[1] "O Fire, thou knowest all things!" See A. Bourquin,
"Brahma-karma, ou rites sacrés des Brahmans," in the _Annales du
Musée Guimet_ (Paris, 1884, t. vii.).
[2] J. Toutain, in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire, s.v._
"Lucerna."
[3] This is quoted with approval by Bishop Jewel in the homily
_Against Peril of Idolatry_ (see below).
[4] This symbolism--whatever it was--was not pagan, i.e. the lamps
were not placed in the graves as part of the furniture of the
dead--in the Catacombs they are found only in the niches of the
galleries and the arcosolia--nor can they have been votive in the
sense popularized later.
[5] "Clara coronantur densis altaria lychnis" (_Poem. De S. Felice
natalitium_, xiv. 99, in Migne, _Patr. lat._ lxi. 467).
[6] "Continuum scyphus est argenteus aptus ad usum."
[7] "Sal, ignis et oleum" (Lib. i. Tract. xiv. 4, in Migne, xi. 358).
[8] _In sanct. Pasch._ c. 2; Migne, _Patr. graeca_, xxxvi. 624.
[9] [Greek: phôta t' ephapsantes kyklô epi skeuôn chrysôn, thaumaston
theama tois horôsi pareichon] (_Vita Constantini_, iv. 66).
[10] "Cum alii Pontifices lampadàs cereosque proferrent, alii choras
psallentium ducerent" (Ep. cviii. _ad Eustochium virginem_, in
Migne).
[11] This may be the paschal candle only. In some codices the text
runs: "Per parochias concessit licentiam benedicendi Cereum
Paschalem" (Du Cange, _Glossarium, s.v._ "Cereum Paschale"). In the
three variants of the notice of Zosimus given in Duchesne's edition
of the _Lib. pontif._ (1886-1892) the word _cera_ is, however, alone
used. Nor does the text imply that he gave to the suburbican churches
a privilege hitherto exercised by the metropolitan church. The
passage runs: "Hic constituit ut diaconi leva tecta haberent de
palleis linostimis per parrochias et ut cera benedicatur," &c. _Per
parrochias_ here obviously refers to the head-gear of the deacons,
not to the candles.
[12] See also the _Peregrinatio Sylviae_ (386), 86, &c., for the use
of lights at Jerusalem, and Isidore of Seville (_Etym._ vii. 12; xx.
10) for the usage in the West. That even in the 7th century the
blessing of candles was by no means universal is proved by the 9th
canon of the council of Toledo (671), "De benedicendo cereo et
lucerna in privilegiis Paschae." This canon states that candles and
lamps are not blessed in some churches, and that inquiries have been
made why _we_ do it. In reply, the council decides that it should be
done to celebrate the mystery of Christ's resurrection. See Isidore
of Seville, _Conc._, in Migne, _Pat. lat._ lxxxiv. 369.
[13] Du Cange, _Glossarium, s.v._ "Candela."
[14] Bees were believed, like fish, to be sexless.
[15] "Venerandis compactam elementis facem tibi, Domine, mancipamus:
in qua trium copula munerum primum de impari numero complacebit: quae
quod gratis Deo veniat auctoribus, non habetur incertum: unum quod de
fetibus fluminum accedunt nutrimenta flammarum: aliud quod apum
tribuit intemerata fecunditas, in quarum partibus nulla partitur
damna virginitas: ignis etiam coelo infusus adhibetur" (_Opusc._ x.
in Migne, _Patr. lat._ t. lxiii.).
[16] All three conceptions are brought out in the prayers for the
blessing of candles on the Feast of the Purification of the B.V.M.
