Franciscans placed it in a

region of light above the earth. Some theologians continue to maintain

with Bellarmine that the infants "in limbo" are affected with some

degree of sadness on account of a felt privation; others, following the

_Nodus praedestinationis_ of Celestine Sfrondati (1649-1696), hold that

they enjoy every kind of natural felicity, as regards their souls now,

and as regards their bodies after the resurrection, just as if Adam had

not sinned. In the condemnation (1794) of the synod of Pistoia (1786),

the twenty-sixth article declares it to be false, rash and injurious to

treat as Pelagian the doctrine that those dying in original sin are not

punished with fire, as if that meant that there is an intermediate

place, free from fault and punishment, between the kingdom of God and

everlasting damnation.

2. The _Limbus Patrum_, _Limbus Inferni_ or _Sinus Abrahae_ ("Abraham's

Bosom"), is defined in Roman Catholic theology as the place in the

underworld where the saints of the Old Testament were confined until

liberated by Christ on his "descent into hell." Regarding the locality

and its pleasantness or painfulness nothing has been taught as _de

fide_. It is sometimes regarded as having been closed and empty since

Christ's descent, but other authors do not think of it as separate in

place from the _limbus infantum_. The whole idea, in the Latin Church,

has been justly described as the mere _caput mortuum_ of the old

catholic doctrine of Hades, which was gradually superseded in the West

by that of purgatory.

LIME (O. Eng. _lim_, Lat. _limus_, mud, from _linere_, to smear), the

name given to a viscous exudation of the holly-tree, used for snaring

birds and known as "bird-lime." In chemistry, it is the popular name of

calcium oxide, CaO, a substance employed in very early times as a

component of mortars and cementing materials. It is prepared by the

burning of limestone (a process described by Dioscorides and Pliny) in

kilns similar to those described under CEMENT. The value and subsequent

treatment of the product depend on the purity of the limestone; a pure

stone yields a "fat" lime which readily slakes; an impure stone,

especially if magnesia be present, yields an almost unslakable "poor"

lime. See CEMENT, CONCRETE and MORTAR, for details.

Pure calcium oxide "quick-lime," obtained by heating the pure carbonate,

is a white amorphous substance, which can be readily melted and boiled

in the electric furnace, cubic and acicular crystals being deposited on

cooling the vapour. It combines with water, evolving much heat and

crumbling to pieces; this operation is termed "slaking" and the

resulting product "slaked lime"; it is chemically equivalent to the

conversion of the oxide into hydrate. A solution of the hydrate in

water, known as lime-water, has a weakly alkaline reaction; it is

employed in the detection of carbonic acid. "Milk of lime" consists of a

cream of the hydrate and water. Dry lime has no action upon chlorine,

carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide, although in the presence of water

combination ensues.

In medicine lime-water, applied externally, is an astringent and

desiccative, and it enters into the preparation of linamentum calcis and

carron oil which are employed to heal burns, eczema, &c. Applied

internally, lime-water is an antacid; it prevents the curdling of milk

in large lumps (hence its prescription for infants); it also acts as a

gastric sedative. Calcium phosphate is much employed in treating

rickets, and calcium chloride in haemoptysis and haemophylia. It is an

antidote for mineral and oxalic acid poisoning.

LIME,[1] or LINDEN. The lime trees, species of _Tilia_, are familiar

timber trees with sweet-scented, honeyed flowers, which are borne on a

common peduncle proceeding from the middle of a long bract. The genus,

which gives the name to the natural order Tiliaceae, contains about ten

species of trees, natives of the north temperate zone. The general name

_Tilia europaea_, the name given by Linnaeus to the European lime,

includes several well-marked sub-species, often regarded as distinct

species. These are: (1) the small-leaved lime, _T. parvifolia_ (or _T.

cordata_), probably wild in woods in England and also wild throughout

Europe, except in the extreme south-east, and Russian Asia. (2) _T.

intermedia_, the common lime, which is widely planted in Britain but not

wild there, has a less northerly distribution than _T. cordata_, from

which it differs in its somewhat larger leaves and downy fruit. (3) The

large-leaved lime, _T. platyphyllos_ (or _T. grandifolia_), occurs only

as an introduction in Britain, and is wild in Europe south of Denmark.

It differs from the other two limes in its larger leaves, often 4 in.

across, which are downy beneath, its downy twigs and its prominently

ribbed fruit. The lime sometimes acquires a great size; one is recorded

in Norfolk as being 16 yds. in circumference, and Ray mentions one of

the same girth. The famous linden tree which gave the town of Neuenstadt

in Württemberg the name of "_Neuenstadt an der grossen Linden_" was 9

ft. in diameter.

The lime is a very favourite tree. It is an object of beauty in the

spring when the delicately transparent green leaves are bursting from

the protection of the pink and white stipules, which have formed the

bud-scales, and retains its fresh green during early summer. Later, the

fragrance of its flowers, rich in honey, attracts innumerable bees; in

the autumn the foliage becomes a clear yellow but soon falls. Among the

many famous avenues of limes may be mentioned that which gave the name

to one of the best-known ways in Berlin, "Unter den Linden," and the

avenue at Trinity College, Cambridge.

The economic value of the tree chiefly lies in the inner bark or liber

(Lat. for bark), called bast, and the wood. The former was used for

paper and mats and for tying garlands by the ancients (_Od._ i. 38;

Pliny xvi. 14. 25, xxiv. 8. 33). Bast mats are now made chiefly in

Russia, the bark being cut in long strips, when the liber is easily

separable from the corky superficial layer. It is then plaited into

mats about 2 yds. square; 14,000,000 come to Britain annually, chiefly

from Archangel. The wood is used by carvers, being soft and light, and

by architects in framing the models of buildings. Turners use it for

light bowls, &c. _T. americana_ (bass-wood) is one of the most common

trees in the forests of Canada and extends into the eastern and

southern United States. It is sawn into lumber and under the name of

white-wood used in the manufacture of wooden ware, cheap furniture,

&c., and also for paper pulp (C. S. Sargent, _Silva of North

America_). It was cultivated by Philip Miller at Chelsea in 1752.

The common lime was well known to the ancients. Theophrastus says the

leaves are sweet and used for fodder for most kinds of cattle. Pliny

alludes to the use of the liber and wood, and describes the tree as

growing in the mountain-valleys of Italy (xvi. 30). See also Virg.

_Geo._ i. 173, &c.; Ov. _Met._ viii. 621, x. 92. Allusion to the

lightness of the wood is made in Aristoph. _Birds_, 1378.

For the sweet lime (_Citrus Limetta_ or _Citrus acida_) and

lime-juice, see LEMON.