(Candlemas, q.v.). (1) "O holy Lord, ... who ... by the command didst
cause this liquid to come by the labour of bees to the perfection of
wax, ... we beseech thee ... to bless and sanctify these candles for
the use of men, and the health of bodies and souls...." (2) "...
these candles, which we thy servants desire to carry lighted to
magnify thy name; that by offering them to thee, being worthily
inflamed with the holy fire of thy most sweet charity, we may
deserve," &c. (3) "O Lord Jesus Christ, the true light, ...
mercifully grant, that as these lights enkindled with visible fire
dispel nocturnal darkness, so our hearts illumined by invisible
fire," &c. (_Missale Rom._). In the form for the blessing of candles
_extra diem Purificationis B. Mariae Virg._ the virtue of the
consecrated candles in discomfiting demons is specially brought out:
"that in whatever places they may be lighted, or placed, the princes
of darkness may depart, and tremble, and may fly terror-stricken with
all their ministers from those habitations, nor presume further to
disquiet and molest those who serve thee, Almighty God" (_Rituale
Rom._).
[17] Altar candlesticks consist of five parts: the foot, stem, knob
in the centre, bowl to catch the drippings, and pricket (a sharp
point on which the candle is fixed). It is permissible to use a long
tube, pointed to imitate a candle, in which is a small taper forced
to the top by a spring (_Cong. Rit._, 11th May 1878).
[18] This is common to the Eastern Church also. Pilgrims from all
parts of the East flock to Jerusalem to obtain the "new fire" on
Easter Eve at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Here the fire is
supposed to be miraculously sent from heaven. The rush of the
pilgrims to kindle their lights at it is so great, that order is
maintained with difficulty by Mahommedan soldiers.
[19] The origin of the Paschal Candle is lost in the mists of
antiquity. According to the abbé Châtelain (quoted in Diderot's
_Encyclopédie, s.v._ "Cièrge") the Paschal Candle was not originally
a candle at all, but a wax column on which the dates of the movable
feasts were inscribed. These were later written on paper and fixed to
the Paschal Candle, a custom which in his day survived in the Cluniac
churches.
[20] This homily, written by Bishop Jewel, is largely founded on
Bullinger's _De origine erroris in Divinorum et sacrorum cultu_
(1528, 1539).
[21] A copper-plate in Bernard Picart's _Ceremonies and Religious
Customs of the Various Nations_ (Eng. trans., London, 1737), vi. pt.
1, p. 78, illustrating an Anglican Communion service at St Paul's,
shows two lighted candles on the holy table.
[22] In some parts of Scotland it is still customary to place two
lighted candles on a table beside a corpse on the day of burial.
LIGNE, CHARLES JOSEPH, PRINCE DE (1735-1814), soldier and writer, came
of a princely family of Hainaut, and was born at Brussels in 1735. As an
Austrian subject he entered the imperial army at an early age. He
distinguished himself by his valour in the Seven Years' War, notably at
Breslau, Leuthen, Hochkirch and Maxen, and after the war rose rapidly to
the rank of lieutenant field marshal. He became the intimate friend and
counsellor of the emperor Joseph II., and, inheriting his father's vast
estates, lived in the greatest splendour and luxury till the War of the
Bavarian Succession brought him again into active service. This war was
short and uneventful, and the prince then travelled in England, Germany,
Italy, Switzerland and France, devoting himself impartially to the
courts, the camps, the salons and the learned assemblies of philosophers
and scientists in each country. In 1784 he was again employed in
military work, and was promoted to Feldzeugmeister. In 1787 he was with
Catherine II. in Russia, accompanied her in her journey to the Crimea,
and was made a Russian field marshal by the empress. In 1788 he was
present at the siege of Belgrade. Shortly after this he was invited to
place himself at the head of the Belgian revolutionary movement, in
which one of his sons and many of his relatives were prominent, but
declined with great courtesy, saying that "he never revolted in the
winter." Though suspected by Joseph of collusion with the rebels, the
two friends were not long estranged, and after the death of the emperor
the prince remained in Vienna. His Brabant estates were overrun by the
French in 1792-1793, and his eldest son killed in action at La
Croix-du-Bois in the Argonne (September 14, 1792). He was given the rank
of field marshal (1809) and an honorary command at court, living in
spite of the loss of his estates in comparative luxury and devoting
himself to literary work. He lived long enough to characterize the
proceedings of the congress of Vienna with the famous _mot_: "Le Congrès
danse mais ne marche pas." He died at Vienna on the 13th of December
1814. His grandson, Eugene Lamoral de Ligne (1804-1880), was a
distinguished Belgian statesman.
His collected works appeared in thirty-four volumes at Vienna during
the last years of his life (_Mélanges militaires_, _littéraires_,
_sentimentaires_), and he bequeathed his manuscripts to the emperor's
Trabant Guard, of which he was captain (_Oeuvres posthumes_, Dresden
and Vienna, 1817). Selections were published in French and German
(_Oeuvres choisies de M. le prince de Ligne_ (Paris, 1809); _Lettres
et pensées du Maréchal Prince de Ligne_, ed. by Madame de Staël
(1809); _Oeuvres historiques, littéraires ... correspondance et
poésies diverses_ (Brussels, 1859); _Des Prinzen Karl von Ligne
militärische Werke_, ed. Count Pappenheim (Sulzbach, 1814). The most
important of his numerous works on all military subjects is the
_Fantaisies et préjugés militaires_, which originally appeared in
1780. A modern edition is that published by J. Dumaine (Paris, 1879).
A German version (_Militärische Vorurtheile und Phantasien_, &c.)
appeared as early as 1783. This work, though it deals lightly and
cavalierly with the most important subjects (the prince even proposes
to found an international academy of the art of war, wherein the
reputation of generals could be impartially weighed), is a military
classic, and indispensable to the students of the post-Frederician
period. On the whole, it may be said that the prince adhered to the
school of Guibert (q.v.), and a full discussion will be found in Max
Jähns' _Gesch. d. Kriegswissenschaften_, iii. 2091 et seq. Another
very celebrated work by the prince is the mock autobiography of Prince
Eugene (1809).
See _Revue de Bruxelles_ (October 1839); Reiffenberg, "Le Feldmaréchal
Prince Charles Joseph de Ligne," _Mémoires de l'académie de
Bruxelles_, vol. xix.; Peetermans, _Le Prince de Ligne, ou un écrivain
grand seigneur_ (Liége, 1857), _Études et notices historiques
concernant l'histoire des Pays Bas_, vol. iii. (Brussels, 1890);
_Mémoires et publications de la Société des Sciences, &c. du
Hainault_, vol. iii., 5th series; Dublet _Le Prince de Ligne et ses
contemporains_ (Paris, 1889), Wurzbach, _Biogr. Lexikon d. Kaiserth.
Österr_. (Vienna, 1858); Hirtenfeld, _Der
Militär-Maria-Theresien-Orden_, vol. i. (Vienna, 1857), Ritter von
Rettersberg, _Biogr. d. ausgezeichnetsten Feldherren_ (Prague, 1829);
Schweigerd, _Österr. Helden_, vol. iii. (Vienna, 1854); Thürheim, _F.
M. Karl Joseph Fürst de Ligne_ (Vienna, 1877).
LIGNITE (Lat. _lignum_, wood), an imperfectly formed coal, usually
brownish in colour, and always showing the structure of the wood from
which it was derived (see COAL).
LIGONIER, JOHN (JEAN LOUIS) LIGONIER, EARL (1680-1770), British Field
Marshal, came of a Huguenot family of Castres in the south of France,
members of which emigrated to England at the close of the 17th century.
He entered the army as a volunteer under Marlborough. From 1702 to 1710
he was engaged, with distinction, in nearly every important battle and
siege of the war. He was one of the first to mount the breach at the
siege of Liége, commanded a company at the Schellenberg and at Blenheim,
and was present at Menin (where he led the storming of the covered way),
Ramillies, Oudenarde and Malplaquet (where he received twenty-three
bullets through his clothing and remained unhurt). In 1712 he became
governor of Fort St Philip, Minorca, and in 1718 was adjutant-general of
the troops employed in the Vigo expedition, where he led the stormers of
Fort Marin. Two years later he became colonel of the "Black Horse" (now
7th Dragoon Guards), a command which he retained for 29 years. His
regiment soon attained an extraordinary degree of efficiency. He was
made brigadier-general in 1735, major-general in 1739, and accompanied
Lord Stair in the Rhine Campaign of 1742-1743. George II. made him a
Knight of the Bath on the field of Dettingen. At Fontenoy Ligonier
commanded the British foot, and acted throughout the battle as adviser
to the duke of Cumberland. During the "Forty-Five" he was called home to
command the British army in the Midlands, but in January 1746 was placed
at the head of the British and British-paid contingents of the Allied
army in the Low Countries. He was present at Roucoux (11th Oct. 1746),
and, as general of horse, at Val (1st July 1747), where he led the last
charge of the British cavalry. In this encounter his horse was killed,
and he was taken prisoner, but was exchanged in a few days. With the
close of the campaign ended Ligonier's active career, but (with a brief
interval in 1756-1757) he occupied various high civil and military posts
to the close of his life. In 1757 he was made, in rapid succession,
commander-in-chief, colonel of the 1st Foot Guards (now Grenadier
Guards), and a peer of Ireland under the title of Viscount Ligonier of
Enniskillen, a title changed in 1762 for that of Clonmell. From 1759 to
1762 he was master-general of the Ordnance, and in 1763 he became Baron,
and in 1766 Earl, in the English peerage. In the latter year he became
field marshal. He died in 1770. His younger brother, Francis, was also a
distinguished soldier; and his son succeeded to the Irish peerage of
Lord Ligonier.
See Combes, _J. L. Ligonier, une étude_ (Castres, 1866), and the
histories of the 7th Dragoon Guards and Grenadier Guards.
LIGUORI, ALFONSO MARIA DEI (1696-1787), saint and doctor of the Church
of Rome, was born at Marianella, near Naples, on the 27th of September
1696, being the son of Giuseppe dei Liguori, a Neapolitan noble. He
began life at the bar, where he obtained considerable practice; but the
loss of an important suit, in which he was counsel for a Neapolitan
noble against the grand duke of Tuscany, and in which he had entirely
mistaken the force of a leading document, so mortified him that he
withdrew from the legal world. In 1726 he entered the Congregation of
Missions as a novice, and became a priest in 1726. In 1732 he founded
the "Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer" at Scala, near Salerno; the
headquarters of the Order were afterwards transferred to Nocera dei
Pagani. Its members, popularly called Liguorians or Redemptorists,
devote themselves to the religious instruction of the poor, more
especially in country districts; Liguori specially forbade them to
undertake secular educational work. In 1750 appeared his celebrated
devotional book on the _Glories of Mary_; three years later came his
still more celebrated treatise on moral theology. In 1755 this was much
enlarged and translated into Latin under the title of _Homo
Apostolicus_. In 1762, at the express desire of the pope, he accepted
the bishopric of Sant' Agata dei Goti, a small town in the province of
Benevent; though he had previously refused the archbishopric of Palermo.
Here he worked diligently at practical reforms, being specially anxious
to raise the standard of clerical life and work. In 1775 he resigned his
bishopric on the plea of enfeebled health; he retired to his
Redemptorists at Nocera, and died there in 1787. In 1796 Pius VI.
declared him "venerable"; he was beatified by Pius VII. in 1816,
canonized by Gregory XVI. in 1839, and finally declared one of the
nineteen "Doctors of the Church" by Pius IX. in 1871.
Liguori is the chief representative of a school of casuistry and
devotional theology still abundantly represented within the Roman Church.
Not that he was in any sense its founder. He was simply a fair
representative of the Italian piety of his day--amiable, ascetic in his
personal habits, indefatigable in many forms of activity, and of more
than respectable abilities; though the emotional side of his character
had the predominance over his intellect. He was learned, as learning was
understood among the Italian clergy of the 18th century; but he was
destitute of critical faculty, and the inaccuracy of his quotations is
proverbial. In his casuistical works he was a diligent compiler, whose
avowed design was to take a middle course between the two current
extremes of severity and laxity. In practice, he leant constantly towards
laxity. Eighteenth-century Italy looked on religion with apathetic
indifference, and Liguori convinced himself that only the gentlest and
most lenient treatment could win back the alienated laity; hence he was
always willing to excuse errors on the side of laxity as due to an excess
of zeal in winning over penitents. Severity, on the other hand, seemed to
him not only inexpedient, but positively wrong. By making religion hard
it made it odious, and thus prepared the way for unbelief. Like all
casuists, he took for granted that morality was a recondite science,
beyond the reach of all but the learned. When a layman found himself in
doubt, his duty was not to consult his conscience, but to take the advice
of his confessor; while the confessor himself was bound to follow the
rules laid down by the casuistical experts, who delivered themselves of a
kind of "counsel's opinion" on all knotty points of practical morality.
But experts proverbially differ: what was to be done when they disagreed?
Suppose, for instance, that some casuists held it wrong to dance on
Sunday, while others held it perfectly lawful. In Liguori's time there
were four ways of answering the question. Strict moralists--called
rigorists, or "tutiorists"--maintained that the austerer opinion ought
always to be followed; dancing on Sundays was certainly wrong, if any
good authorities had declared it to be so. Probabiliorists maintained
that the more general opinion ought to prevail, irrespectively of whether
it was the stricter or the laxer; dancing on Sunday was perfectly lawful,
if the majority of casuists approved it. Probabilists argued that any
opinion might be followed, if it could show good authority on its side,
even if there was still better authority against it; dancing on Sunday
must be innocent, if it could show a fair sprinkling of eminent names in
its favour. The fourth and last school--the "laxists"--carried this
principle a step farther, and held that a practice must be
unobjectionable, if it could prove that any one "grave Doctor" had
defended it; even if dancing on Sunday had hitherto lain under the ban of
the church, a single casuist could legitimate it by one stroke of his
pen. Liguori's great achievement lay in steering a middle course between
these various extremes. The gist of his system, which is known as
"equi-probabilism," is that the more indulgent opinion may always be
followed, whenever the authorities in its favour are as good, or nearly
as good, as those on the other side. In this way he claimed that he had
secured liberty in its rights without allowing it to degenerate into
licence. However much they might personally disapprove, zealous priests
could not forbid their parishioners to dance on Sunday, if the practice
had won widespread toleration; on the other hand, they could not relax
the usual discipline of the church on the strength of a few unguarded
opinions of too indulgent casuists. Thus the Liguorian system surpassed
all its predecessors in securing uniformity in the confessional on a
basis of established usage, two advantages amply sufficient to ensure its
speedy general adoption within the Church of Rome.
_Lives_ by A. M. Tannoja, a pupil of Liguori's (3 vols., Naples,
1798-1802); new ed., Turin, 1857; French trans., Paris, 1842; P. v. A.
Giattini (Rome, 1815: Ger. trans., Vienna, 1835); F. W. Faber (4
vols., London, 1848-1849); M. A. Hugues (Münster, 1857); O. Gisler
(Einsiedeln, 1887); K. Dilgskron (2 vols., Regensburg, 1887), perhaps
the best; A. Capecelatro (2 vols., Rome, 1893); A. des Retours (Paris,
1903); A. C. Berthe (St Louis, 1906).
_Works_ (a) Collected editions. Italian: (Monza, 1819, 1828; Venice,
1830; Naples, 1840 ff.; Turin, 1887, ff.). French: (Tournai, 1855 ff.,
new ed., 1895 ff.) German: (Regensburg, 1842-1847). English: (22
vols., New York, 1887-1895). Editions of the _Theologia Moralis_ and
other separate works are very numerous. (b) _Letters_: (2 vols.,
Monza, 1831; 3 vols., Rome, 1887 ff.). See also Meyrick, _Moral and
Devotional Theology of the Church of Rome, according to the Teaching
of S. Alfonso de Liguori_ (London, 1857), and art. CASUISTRY.
(St. C.)
LIGURES BAEBIANI, in ancient geography, a settlement of Ligurians in
Samnium, Italy. The towns of Taurasia and Cisauna in Samnium had been
captured in 298 B.C. by the consul L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, and the
territory of the former remained Roman state domain. In 180 B.C. 47,000
Ligurians from the neighbourhood of Luna (Ligures Apuani), with women
and children, were transferred to this district, and two settlements
were formed taking their names from the consuls of 181 B.C., the Ligures
Baebiani and the Ligures Corneliani. The site of the former town lies 15
m. N. of Beneventum, on the road to Saepinum and Aesernia. In its ruins
several inscriptions have been found, notably a large bronze tablet
discovered in a public building in the Forum bearing the date A.D. 101,
and relating to the alimentary institution founded by Trajan here (see
VELEIA). A sum of money was lent to landed proprietors of the district
(whose names and estates are specified in the inscription), and the
interest which it produced formed the income of the institution, which,
on the model of that of Veleia, would have served to support a little
over one hundred children. The capital was 401,800 sesterces, and the
annual interest probably at 5%, i.e. 20,090 sesterces (£4018 and £201
respectively). The site of the other settlement--that of the Ligures
Corneliani--is unknown.
See T. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ ix. (Berlin, 1883), 125 sqq.
(T. As.)
LIGURIA, a modern territorial division of Italy, lying between the
Ligurian Alps and the Apennines on the N., and the Mediterranean on the
S. and extending from the frontier of France on the W. to the Gulf of
Spezia on the E. Its northern limits touch Piedmont and Lombardy, while
Emilia and Tuscany fringe its eastern borders, the dividing line
following as a rule the summits of the mountains. Its area is 2037 sq.
m. The railway from Pisa skirts the entire coast of the territory,
throwing off lines to Parma from Sarzana and Spezia, to Milan and Turin
from Genoa, and to Turin from Savona, and there is a line from
Ventimiglia to Cuneo and Turin by the Col di Tenda. Liguria embraces the
two provinces of Genoa and Porto Maurizio (Imperia), which once formed
the republic of Genoa. Its sparsely-peopled mountains slope gently
northward towards the Po, descending, however, abruptly into the sea at
several points; the narrow coast district, famous under the name of the
Riviera (q.v.), is divided at Genoa into the Riviera di Ponente towards
France, and the Riviera di Levante towards the east. Its principal
products are wheat, maize, wine, oranges, lemons, fruits, olives and
potatoes, though the olive groves are being rapidly supplanted by
flower-gardens, which grow flowers for export. Copper and iron pyrites
are mined. The principal industries are iron-works, foundries, iron
shipbuilding, engineering, and boiler works (Genoa, Spezia,
Sampierdarena, Sestri Ponente, &c.), the production of cocoons, and the
manufacture of cottons and woollens. Owing to the sheltered situation
and the mildness of their climate, many of the coast towns are chosen by
thousands of foreigners for winter residence, while the Italians
frequent them in summer for sea-bathing. The inhabitants have always
been adventurous seamen--Columbus and Amerigo Vespucci were
Genoese,--and the coast has several good harbours, Genoa, Spezia and
Savona being the best. In educational and general development, Liguria
stands high among the regions of Italy. The populations of the
respective provinces and their chief towns are, according to the census
of 1901 (_popolazione residente_ or _legale_)--province of Genoa, pop.
931,156; number of communes 197; chief towns--Genoa (219,507), Spezia
(66,263), Savona (38,648), Sampierdarena (34,084), Sestri Ponente
(17,225). Province of Porto Maurizio, pop. 144,604, number of communes
106; chief towns--Porto Maurizio (7207), S. Remo (20,027), Ventimiglia
(11,468), Oneglia (8252). Total for Liguria, 1,075,760.
The Ligurian coast became gradually subject to the Romans, and the road
along it must have been correspondingly prolonged: up to the end of the
Hannibalic war the regular starting-point for Spain by sea was Pisae, in
195 B.C. it was the harbour of Luna (Gulf of Spezia),[1] though Genua
must have become Roman a little before this time, while, in 137 B.C., C.
Hostilius Mancinus marched as far as Portus Herculis (Villafranca), and
in 121 B.C. the province of Gallia Narbonensis was formed and the
coast-road prolonged to the Pyrenees. In 14 B.C. Augustus restored the
whole road from Placentia to Dertona (Via Postumia), and thence to Vada
Sabatia (Via Aemilia²) and the River Varus (Var), so that it thenceforth
took the name of Via Julia Augusta (see AEMILIA, VIA²). The other chief
roads of Liguria were the portion of the Via Postumia from Dertona to
Genua, a road from above Vada through Augusta Bagiennorum and Pollentia
to Augusta Taurinorum, and another from Augusta Taurinorum to Hasta and
Valentia. The names of the villages--Quarto, Quinto, &c.--on the
south-east side and Pontedecimo on the north of Genoa allude to their
distance along the Roman roads. The Roman Liguria, forming the ninth
region of Augustus, was thus far more extensive than the modern,
including the country on the north slopes of the Apennines and Maritime
Alps between the Trebia and the Po, and extending a little beyond
Albintimilium. On the west Augustus formed the provinces of the Alpes
Maritimae and the Alpes Cottiae. Towns of importance were few, owing to
the nature of the country. Dertona was the only colony, and Alba
Pompeia, Augusta Bagiennorum, Pollentia, Hasta, Aquae Statiellae, and
Genua may also be mentioned; but the Ligurians dwelt entirely in
villages, and were organized as tribes. The mountainous character of
Liguria made the spread of culture difficult; it remained a forest
district, producing timber, cattle, ponies, mules, sheep, &c. Oil and
wine had to be imported, and when the cultivation of the olive began is
not known.
The arrangement made by Augustus lasted until the time of Diocletian,
when the two Alpine provinces were abolished, and the watershed became
the boundary between Italy and Gaul. At this time we find the name
Liguria extended as far as Milan, while in the 6th century the old
Liguria was separated from it, and under the Lombards formed the fifth
Italian province under the name of Alpes Cottiae. In the middle ages the
ancient Liguria north of the Apennines fell to Piedmont and Lombardy,
while that to the south, with the coast strip, belonged to the republic
of Genoa. (T. As.)
_Archaeology and Philology._--It is clear that in earlier times the
Ligurians occupied a much more extensive area than the Augustan region;
for instance Strabo (i. 2, 92; iv. 1, 7) gives earlier authorities for
their possession of the land on which the Greek colony of Massalia
(Marseilles) was founded; and Thucydides (vi. 2) speaks of a settlement
of Ligurians in Spain who expelled the Sicani thence. Southward their
domain extended as far as Pisa on the coast of Etruria and Arretium
inland in the time of Polybius (ii. 6), and a somewhat vague reference
in Lycophron (line 1351) to the Ligurians as enemies of the founders of
Agylla (i.e. Caere) suggests that they once occupied even a larger tract
to the south. Seneca (_Cons. ad Helv._ vii. 9), states that the
population of Corsica was partly Ligurian. By combining traditions
recorded by Dionysius (i. 22; xiv. 37) and others (e.g. Serv. _ad. Aen._
xi. 317) as having been held by Cato the Censor and by Philistus of
Syracuse (385 B.C.) respectively, Professor Ridgeway (_Who were the
Romans?_ London, 1908, p. 3) decides in favour of identifying the
Ligurians with a tribe called the Aborigines who occupy a large place in
the early traditions of Italy (see Dionysius i. cc. 10 ff.); and who may
at all events be regarded with reasonable certainty as constituting an
early pre-Roman and pre-Tuscan stratum in the population of Central
Italy (see LATIUM). For a discussion of this question see VOLSCI.
Ridgeway holds that the language of the Ligurians, as well as their
antiquities, was identical with that of the early Latins, and with that
of the Plebeians of Rome (as contrasted with that of the Patrician or
Sabine element), see ROME: _History_ (_ad. init._). The archaeological
side of this important question is difficult. Although great progress
has been made with the study of the different strata of remains in
prehistoric Italy and of those of Liguria itself (see for instance the
excellent _Introduction à l'histoire romaine_ by Basile Modestov (Paris,
1907, p. 122 ff.) and W. Ridgeway's _Early Age of Greece_, p. 240 ff.)
no general agreement has been reached among archaeologists as to the
particular races who are to be identified as the authors of the early
strata, earlier, that is, than that stratum which represents the
Etruscans.
On the linguistic side some fairly certain conclusions have been
reached. D'Arbois de Jubainville (_Les Premiers habitants de l'Europe_,
ed. 2, Paris, 1880-1894) pointed out the great frequency of the suffix
-_asco_- (and -_usco_-) both in ancient and in modern Ligurian
districts, and as far north as _Caranusca_ near Metz, and also in the
eastern Alps and in Spain. He pointed out also, what can scarcely be
doubted, that the great mass of the Ligurian proper names (e.g. the
streams _Vinelasca_, _Porcobera_, _Comberanea_; _mons Tuledo_;
_Venascum_), have a definite Indo-European character. Farther Karl
Müllenhof in vol. iii. of his _Deutsche Alterthumskunde_ (Berlin, 1898)
made a careful collection of the proper names reserved in Latin
inscriptions of the Ligurian districts, such as the _Tabula Genuatium_
(_C.I.L._ i. 99) of 117 B.C. A complete collection of all Ligurian place
and personal names known has been made by S. Elizabeth Jackson, B.A.,
and the collection is to be combined with the inscriptional remains of
the district in _The Pre-Italic Dialects_, edited by R. S. Conway (see
_The Proceedings of the British Academy_). Following Kretschmer _Kuhn's
Zeitschrift_ (xxxviii. 97), who discussed several inscriptions found
near Ornavasso (Lago Maggiore) and concluded that they showed an
Indo-European language, Conway, though holding that the inscriptions are
more Celtic than Ligurian, pointed out strong evidence in the ancient
place names of Liguria that the language spoken there in the period
which preceded the Roman conquest was Indo-European, and belonged to a
definite group, namely, languages which preserved the original _q_ as
Latin did, and did not convert it into _p_ as did the Umbro-Safine
tribes. The same is probably true of Venetia (see VENETI), and of an
Indo-European language preserved on inscriptions found at Coligny and
commonly referred to the Sequani (see _Comptes Rendus de l'Ac. d'Insc._,
Paris, 1897, 703; E. B. Nicholson, _Sequanian_, London, 1898;
Thurneysen, _Zeitschr. f. Kelt. Phil._, 1899, 523). Typically Ligurian
names are _Quiamelius_, which contains the characteristic Ligurian word
_melo_- "stone" as in _mons Blustiemelus_ (_C.I.L._ v. 7749),
_Intimelium_ and the modern _Vintimiglia_. The tribal names _Soliceli_,
_Stoniceli_, clearly contain the same element as Lat. _aequi-coli_
(dwellers on the plain), _sati-cola_, &c., namely _quel_-, cf. Lat.
_in-quil-inus_, _colo_, Gr. [Greek: polein, tellesthai]. And it should
be added that the Ligurian ethnica show the prevailing use of the two
suffixes -_co_- and -_ati_-, which there is reason to refer to the
pre-Roman stratum of population in Italy (see VOLSCI).
Besides the authorities already cited the student may be referred to
C. Pauli, _Altitalische Studien_, vol. i., especially for the alphabet
of the insc.; W. Ridgeway, _Who were the Romans?_ (followed by the
abstract of a paper by the present writer) in _The Proceedings of the
British Academy_, vol. iii. p. 42; and to W. H. Hall's, _The Romans on
the Riviera and the Rhône_ (London, 1898); Issel's _La Liguria
geologica e preistorica_ (Genoa, 1892). A further batch of
Celto-Ligurian inscriptions from Giubiasco near Bellinzona (Canton
Ticino) is published by G. Herbig, in the _Anzeiger f. Schweizer.
Altertumskunde_, vii. (1905-1906), p. 187; and one of the same class
by Elia Lattes, _Di un' Iscriz. ante-Romana trovata a Carcegna sul
Lago d' Orta_ (_Atti d. r. Accad. d. Scienze di Torino_, xxxix., Feb.
1904). (R. S. C.)